Ancient Greek architecture had a huge influence on the architecture of subsequent eras. Its basic concepts and philosophy have long been entrenched in the traditions of Europe. What is interesting about ancient Greek architecture? The order system, principles of city planning and the creation of theaters are described later in the article.
Periods of development
An ancient civilization that consisted of many disparate city-states. It covered the western coast of Asia Minor, the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, as well as Southern Italy, the Black Sea region and Sicily.
Ancient Greek architecture gave rise to many styles and became the basis in the architecture of the Renaissance. In the history of its development, several stages are usually distinguished.
- (mid-XII - mid-VIII centuries BC) - new forms and features based on previous Mycenaean traditions. The main buildings were residential buildings and the first temples, made of clay, adobe and wood. The first ceramic decorative details appeared.
- Archaic (VIII - early V century, 480s BC). With the formation of policies, new public buildings appear. The temple and the square in front of it become the center of city life. Stone is more often used in construction: limestone and marble, terracotta cladding. Various types of temples appear. The Doric order predominates.
- Classic (480 - 330 BC) - the heyday. All types of orders in ancient Greek architecture are actively developing and even compositionally combined with each other. The first theaters and music halls (odeions), residential buildings with porticoes appeared. A theory of the layout of streets and neighborhoods is being formed.
- Hellenism (330 - 180 BC). Theaters and public buildings are being built. The ancient Greek style in architecture is complemented by oriental elements. Decorativeness, luxury and pomp prevail. The Corinthian order is most often used.
In 180 Greece came under the influence of Rome. The empire lured the best scientists and artists to its capital, borrowing some cultural traditions from the Greeks. Therefore, ancient Greek and ancient Roman architecture have many similar features, for example, in the construction of theaters or in the order system.
Philosophy of architecture
In every aspect of life, the ancient Greeks strived to achieve harmony. Ideas about it were not vague and purely theoretical. In Ancient Greece, harmony was defined as a combination of adjusted proportions.
They were also used for the human body. Beauty was measured not only “by eye”, but also in specific numbers. Thus, the sculptor Polykleitos in his treatise “Canon” presented clear parameters ideal men and women. Beauty was directly associated with physical and even spiritual health and personal integrity.
The human body was considered as a structure, the parts of which fit together flawlessly. Ancient Greek architecture and sculpture, in turn, sought to maximally correspond to ideas about harmony.
The sizes and shapes of the statues corresponded to the idea of the “correct” body and its parameters. usually promoted the ideal person: spiritual, healthy and athletic. In architecture, anthropomorphism was manifested in the names of measures (elbow, palm) and in proportions, which were derived from the proportions of the figure.
The columns represented the person. Their foundation or base was identified with the feet, the trunk with the body, the capital with the head. The vertical grooves or flutes on the column trunk were represented by folds of clothing.
Basic orders of ancient Greek architecture
There is no need to talk about the great achievements of engineering in Ancient Greece. Complex structures and solutions were not used then. The temple of that time can be compared to a megalith, where a stone beam rests on a stone support. The greatness and features of ancient Greek architecture lie, first of all, in its aesthetics and decorativeness.
The artistry and philosophy of the building were embodied by its order, or a post-and-beam composition of elements in a certain style and order. There were three main types of orders in ancient Greek architecture:
- Doric;
- ionic;
- Corinthian.
They all had a common set of elements, but differed in their location, shape and ornament. Thus, the Greek order included a stereobat, stylobate, entablature and cornice. The stereobat represented a stepped base above the foundation. Next came the stylobate or columns.
The entablature was a supporting part located on columns. The lower beam on which the entire entablature rested is called the architrave. There was a frieze on it - the middle decorative part. The upper part of the entablature is a cornice; it hung over the other parts.
At first, elements of ancient Greek architecture were not mixed. The Ionic entablature lay only on the Ionic column, the Corinthian - on the Corinthian one. One style - per building. After the construction of the Parthenon by Ictinus and Callicrates in the 5th century BC. e. orders began to be combined and stacked on top of each other. This was done in a certain order: first Doric, then Ionic, then Corinthian.
Doric order
The Doric and Ionic ancient Greek orders were the main ones in architecture. The Doric system was distributed mainly on the mainland and inherited the Mycenaean culture. It is characterized by monumentality and somewhat heaviness. The appearance of the order expresses calm grandeur and brevity.
Doric columns are low. They have no base, but the trunk is powerful and tapers upward. The abacus, the upper part of the capital, is square in shape and rests on a rounded support (echin). There were usually twenty flutes. The architect Vitruvius compared the columns of this order to a man - strong and reserved.
The entablature of the order always included an architrave, frieze and cornice. The frieze was separated from the architrave by a shelf and consisted of triglyphs - elongated rectangles with flutes, which alternated with metopes - slightly recessed square plates with or without sculptural images. Friezes of other orders did not have triglyphs with metopes.
The triglyph was assigned primarily practical functions. Researchers suggest that it represented the ends of the beams that lay on the walls of the sanctuary. It had strictly calculated parameters and served as a support for the cornice and rafters. In some ancient buildings the space between the ends of the triglyph was not filled with metopes, but remained empty.
Ionic order
The Ionian order system was widespread on the coast of Asia Minor, in Attica and on the islands. It was influenced by Phenicia and Akhmedinian Persia. Notable examples of this style were the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Temple of Hera at Samos.
Ionica was associated with the image of a woman. The order was characterized by decorativeness, lightness and sophistication. Its main feature was the capital, designed in the form of volutes - symmetrically arranged curls. Abacus and echinus were decorated with carvings.
The Ionic column is thinner and slimmer than the Doric. Its base rested on a square slab and was decorated with convex and concave elements with ornamental cutting. Sometimes the base was located on a drum decorated with a sculptural composition. In ionics, the distance between the columns is greater, which increases the airiness and sophistication of the building.
The entablature could consist of an architrave and a cornice (Asia Minor style) or of three parts, as in the Doric style (Attic style). The architrave was divided into fascias - horizontal ledges. Between it and the cornice there were small teeth. The gutter on the cornice was richly decorated with ornaments.
Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is rarely considered independent; it is often defined as a variation of the Ionic. There are two versions reporting the origins of this order. A more mundane one speaks of borrowing the style from Egyptian columns, which were decorated with lotus leaves. According to another theory, the order was created by a sculptor from Corinth. He was inspired to do this by a basket he saw containing acanthus leaves.
It differs from the Ionic mainly in the height and decoration of the capital, which is decorated with stylized acanthus leaves. Two rows of sculpted leaves frame the top of the column in a circle. The sides of the abacus are concave and decorated with large and small spiral scrolls.
The Corinthian order is richer in decoration than other ancient Greek orders in architecture. Of all three styles, it was considered the most luxurious, elegant and rich. Its tenderness and sophistication were associated with the image of a young girl, and acanthus leaves resembled curls. Due to this, the order is often called “maiden”.
Ancient temples
The temple was the main and most important building of Ancient Greece. Its shape was simple, the prototype for it was residential rectangular houses. The architecture of the ancient Greek temple gradually became more complex and was supplemented with new elements until it acquired a round shape. Typically the following styles are distinguished:
- distillate;
- prostyle;
- amphiprostyle;
- peripter;
- dipter;
- pseudodipter;
- tholos.
The temple in Ancient Greece had no windows. Outside, it was surrounded by columns on which a gable roof and beams were placed. Inside there was a sanctuary with a statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated.
Some buildings could house a small dressing room - pronaos. At the back of the large temples there was another room. It contained donations from residents, sacred implements and the city treasury.
The first type of temple - distil - consisted of a sanctuary, a front loggia, which was surrounded by walls or antas. The loggia housed two columns. As the styles became more complex, the number of columns increased. In the prostyle there are four of them, in the amphiprostyle there are four each on the rear and front facades.
In peripetra temples they surround the building on all sides. If the columns are lined up along the perimeter in two rows, then this is a diptera style. The last style, tholos, also involved being surrounded by columns, but the perimeter had a cylindrical shape. During the Roman Empire, the tholos developed into the "rotunda" type of building.
Policy structure
Ancient Greek city-states were built mainly by sea shores. They developed as trading democracies. In public and political life cities, all their full-fledged residents participated. This leads to the fact that ancient Greek architecture is developing not only in terms of but also in terms of public buildings.
The upper part of the city was the acropolis. As a rule, it was located on a hill and was well fortified to hold back the enemy during a surprise attack. Within its boundaries there were temples of the gods who patronized the city.
The center of the Lower City was the agora - an open market square where trade was carried out and important social and political issues were resolved. It housed schools, the building of the council of elders, a basilica, a building for feasts and meetings, as well as temples. Statues were sometimes placed along the perimeter of the agora.
From the very beginning, ancient Greek architecture assumed that buildings inside policies were placed freely. Their placement depended on the local topography. In the 5th century BC, Hippodamus carried out a real revolution in city planning. He proposed a clear grid street structure that divides neighborhoods into rectangles or squares.
All buildings and objects, including agoras, are located within quarterly cells, without breaking out of the general rhythm. This layout made it possible to easily complete new sections of the policy without disturbing the integrity and harmony. According to the project of Hippodamus, Miletus, Knidos, Assos, etc. were built. But Athens, for example, remained in the old “chaotic” form.
Living spaces
Houses in Ancient Greece differed depending on the era, as well as the wealth of the owners. There are several main types of houses:
- megaronic;
- apsidal;
- pasted;
- peristyle.
One of the earliest types of housing is the megaron. His plan became the prototype for the first temples of the Homeric era. The house had a rectangular shape, at the end of which there was an open room with a portico. The passage was edged by two columns and protruding walls. Inside there was only one room with a fireplace in the middle and a hole in the roof for the smoke to escape.
The apsidal house was also built in the early period. It was a rectangle with a rounded end part, which was called an apse. Later, pastadic and peristyle types of buildings appeared. The outer walls were blank, and the layout of the buildings was closed.
The pastada was a passage in the inner part of the courtyard. It was covered from above and supported by wooden supports. In the 4th century BC, the peristyle became popular. It retains the same layout, but the pastad passage is replaced by covered columns around the perimeter of the courtyard.
On the street side there were only smooth walls of houses. Inside there was a courtyard around which all the rooms of the house were located. As a rule, there were no windows; the source of light was the courtyard. If there were windows, they were located on the second floor. The interior decoration was mostly simple; excesses began to appear only in the Hellenistic era.
The house was clearly divided into female (gynekeia) and male (andron) halves. In the men's section they received guests and had a meal. It was possible to get to the female half only through her. On the side of the gyneceum there was an entrance to the garden. The housing of the rich also housed a kitchen, a bathhouse and a bakery. The second floor was usually rented out.
Architecture of Ancient Greek Theater
Theater in Ancient Greece combined not only an entertainment aspect, but also a religious one. Its origin is associated with the cult of Dionysus. The first theatrical performances were staged to honor this deity. The architecture of the ancient Greek theater was reminiscent of the religious origin of the performances, at least by the presence of the altar, which was located in the orchestra.
Celebrations, games and plays took place on the stage. In the 4th century BC they ceased to be related to religion. The archon was responsible for the distribution of roles and control of productions. The main roles were played by a maximum of three people, women were played by men. The drama was performed in the form of a competition, where poets took turns presenting their works.
The layout of the first theaters was simple. In the center there was an orchestra - a round platform where the choir was located. Behind her there was a chamber in which the actors (skena) changed clothes. The auditorium (theater) was of considerable size and was located on a hill, circling the stage in a semicircle.
All theaters were located directly in the open air. Initially they were temporary. For each holiday, wooden platforms were built anew. In the 5th century BC, places for spectators began to be carved out of stone directly into the hillside. This created a correct and natural funnel, promoting good acoustics. To enhance the resonance of sound, special vessels were placed near the audience.
As the theater improves, the design of the stage also becomes more complex. Its front part consisted of columns and imitated the front facade of temples. On the sides there were rooms - paraskenia. They stored scenery and theatrical equipment. In Athens, the largest theater was the Theater of Dionysus.
Acropolis of Athens
Some monuments of ancient Greek architecture can still be seen today. One of the most complete structures that has survived to this day is the Acropolis of Athens. It is located on Mount Pyrgos at an altitude of 156 meters. Here are located the temple of the goddess Athena Parthenon, the sanctuary of Zeus, Artemis, Nike and other famous buildings.
The acropolis is characterized by the combination of all three order systems. The combination of styles marks the Parthenon. It is built in the form of a Doric peripeter, the internal frieze of which is made in the Ionic style.
In the center, surrounded by columns, was a statue of Athena. The acropolis was assigned an important political role. Its appearance was supposed to emphasize the hegemony of the city, and the composition of the Parthenon was supposed to glorify the victory of democracy over the aristocratic system.
Next to the majestic and pathetic building of the Parthenon is the Erechtheion. It is entirely made in the Ionic order. Unlike his “neighbor”, he praises grace and beauty. The temple is dedicated to two gods at once - Poseidon and Athena, and is located on the place where, according to legend, they had an argument.
Due to the peculiarities of the relief, the layout of the Erechtheion is asymmetrical. It has two sanctuaries - cella and two entrances. In the southern part of the temple there is a portico, which is supported not by columns, but by marble caryatids (statues of women).
In addition, the Propylaea - the main entrance, surrounded by columns and porticoes, on the sides of which was located a palace and park complex - has been preserved in the acropolis. The hill also housed Arrephorion, a house for girls who weaved clothes for the Athenian games.
Explanatory note
The course of world artistic culture systematizes knowledge about culture and art acquired in educational institutions that implement programs of primary and basic general education in the lessons of fine arts, music, literature and history, forms a holistic idea of world artistic culture, the logic of its development in a historical perspective, about its place in the life of society and every person.
The developing potential of the course in world artistic culture is directly related to the ideological nature of the subject itself, on the material of which various historical and regional systems of worldview, captured in vivid images, are modeled. Taking into account the specifics of the subject, its direct access to the creative component of human activity, the program places emphasis on active forms of learning, in particular on the development of perception (function - active viewer/listener) and interpretive abilities (function - performer) of students based on updating their personal emotional, aesthetic and sociocultural experience and their mastery of elementary techniques for analyzing works of art. In this regard, in the program under the headings “experience of creative activity” there is given sample list possible creative assignments on relevant topics.
In terms of content, the program follows the logic of historical linearity (from the culture of the primitive world to the culture of the twentieth century). In order to optimize the load, the program is based on the principles of highlighting the cultural dominants of the era, style, and national school. Using the example of one or two works or complexes, the characteristic features of entire eras and cultural areas are shown. Domestic (Russian) culture is considered in inextricable connection with world culture, which makes it possible to appreciate its scale and general cultural significance.
The study of world artistic culture at the level of secondary (complete) general education at the basic level is aimed at achieving the followinggoals :
development of feelings, emotions, figurative and associative thinking and artistic and creative abilities;
education of artistic and aesthetic taste; needs for mastering the values of world culture;
mastering knowledge about styles and trends in world artistic culture, their characteristic features; about the heights of artistic creativity in Russian and foreign culture;
mastering the ability to analyze works of art, evaluate their artistic features, and express one’s own judgment about them;
using acquired knowledge and skills to broaden one’s horizons and consciously form one’s own cultural environment.
The author of the program and textbook offers an originaltypology of MHC lessons : image-model, research, contemplation, panorama. This typology is taken into account in planning.
As a result of studying world artistic culturethe student must:
Know/understand:
main types and genres of art;
studied directions and styles of world artistic culture;
masterpieces of world artistic culture;
features of the language of various types of art.
Be able to:
recognize the studied works and correlate them with a certain era, style,
direction.
establish stylistic and plot connections between works of different types of art;
use various sources of information about world artistic culture;
carry out training and creative tasks(reports, messages).
Use acquired knowledge in practical activities and everyday life to:
choosing the paths of your cultural development;
organizing personal and collective leisure; expressing one's own judgment about the works of classics and contemporary art;
Requirements for the level of mastery of the subject
Graduates will learn:
navigate the cultural diversity of the surrounding reality, observe various phenomena of life and art in educational and extracurricular activities, distinguish between true and false values;
organize your creative activity, determine its goals and objectives, choose and put into practice ways to achieve them;
think in images, make comparisons and generalizations, highlight individual properties and qualities of a holistic phenomenon;
perceive aesthetic values, express an opinion about the merits of works of high and popular art, see associative connections and realize their role in creative activity.
Personal results art studies are:
developed aesthetic feeling, manifesting itself in an emotional and value-based attitude towards art and life;
realization of creative potential in the process of collective (or individual) artistic and aesthetic activity in the embodiment (creation) of artistic images;
assessment and self-assessment of artistic and creative capabilities; ability to conduct a dialogue and argue one’s position.
Graduates will learn:
accumulate, create and transmit the values of art and culture (enriching your personal experience with emotions and experiences associated with the perception and performance of works of art); feel and understand your involvement in the world around you;
use the communicative qualities of art; act independently when individually performing educational and creative tasks and work in project mode, interacting with other people in achieving common goals; show tolerance in joint activities;
participate in artistic life class, school, city, etc.; analyze and evaluate the process and results of one’s own activities and correlate them with the task.
Artistic Culture of the Ancient World (14 hours)
Mesopotamia (1 hour)
Mesapotamian ziggurat - the dwelling of God. Realism of images of living nature - the specificity of Mesopotamian fine arts
Ancient Egypt (2 hours)
Ancient India(2 hours)
Ancient America (1 hour)
Ancient Greece (4 hours)
Ancient Rome (2 hours)
Roman house layout. Fresco and mosaic are the main means of decoration. Sculptural portrait.
Artistic culture of the Middle Ages (14 hours)
Byzantine central-domed temple as the abode of God on earth. Space and topographic symbolism.
Generalization on the topic “Artistic culture of Byzantium and Ancient Rus'»
Western Europe (4 hours)
New art – Ars nova (3 hours).
Artistic culture of the Far and Middle East in the Middle Ages (3 hours).
China (1 hour)
The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese architecture. Architecture as the embodiment of mythological and religious-moral ideas of Ancient China
Japan (1 hour)
Ancient East (2 hours)
Calendar-thematic distribution of the number of hours
Notes(ICT, etc.)
date
plan
fact
1st quarter “Artistic culture of the primitive world” (3 hours)
Myth is the basis of early ideas about the world. Ancient images in vertical and horizontal models of the world: world tree, world mountain, road. Fertility ritual as a reproduction of the primary myth
Image model
Know: what role did myths play in the life of primitive people, which myths belong to the category of cosmogonic. World tree, world mountain, road.
EUM “Mythological thinking and the primitive picture of the world”, card-scheme of the horizontal model of the world, card-scheme of the vertical model of the world, text of the ritual dedicated to Osiris
Folklore as a reflection of the primary myth. "The Tale of Princess Nesmeyan". Slavic agricultural rituals: Christmastide, Maslenitsa, Semik, the holiday of Ivan Kupala.
Study
Know: Slavic rituals - Christmastide, Maslenitsa, Rusal Week, Semik, Ivan Kupala. Folklore as a reflection of the primary world.
Texts of the rituals of Christmastide, Maslenitsa, Mermaid Week, Semik, Ivan Kupala.
The birth of art. The artistic image as the main means of cognition and comprehension of the world in primitive art. Rock paintings of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Imagery of architectural primary elements.
Panorama
Know: what forms of art are characteristic of the primitive world, how artistic images of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic reflect the living conditions during these periods.
EUM “Syncretism of Primitive Art”, images of rock paintings of the Altamira and Lascaux caves, images of Stonehenge
2. Artistic culture of the Ancient world (14 hours)
Mesopotamia (1 hour)
Mesapotamian ziggurat - the dwelling of God. Realism of images of living nature - the specificity of Mesopotamian fine art
Study
Know: what features are characteristic of architectural structures in the city-states of Mesopotamia, what caused them.
Flash diagram of the ziggurat model, images of the ziggurats in Ur and Etemenanka, flash diagram of the Ishtar Gate
Ancient Egypt (2 hours)
The embodiment of the idea of eternal life in the architecture of necropolises. The above-ground temple is a symbol of the eternal self-rebirth of the god Ra.
Image model
Know: what was the funeral cult of the ancient Egyptians, how the architecture of Egyptian necropolises reflects the idea of eternal life.
Flash diagram of the pyramid model, EUM “Pyramids - monuments of the immortality of the pharaohs”, images of the pyramid in Giza, the temple of Amun-Ra in Karnak
Magic. Decor of tombs. Canon of the image of a figure on a plane.
Study
Know: how the design of the tombs of the nobility changed in different periods of Egyptian culture, what decorative elements of sarcophagi indicate their role as a talisman of “sacred remains”
Compulsory medical insurance “Ancient Egyptian canon. Painting, relief and sculpture", depiction of the tomb of RamsesIX in the Valley of the Kings
Ancient India (2 hours)
A Hindu temple is a mystical analogue of a sacrificial body and a sacred mountain. The role of sculptural decoration.
Image model
Know: architectural forms of a Hindu temple, decor of a Hindu temple
EUM "The Art of Ancient India", images of the Kandarya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho
Buddhist places of worship are a symbol of space and divine presence. Features of divine plasticity and painting.
Image model
Generalization
Know: the history of the emergence of Buddhism, the main types of Buddhist temple architecture, their differences.
Depiction of the great stupa at Sanchi, a fresco painting of the Ajanta cave temples
2nd quarter Ancient America (1 hour)
The temple culture of the Mesaamerican Indians as the embodiment of the myth of the sacrifice that gave life.
Panorama
Know: what determines architectural appearance temples on the territory of the Central Mexican Plateau.
Image of the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan, the Mayan complex at Palenque
Creto-Mycenaean culture (1 hour)
Cretan-Mycenaean culture and decor as a reflection of myth.
Study
Know: the origins of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture, the myth of the abduction of Europe.
Images of the Labyrinth Palace of Knossos, the palace of King Agamemnon in Mycenae
Ancient Greece (4 hours)
Greek temple - an architectural image of the union of people and Gods
Study
Know: the main features of architectural orders that arose in Greece during the archaic period, what gods were Greek temples dedicated to, what characteristic features did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have.
Flash diagram of the Athens Acropolis, image of the Parthenon
The evolution of Greek relief from archaic to high classic
Study
Know: what new did Phidias bring to relief, why his work is considered the pinnacle of Greek sculpture, what idea was expressed by the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.
Image of the Temple of Athena at Selinunte, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, friezes and metopes of the Parthenon
Sculpture of Ancient Greece from archaic to late classic.
Contemplation
Know: ancient Greek sculptors and their works (Polykleitos, Phidias, Scopas), as sculpture, make it possible to imagine the worldview of the Greeks in the era of the early, high, and late classics.
EUM “Outstanding Sculptors of Ancient Greece”, images of kouros and kors, “Doriphoros” by Polykleitos; “Torso of the Goddess” by Phidias; "Maenad" by Skopas
Synthesis of eastern and ancient traditions in Hellenism. Gigantism of architectural forms. Expression and naturalism of sculptural decoration.
Panorama
Know: characteristic features of Hellenistic art, what painting techniques Hellenistic sculptors used to convey drama and expression.
Depiction of a sleeping hermaphrodite, Venus of Melos, altar of Zeus in Pergamon
Ancient Rome (2 hours)
Features of Roman urban planning. Public buildings from the times of the republic and empire.
Image model
Know: what structures created the appearance of the cities of Ancient Rome, what architectural element formed the core of any Roman structure.
Images of the Roman Forum, Pantheon, Colosseum
Roman house layout. Fresco and mosaic are the main means of decoration. Sculptural portrait.
Contemplation
Know: what was it architectural feature Roman house, what artistic means the Romans used to decorate their homes.
Images of the House of the Vettii and the House tragic poet in Pompeii, depiction of portraits of Brutus, Augustus, Constantine the Great
Early Christian Art (1 hour)
Types of Christian churches: rotunda and basilica. Christian symbolism. Mosaic decor.
Panorama
Know: what types of temples became widespread in the era of early Christianity, what is common in the decor of early Christian churches of any type, what places especially stand out when decorating the interior with mosaics in central-domed churches and basilicas.
Images of the mausoleums of Constantius in Rome and Galla Placidia in Ravenna, image of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome
3. Artistic culture of the Middle Ages (14 hours)
Byzantium and Ancient Rus' (7 hours)
Holy Cathedral
Image model
Know: what are the features of the Byzantine style, what determines the cosmic symbolism of the Byzantine cathedral, how the decor of the cross-domed church reflects the symbolic idea of the Eternal Church.
Flash diagram of a Byzantine temple, images of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
Temporary symbolism of the cross-domed church. Byzantine style in mosaic decor.
Contemplation
Know: how the earthly life of Jesus Christ is reflected in the architecture of the cross-domed church.
Images of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna and the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv
Byzantine style in the icon painting of Ancient Rus'.
Study
Know: what painting techniques were used in the Byzantine temple to create the atmosphere of the supersensible world, what is associated with the transition from colorful facial modeling to linear stylization.
EUM “Our Lady of Vladimir”, image of the Deesis iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin by Theophan the Greek
Formation of the Moscow school of icon painting. Russian iconostasis.
Study
Know: how the difference in the perception of the Day of Judgment is manifested in the works of Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev, why Rublev is considered the creator of the Russian iconostasis.
Flash diagram “Iconostasis of the Orthodox Church”, EUM “Andrei Rublev “Trinity””, image of the Savior of the Zvenigorod rank
Stylistic diversity of cross-domed churches of Ancient Rus'. Moscow architectural school.
Contemplation
Know: architectural temple buildings of the early 16th century. Cathedral of the Savior Not Made by Hands of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery, Assumption Cathedral, Archangel Cathedral, Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye.
EUM "Temples of Ancient Rus'", images of the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the Church of the Transfiguration in Novgorod, images of the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, EUM "Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye"
Fresco paintings on the theme of the Greatness of the Virgin Mary. Znamenny chant.
Contemplation
Know: what is a “fresco”, the artist Dionysius, his work.
Presentations “Frescoes of Dionysius in the Ferapontov Monastery”; EUM “Old Russian music. Znamenny chant"
Generalization on the topic “The artistic culture of Byzantium and Ancient Rus'.”
Panorama
Be able to: answer questions correctly.
EUM “Architecture of Ancient Rus'. Practical task", EUM "Old Russian icon painting. Practical task", EUM "Old Russian music. Znamenny chant. Practical task."
Western Europe (4 hours)
Pre-Romanesque culture. "Carolingian Renaissance". Architecture, mosaic and fresco decor.
Panorama
Know: on what grounds is the Aachen Chapel perceived as a replica of the architecture of Ancient Rome, how do the basilicas of the “Carolingian Renaissance” differ from the early Christian ones.
Images of the Charlemagne Chapel in Aachen, the Basilica of Saint-Michel de Cux in Languedoc, the Church of St. Johann in Müster
Romanesque culture. Representation of human life in the Middle Ages in the architecture of monastery basilicas, bas-reliefs, frescoes, stained glass windows.
Image model
Know: how the architecture and decoration of the Romanesque basilica and the Byzantine cathedral expresses the main idea of the cultural development of the western and eastern areas, what role the stone decor of the Romanesque basilica played.
Flash diagram “Model of a Romanesque temple”, EUM “Romanesque style in architecture”, image of the Church of St. Apolsten in Cologne, Abbey of Saint-Pierre in Moissac
Gothic. The Gothic temple is an image of the world. Architecture and sculptural decor of a Gothic temple. Interior decor of the temple: stained glass windows, sculpture and tapestries. Gregorian chant.
Image model
Know: difference gothic cathedral from the Romanesque basilica (by ideological content, functions, decor), what role did stained glass windows play in the interior of the Gothic cathedral.
Flash diagram “Model of a Gothic temple”, EUM “Artistic culture of the Middle Ages. Gothic style", image of the Church of Saint-Denis near Paris, Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, EUM "Music of the Middle Ages"
Generalization on the topic “The artistic culture of Western Europe in the Middle Ages.”
Panorama
Be able to correctly complete practical work on the topic
EUM “Romanesque style in architecture. Practical creative work",
New art – Ars nova (3 hours).
Proto-Renaissance in Italy. Ars aesthetics are new in literature. The ancient principle of “imitating nature” in painting.
Contemplation
Know: how new humanistic thinking appeared in literature, what was Giotto’s innovation.
Text of cantos 1, 5 and 32 of Dante's Inferno, image of the frescoes of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua by Giotto
Allegorical cycles of Ars nova on the theme of the Triumph of Repentance and the Triumph of Death. The musical movement of Ars Nova.
Contemplation
Know: what semantic parallel can be seen between painting and music Ars nova.
Images of Andrea da Boi nauti "Triumph of Penance", Master of the "Triumph of Death", Camposanto cemetery in Pisa
The specificity of Ars is new in the north.
Contemplation
Know: What determines the features of Ars nova in the Netherlands, what features inherent in Gothic style are preserved by the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan Van Eyck, why the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan Van Eyck is considered an example of Renaissance painting.
Image of Jan van Eyck's altarpiece "Adoration of the Lamb"
4. Artistic culture of the Far and Middle East in the Middle Ages (3 hours).
China (1 hour)
The specificity of Ars is new in the north.
Image model
The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese architecture. Architecture as the embodiment of mythological and religious-moral ideas of Ancient China.
EUM “Artistic culture of China. Mythology and philosophy", image of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing
Japan (1 hour)
Japanese gardens as the quintessence of Shinto mythology and the philosophical and religious views of Buddhism.
Contemplation
Know: why gardens are a special species Japanese art, how the idea of finding an “empty heart” finds expression in the design of philosophical gardens.
Image of the Garden of Eden of Byodoin Monastery in Uji, the philosophical rock garden of Ryoanji in Kyoto, the Pines and Lute tea garden near Kyoto
Ancient East (2 hours)
The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of mosques.
Contemplation
Know: what differences exist in the organization of the internal space and decor of the columned mosque and basilica, what decorative means did the architects resort to to create the image of the Garden of Eden in domed mosques.
Flash diagram “Mosque Model”, image of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, the Umayyad Mosque in Cordoba, the Alhambra Palace in Granada
The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces.
(complete the final assignment on Middle Eastern culture)
Generalization
Know: what elements made up the image of the Garden of Eden in the Alhambra.
Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture: program for grades 10 – 11: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2007. – 16 p.;
Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture: textbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2009. – 240 p.
Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture: workbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2008. – 48 p.
Albanese M. Ancient India. From origin to the 13th century / M. Albanese.-M.,-2003.
Barskaya N.A. Subjects and images of ancient Russian painting / N.A. Barskaya.-M., 1993.
Bongard-Levin G.M. Ancient civilizations / G.M. Bongard-Levin. - M., 1989.
Gnedich P.P. The World History arts / P.P. Gnedich.-M., 1996.
Gombrich E. History of Art / E. Gombrich.-M., 1998.
Lyubimov L. D. The Art of the Ancient World / L. D Lyubimov.-M., 1997.
China. Land of the Heavenly Dragon/edited by: E.L. Shaughnessy.-M., 2001.
The ancient period, which is characterized by the rise and prosperity of Hellas (as the ancient Greeks called their country), is the most interesting for most art historians. And for good reason! Indeed, at this time the origin and formation of the principles and forms of almost all genres took place. contemporary creativity. In total, scientists divide the history of the development of this country into five periods. Let's take a look at the typology and talk about the formation of some types of art.
Aegean era This period is most clearly represented by two monuments - the Mycenaean and Knossos palaces. The latter is better known today as the Labyrinth from the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. After archaeological excavations, scientists confirmed the veracity of this legend. Only the first floor has survived, but there are more than three hundred rooms in it! In addition to palaces, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is known for the masks of Achaean leaders and small Cretan sculptures. The figurines found in the palace's hiding places amaze with their filigree. Women with snakes look very realistic and graceful. Thus, the culture of Ancient Greece, a brief summary of which is presented in the article, arose from the symbiosis of the ancient island civilization of Crete and the arriving Achaean and Dorian tribes who settled on the Balkan Peninsula.
Homeric period This era is significantly different in material terms from the previous one. From the 11th to the 9th centuries BC a lot happened important events. First of all, the previous civilization died. Scientists suggest that due to a volcanic eruption. Then there was a return from statehood to a communal structure. In fact, society was being formed anew. An important point is that against the backdrop of material decline, spiritual culture was fully preserved and continued to develop. We can see this in the works of Homer, which reflect precisely this turning point. The Trojan War dates back to the end of the Minoan period, and the writer himself lived at the beginning of the archaic era. That is, the Iliad and the Odyssey are the only evidence about this period, because apart from them and archaeological finds, nothing is known about it today.
Archaic era. At this time there is rapid growth and formation of state-polises. Coins begin to be minted, the alphabet is formed and writing is formed. In the archaic era they appear Olympic Games, a cult of a healthy and athletic body is formed. It was during this period that the culture of Ancient Greece was born.
Classical period. Everything that the culture of Ancient Greece fascinates us with today happened precisely in this era. Philosophy and science, painting and sculpture, oratory and poetry - all these genres are experiencing a rise and unique development. The apogee of creative self-expression was the Athens architectural ensemble, which still amazes viewers with its harmony and elegance of forms.
Hellenism. The last period of development of Greek culture is interesting precisely because of its ambiguity. On the one hand, there is a unification of Greek and Eastern traditions due to the conquests of Alexander the Great. On the other hand, Rome captures Greece, but the latter conquers it with its culture. Architecture The Parthenon is probably one of the most famous monuments of the ancient world. And Doric or Ionian elements, such as columns, are found in some later architectural styles. We can mainly trace the development of this type of art through temples. After all, it was in this type of construction that the most effort, money and skills were invested. Even palaces were valued less than places for sacrifices to the gods. The beauty of ancient Greek temples lies in the fact that they were not formidable temples of mysterious and cruel celestial beings. In terms of their internal structure, they resembled ordinary houses, only they were more elegantly equipped and richly furnished. How could it be different if the gods themselves were portrayed as similar to people, with the same problems, quarrels and joys? Subsequently, three orders of columns formed the basis of most styles of European architecture. It was with their help that the culture of Ancient Greece briefly, but very succinctly and lastingly entered the life of modern man.
Vase painting. Works of this type of art are the most numerous and studied to date. The first monuments of this civilization are black-glazed ceramics - very beautiful and stylish dishes, copies of which served as souvenirs, decorations and collectibles in all subsequent eras. Vessel painting went through several stages of development. At first these were simple geometric patterns, known since the times of the Minoan culture. Then spirals, meanders and other details are added to them. In the process of formation, vase painting acquires the features of painting. Scenes from mythology and everyday life of the ancient Greeks, human figures, images of animals and everyday scenes appear on the vessels. It is noteworthy that the artists managed not only to convey movement in their paintings, but also to give personal features to the characters. Thanks to their attributes, individual gods and heroes are easily recognized.
Mythology. The peoples of the ancient world perceived surrounding reality a little differently than we are used to understanding it. Deities were the main force that was responsible for what happened in a person’s life. The ancient Greek pantheon included many gods, demigods and heroes, but the main ones were the twelve Olympians. The names of some of them were already known during the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. They are mentioned on clay tablets with Linear writing. What's remarkable is that at this stage they had female and male counterparts of the same character. For example, there was Zeus-on and Zeus-on. Today we know about the gods of Ancient Greece thanks to monuments of fine art and literature that have remained for centuries. Sculptures, frescoes, figurines, plays and stories - all of this reflected the Hellenic worldview. Such views have outlived their time. The artistic culture of Ancient Greece, in short, had a primary influence on the formation of many European schools of various types of art. Renaissance artists resurrected and developed ideas of style, harmony and form that had been known since classical Greece.
Architecture Ancient Greece developed in three stages. Period from approximately 600 to 480 BC. e. marked by the reflection of the Persian invasion. After the liberation of their land, the Greeks began to create freely again. This period was called "archaic". The architecture of Ancient Greece experienced its heyday from 480 to 323 BC. e. During this period, Alexander the Great conquered vast territories that varied significantly in their cultures. This had a devastating impact on classical Greek art. The late period - Hellenism - ended in 30 BC. e. At that time, the Romans conquered ancient Egypt, which was under the influence of Greece. The ruins of temples date back to the archaic period. These ancient buildings were one of the greatest achievements of architecture. During that period, wood was replaced by white marble and limestone. Presumably, the prototype of ancient temples was the dwelling of the Greeks. It looked like a rectangular building, with two columns installed in front of the entrance. This fairly simple structure marked the beginning of more complex structures. As a rule, the temple was installed on a stepped base. The building had no windows; a statue of a deity was placed inside it. The building was surrounded by columns in two or one row. They served as a support for the gable roof and beams in the ceiling. Only priests were allowed to visit the interior. Other people saw the temple from the outside. The construction of the temple was subject to certain laws; precisely established proportions, dimensions, and the number of columns were used. The architecture of Ancient Greece was characterized by three directions: Corinthian, Ionic, Doric. The latter was formed in the archaic era. Thus, the Doric style was the most ancient. It was distinguished by a combination of power and simplicity. The name of the style comes from the Doric peoples who created it. The Ionic style was formed in Asia Minor, in its Ionian region. From there it was adopted by Ancient Greece. The architecture of this style was distinguished by its slender and elegant columns. The middle part of the capital looked like a pillow with corners twisted into a spiral. During the Hellenistic period, the architecture of Ancient Greece was distinguished by its desire for splendor, a certain majesty. At that time, Corinthian capitals (the crowning parts of columns) were most often used. Their decoration is dominated by plant motifs, mainly depicting acanthus leaves. In the 5th century BC e. Ancient Greek architecture was experiencing its heyday. Great influence on the formation of art in this classical period rendered by the famous statesman Pericles. His reign was marked by the beginning of large-scale construction in Athens - the largest artistic and cultural center Ancient Greece. The main work was carried out in the Acropolis - on an ancient hill. The Greeks were able to bring to perfection the unity of constructive and artistic content of buildings in their architecture. It should be noted that in the 5th century BC. e. Both the architecture and sculpture of Ancient Greece experienced their heyday. During this period, the greatest historical monuments were created. However, before today Early works by Greek sculptors have also been preserved. In the 7th-6th centuries BC. e. The statues are distinguished by amazing symmetry - one part of the body mirrors the other. The sculptures were in constrained positions - outstretched arms pressed to the muscular body. Despite the absence of any sign of movement (turning the head or tilting), the lips of the statues were open in a slight smile. The sculptural art of later periods is distinguished by a wide variety of forms. In the 1st century BC e as a result of the active expansion of the Roman Empire, ancient Greek architecture takes on more of the features of the conquerors, losing its own.
In ancient times, the city of Cecropia was erected on the high hill of the Acropolis, which later received a new name - Athens. It is better to admire the Acropolis in Athens at sunrise or sunset; it is at this time that the ruins of the former great city come to life and seem to be rebuilt.
History of the Athenian Acropolis
Let's look a little at the history of the city. King Cecrops is considered the founder of Athens. This great man is credited with the founding of 12 Greek cities, the introduction of a ban on human sacrifice, and, most importantly, the introduction of the cult of Zeus the Thunderer. The advent of the greatness of the goddess Athena occurs during the reign of another king - Erechthonius; it was during his reign that the city was renamed Athens.
Around the 2nd millennium BC, the territory of the Acropolis completely contained Athens. It was surrounded by powerful walls. On the western, flat side, a particularly strong fortification, Enneapylon “Nine Gates,” was erected. Behind the walls was the palace of the Athenian kings. It was here that the sanctuary of Athena was later located, and as the city grew, the Acropolis became a religious center dedicated to the patroness of the city. Architecture of the Athenian Acropolis.
The construction of the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis began after the great victories of the Greeks over the Persians. In 449, Pericles' plan to decorate this territory was approved. The Acropolis of Athens was to become a great symbol great victory. No expense or materials were spared. Pericles could get whatever he wanted for this matter.
Tons of material were transported to the main hill of the Greek capital. It was considered pride for everyone to work at this facility. Several magnificent architects were involved here, but the main role was given to Phidias.
Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis
The architect Mnesicles created the buildings of the Propylaea, which are the entrance to the Acropolis, decorated with porticoes and a colonnade. Such a structure introduced the visitor to a sacred place into a completely new world, not similar to everyday reality. At the other end of the Propylaea, there was a statue of the patroness of the city, Athena Promachos, personally executed by Phidias. Speaking about Phidias, we can mention that it was from his hands that the famous statue of Zeus in Olympia came out, which became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Even sailors passing through Attica saw the helmet and spear of the warrior Athena.
Parthenon - the first temple
The main temple of the Athenian Acropolis is the Parthenon. Previously, it housed another statue of Athena Parthenos, also made by Phidias. The statue was made in the chrysoelephantine technique, like Olympian Zeus. But this miracle has not reached us, so we can only believe the rumors and images. The columns of the Parthenon, made of marble, have lost their original whiteness over many centuries. Now its brownish columns stand out beautifully against the evening sky. The Parthenon was the temple of Athena Polias the City Guardian. Due to the position of the building, this name was usually shortened to the Great Temple or even simply the Temple.
The construction of the Parthenon was carried out in 447-428 BC under the leadership of the architects Ictinus and his assistant Callicrates, of course, not without the participation of Phidias. The temple was supposed to be the embodiment of democracy. For its construction, great calculations were made, which is why the building was completed in just 9 years. Other decoration continued until 432.
Erechtheion - the second temple
The second temple of the Acropolis is the old Erechtheion, also dedicated to Athena. There was a functional difference between the Erechtheion and the Pantheon. The Pantheon was intended for public needs; the Erechtheion, in fact, was a temple of priests. According to legend, the temple was built at the site of the dispute between Poseidon and Athena for the right to power in Athens. The elders of the city had to resolve the dispute; at their request, power was given to whichever god whose gift would be most useful for the city. Poseidon made a stream of salt water from the Acropolis hill, and Athena grew an olive tree. The daughter of Zeus was recognized as the winner, and the olive tree was recognized as the symbol of the city.
According to legend, the temple was built at the site of the dispute between Poseidon and Athena for the right to power in Athens. The elders of the city had to resolve the dispute; at their request, power was given to whichever god whose gift would be most useful for the city. Poseidon made a stream of salt water from the Acropolis hill, and Athena grew an olive tree. The daughter of Zeus was recognized as the winner, and the olive tree was recognized as the symbol of the city.
In one of the premises of the temple there was a trace left from the impact of Poseidon’s trident on a rock. Near this place there is an entrance to a cave where, according to another legend, the snake of Athena, who is the personification of the glorious king-hero Erechthonius, lived.
In the same complex there is the grave of Erechthonius himself, and in the western part of the temple there is a well with salt water, as if appeared by the will of the same Poseidon.
Temple of Athena Nike
Athena on the Acropolis found its embodiment in yet another form - Athena Nike. The first temple, dedicated to the goddess of victory, was destroyed during the wars with the Persians, so after the truce it was decided to restore the sanctuary. The temple was built by Callicrates in 427-424 BC.
With the arrival of the Turks, the temple was dismantled for the construction of fortifications. The restoration of the temple was carried out in the 1830s, after the restoration of Greece to the status of an independent state. The next reconstruction was carried out in 1935-1940, and since that time the temple appears in all its glory to visitors to the complex.
The Acropolis is a majestic complex of beautiful buildings with a rich and interesting history. This is a piece of Greece, without which it is difficult to put together complete image its former greatness.
Plan of the Athenian Acropolis.
Architecture of Ancient Rome. Architectural symbols of Roman greatness. Roman Forum, business and public life"Eternal City" Pantheon – “temple of all gods”. The Colosseum is a majestic, spectacular building of Ancient Rome.
The composition of the characteristic Roman urban ensemble - the form bears traces of the influence of the compositions of the Greek agora and folk housing.
The predominant type of developed residential building was atrium-peristyle. Usually it was located on an elongated site, fenced off from the streets by blank external walls. The front part of the house was occupied by an atrium - an enclosed space, on the sides of which there were living rooms and utility rooms. In the center of the atrium there was a pool, above which an open part was left in the roof for lighting and drainage of water into the pool. Behind the atrium, through the tablinum, there was a peristyle with a garden inside. The entire composition developed in depth along the axis with a consistent opening of the main spaces.
IN Roman forums The same idea of a closed axial composition was reflected - an order peristyle, but enlarged to the size of a city square. In the initial period, forums usually served as markets and along their perimeter, shops and sometimes other public buildings adjoined the galleries. Over time, they turned into ceremonial squares for public meetings, ceremonies, religious events, etc.
The ideological and compositional center was the temple, located in the middle of the narrow side of the rectangular square on its main axis. Towering on the podium, he dominated the composition. In plan, the temple had the shape of a rectangle, to which a portico was attached. A similar composition of the temple was traditional in Rome and had its origins in the most ancient types of temples of the Etruscan-Archaic period. In the composition of the forum, the frontal construction of the temple emphasized its deep-axial structure, and a rich portico (of the composite, Corinthian, or less often Ionic order) accentuated the entrance to the temple. Beginning with the Republican period, several forums were successively erected in Rome. Later emperors interpreted the forum as a monument to their own glory.
In its splendor, luxury, size and complexity of the composition it stands out Forum of Emperor Trajan(architect Apollodorus of Damascus, 112-117). In addition to the main square and the temple, a five-span elongated hall was erected on it - a basilica with an area of 55x159 m and two symmetrical library buildings, between which a memorial was erected on a small square Trajan's Column 38 m high. Its marble trunk is covered with a spiral band of bas-relief with 2500 figures depicting episodes of Trajan’s victorious campaigns. The triumphal arch serves as the main entrance, the statue of the emperor is installed in the center of the square, the temple is in its depths. Colonnades and porticos made of marble, which had various and sometimes enormous sizes, were the main motif of the ensemble.
Built in conjunction with forums and on main roads, triumphal arches are one of the most common types of memorial structures in Rome. Examples are Arch of Titus(70s), Arch of Constantine(IV century), where the monumental massif is dressed in a rich decorative dress with a relaxed order.
Arch of Constantine, placed near the Colosseum, surpasses others not only in its size (21.5 m high, 25 m wide), but also in the abundance of decorations. Some details (for example, round and rectangular reliefs, figures, etc.) are taken from architectural monuments of an earlier time, which was common in the architecture of late Rome. The plastic richness and large size of the structure are designed to convincingly express the ideas of the power of the emperor, ruling both in Rome itself and in the vast imperial colonies.
Arched and vaulted forms initially became widespread in utilitarian structures - bridges and aqueducts. City water pipelines - aqueducts- occupied a special place in the improvement of cities, the growth of which required more and more water. The water supplied from the hilly surroundings to the city reservoirs flowed through stone channels (chutes) plastered with hydraulic mortar, which were supported by arched structures in low-lying areas and at the intersections of rivers or ravines. The majestic arcades of bridges and aqueducts already determined the type of structures in the Republican period. Characteristic of these types of structures; Aqueduct of Marcius in Rome, 144 BC and etc.
some of them rose to the level of the best examples of Roman architecture, not only in technical, but also in architectural artistically. These should include Trajan's Bridge in Alcantra in Spain (98-106 AD) and an aqueduct in the city of Nimes in France (2nd century AD), crossing the river. Gard, et al.
Length Garda Aqueduct Bridge 275 m. It consists of three tiers of arched abutments with a total height of 49 m. The span of the largest arch is enormous for that time - 24.5 m. The abutments and arches are dry-built from precisely hewn stones. The arcade is distinguished by its simplicity of form and harmony of relationships, clarity of tectonics, large scale, and expressive texture. The monumental and exquisite beauty of the composition is achieved exclusively with the help of constructive forms.
Palace construction took place on a huge scale in Rome. Especially stood out Imperial Palace on the Palatine, consisting of the palace itself for ceremonial receptions and the emperor’s home. The ceremonial premises were located around a vast peristyle courtyard. The main room - the throne room - was amazing in its size. The hall was covered with a cylindrical vault with a span of 29.3 m, which rose 43-44 m above the floor level. The main premises of the residential part were also grouped around peristyles on the terraces of the hills, using villa construction techniques. The construction of villas also became widespread in Rome. In addition to large palace complexes, the principles of landscape architecture, which have been intensively developed since the 1st century BC, are implemented in them to the greatest extent. ( Villa Adriana in Tibur, first floor II century, etc.).
The most grandiose public buildings of Rome, carried out during the imperial period, are associated with the development of arched concrete structures.
Roman theaters were based on Greek traditions, but unlike Greek theaters, the seats of which were located on natural mountain slopes, were free-standing buildings with a complex substructure supporting the seats for spectators, with radial walls, pillars and stairs and passages inside the main semicircular volume ( Theater of Marcellus in Rome, II century BC, which accommodated about 13 thousand spectators, etc.).
Colosseum (Collosseum)(75-80 AD) - the largest amphitheater in Rome, intended for gladiator fights and other competitions. Elliptical in plan (dimensions in the main axes are about 156x188 m) and grandiose in height (48.5 m), it could accommodate up to 50 thousand spectators. In plan, the structure is divided by transverse and circular passages. A system of main distribution galleries was built between the three outer rows of pillars. A system of stairs connected the galleries with exits evenly spaced in the funnel of the amphitheater and external entrances to the building, located along the entire perimeter.
The structural basis consists of 80 radially directed walls and pillars supporting the ceiling vaults. The outer wall is made of travertine squares; in the upper part it consists of two layers: an inner one of concrete and an outer one of travertine. Marble and knock were widely used for facing and other decorative works.
With a greater understanding of the properties and performance of the material, the architects combined different types of stone and concrete compositions. In elements that experience the greatest stress (in columns, longitudinal arches, etc.), the most durable material is used - travertine; radial tuff walls are lined with brick and partially relieved by brick arches; In order to lighten the weight, the inclined concrete vault uses light pumice as a filler. Brick arches of various designs penetrate the thickness of the concrete both in the vaults and in the radial walls. The “frame” structure of the Colosseum was functionally expedient, provided lighting for internal galleries, passages and stairs, and was economical in terms of material consumption.
The Colosseum also provides the first known example in history of a bold solution to tent structures in the form of a periodically arranged covering. On the wall of the fourth tier, brackets were preserved that served as supports for the rods, to which a giant silk awning was attached using ropes, protecting spectators from the scorching rays of the sun.
The external appearance of the Colosseum is monumental due to its enormous size and the unity of the plastic design of the wall in the form of a multi-tiered arcade. The system of orders gives the composition scale and, at the same time, a special character of the relationship between the plastic and the wall. At the same time, the facades are somewhat dry, the proportions are heavy. The use of an order arcade introduced tectonic duality into the composition: a multi-tiered, complete order system here serves exclusively decorative and plastic purposes, creating only an illusory impression of the order frame of the building, visually lightening its mass.
Roman baths- complex complexes of numerous rooms and courtyards intended for ablution and various activities related to recreation and entertainment (rooms and open areas for sports exercises, meeting rooms, rooms for games and conversations, etc.). The basis of the composition was the ablution halls with a gradual transition from a cold room (frigidarium) to a warm one (tepidarium) and then to a room with the highest temperature (caldarium), containing a pool of hot water in the center. The halls located along the main axis reached enormous sizes, since large baths were designed for the broad masses of the plebs.
All halls and rooms were heated with warm air supplied through special channels, which were installed under the floor and in the walls of the buildings.
In Rome, 11 large imperial baths and about 800 small private baths were built. Most famous Baths of Caracalla(206-216) and Baths of Diocletian(306). The main building of the baths sometimes reached enormous sizes (the Baths of Caracalla - 216x120 m). Surrounded by gardens, areas for recreation and entertainment, it, together with the latter, occupied a significant area (the Baths of Caracalla - 363x535 m).
The technical basis for the appearance of such grandiose structures was the accumulated experience in creating bold structural forms - vaults and domes made of concrete. In thermal baths, these forms interact spatially with each other, forming a complex structure. By reducing the “inert” mass of structures to a minimum, the architects distributed efforts economically and expediently. Giving designs different shape, they made maximum use of the possibilities of mutual cancellation of horizontal forces by the vaults themselves. Thus, the ceiling of the central hall usually consisted of three adjacent cross vaults with a span of up to 25 m, resting on transverse abutments, between which cylindrical vaults were thrown.
Large and small halls, connecting into enfilades, created a complex interior that amazed with the brilliance and luxury of decoration, the abundance of light and air. Decoratively interpreted order elements and divisions were given importance in the interior. With the help of the order and the plastic development of the surfaces of the vaults, a visual effect of lightness of the structure was created, and the idea of spatiality of the interior was emphasized. ( Baths of Caracalla in Rome, 206-216. Interior reconstruction)
One of the central halls of the baths was often made in a round shape with a dome covering. Its dimensions reached large values: the diameter of the caldarium of the Baths of Caracalla was 34 m. The development of dome structures in the baths contributed to the emergence of a rotunda-type composition, in which the dome shape became dominant.
Pantheon in Rome(about 125) is the most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple, in which the diameter of the dome reached 43.2 m. In the Pantheon, the constructive and artistic tasks of creating the largest large-span domed space in Rome (unsurpassed until the 20th century) were brilliantly resolved.
The spherical vault is made of horizontal layers of concrete and rows of baked bricks, representing a monolithic mass devoid of a frame. To lighten the weight, the dome gradually decreases in thickness towards the top, and a lightweight aggregate - crushed pumice stone - is introduced into the concrete composition. The dome rests on a 6 m thick wall. The foundation is concrete with travertine filler. As the wall rises, the travertine is replaced by lighter tuff, and in the upper part by crushed brick. The filler for the lower zone of the dome is also crushed brick. Thus, in the design of the Pantheon, a system was consistently implemented to lighten the weight of the concrete aggregate.
The system of unloading brick arches in the thickness of the concrete evenly distributes the forces of the dome onto the abutments and unloads the wall above the niches, reducing the load on the columns. A multi-tiered system of arches with a clearly defined subordination of the main and secondary parts made it possible to rationally distribute efforts in the structure, freeing it from inert mass. She contributed to the preservation of the building despite earthquakes.
The artistic structure of the building is determined by its structural form: a powerful domed volume on the outside, a single and integral space inside. The centric volume of the rotunda from the outside is interpreted as an axial frontal composition. In front of the majestic eight-column portico of the Corinthian order (the height of the columns is 14 m), there previously existed a rectangular courtyard with a ceremonial entrance and triumphal arch by type of forum. The developed space under the portico with four rows of intermediate columns seems to prepare the visitor for the perception of the vast space of the interior.
The dome, at the top of which there is a round light opening with a diameter of 9 m, dominates the interior. Five rows of caissons decreasing upward create the impression of a domed “frame”, visually lightening the massif. At the same time, they give the dome plasticity and a scale commensurate with the divisions of the interior. The order of the lower tier, emphasizing deep niches, effectively alternates with massive supports lined with marble.
The intermediate strip of the attic between the order and the dome, with a small scale of division, contrastsly emphasizes the shapes of the dome and the main order. The expressive tectonics of the composition is combined with the effect of diffused lighting pouring from above and subtle color nuances created by the marble cladding. The rich, festively majestic interior contrasts with appearance Pantheon, where the simplicity of monumental volume dominates.
An important place in the construction was occupied by covered halls - basilicas, which served for various kinds of meetings and tribunal sessions. These are rectangular buildings elongated in plan, internally divided by rows of supports into elongated spaces - naves. The middle nave was made wider and higher than the side ones, and was illuminated through openings in the upper part of the walls.
Three-nave Basilica of Constantine(312) - one of the largest basilicas in Rome. The middle nave, 23.5 m wide, 80 m long and 35 m high, was covered with three cross vaults. The side naves were covered with transversely directed cylindrical vaults, supported by powerful arched abutments, which also served as support for the vaults of the middle nave. The thrust of the cross vaults was compensated by the same supports, which were partially extended outward above the side naves. In the longitudinal walls of the middle nave above the arches of the side parts, arched openings for lighting were installed. As in other major buildings in Rome (therms, Pantheon, etc.), the main attention in the Basilica of Constantine is paid to the creation of large internal spaces. The richly designed interior, which was similar in composition and decoration to the interiors of the thermal baths, was contrasted with the simple and laconic appearance of the building.
In the 4th century. With the adoption of Christianity by Rome on the basis of the basilica, new types of religious buildings began to develop - basilica churches. The Christian basilica became especially widespread in the religious construction of the Western Middle Ages.
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by discipline:
Art History
Topic: “Features of the architecture of ancient Greece. Ensemble of the Athens Acropolis"
Completed by a 3rd year student
Lystseva N. I.
Vologda, 2008
Introduction
1. System Greek orders and their origin
1.1 Doric order
1.2 Ionic order
1.3 Corinthian order
1.4 Caryatids and Atlanteans
2. Types of Greek temples
2.1 Features of the architecture of the Homeric period (XI - VIII centuries BC)
2.2 Architecture during the archaic period (VII–VI centuries BC)
2.3 Ensemble of the Acropolis of Athens
Conclusion
Application
Bibliography
Introduction
In this work we will look at the main features of the architecture of Ancient Greece.
The origin of Greek architecture occurs at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e., and in its development there are 4 stages: 1100-800 BC. e. – Homeric; 700-600 BC e. - archaic; 500-400 BC e. – classic; 300-100 BC e. - Hellenism.
In particular, in the first chapter we describe the origin of the order in Greek architecture, its main distinctive features, in the second we will find out the features of the main order buildings of the Acropolis of Athens - the famous architectural ensemble, the types of Greek temples formed in the Homeric period and in the archaic period. In all Greek art we find a combination of subtle intellectual calculation and sensual life-likeness. Such deviations from geometric correctness make the building like an organism - constructive, but alien to abstraction and scheme. In the second chapter, using the example of the Parthenon temple, we will describe this feature of Greek architecture; the geometric correctness of the Parthenon is accompanied at every step by slight deviations from correctness. So deviations of horizontals and verticals are almost invisible. Knowing the effect of optical distortions, the Greeks used this to achieve the desired effect
The order temple was a kind of pinnacle in Greek architecture and therefore, it had a huge impact on the subsequent history of world architecture. Artistic creativity permeates all the work of the Greek builders, who created each stone block from which the temple was composed as a sculptural work.
The architectural forms of the Greek temple did not develop immediately and underwent a long evolution during the Archaic period. However, in archaic art a well-thought-out, clear and at the same time very diversely applied system of architectural forms had already been created, which formed the basis for all further development of Greek architecture.
The legacy of ancient Greek architecture underlies all subsequent development of world architecture and related monumental art. The reasons for such a sustainable influence of Greek architecture lie in its objective qualities: simplicity, truthfulness, clarity of compositions, harmony and proportionality of overall forms and all parts, in the plasticity of the organic connection between architecture and sculpture, in the close unity of architectural-aesthetic and structural-tectonic elements of buildings.
Ancient Greek architecture was distinguished by the complete correspondence of forms and their structural basis, which formed a single whole. The main structure is stone blocks from which the walls were laid. The columns and entablature (the ceiling lying on a support-column) were processed with various profiles, acquired decorative details, and were enriched with sculpture.
The Greeks brought the processing of architectural structures and all decorative details without exception to the highest degree of perfection and refinement. These structures can be called gigantic works of jewelry, in which there was nothing secondary for the master.
The architecture of Ancient Greece is closely connected with philosophy, because at its basis and at the basis of ancient Greek art were ideas about the strength and beauty of man, who was in close unity and harmonious balance with the surrounding natural and social environment, and since social life developed greatly in ancient Greece, architecture and art had a pronounced social character.
It was this unsurpassed perfection and organic nature that made the monuments of ancient Greek architecture models for subsequent eras.
The classic type of Greek temple was the peripterus, that is, a temple that had a rectangular shape with a gable roof and was surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade. The peripterus, in its main features, was already formed in the second half of the 7th century. BC. Further development of temple architecture proceeded mainly along the lines of improving the system of structures and proportions of the peripter.
1. The system of Greek orders and their origin
For many hundreds of years, Greek architects developed every building element. The result of their work was the creation of an order system, the main form of which is a column.
The column with all its parts, as well as the parts located above and below the column, form a single whole, and its construction is subject to a certain rule and order. Order was called the Latin word “ordo”. Hence the names order system, architectural order.
We learned about the order system from the scientific work of the Roman architect Vitruvius. He lived in the 1st century AD. e. When writing his treatise, Vitruvius used the works of Greek architects, which, unfortunately, have not reached us.
Megaron was the original architectural type in the development of the Greek temple.
Judging by the excavated fragments of buildings, the construction technology of the Homeric era is noticeably inferior to the Mycenaean and Cretan ones. The buildings were erected from clay or mud brick on foundations made of rubble, fastened with clay mortar; elongated in plan, they ended in a curved apse. In the 9th – 8th centuries. BC e. They began to use a wooden frame to strengthen the adobe building (the Temple of Artemis in Sparta), which contributed to the transition to rectangular plans. Clay model of a temple from the 8th century. BC e. indicates the development of a gable roof and the appearance of a ceiling and pediments; the pillars form an independent portico. Later, a portico appears around the entire temple, protecting the adobe walls from rain.
2.2 Architecture during the archaic period ( VII – VI century BC)
The archaic era (ancient era) is the era of the birth of class society. The development of trade and the discovery of new lands contributed to the formation of Greek settlements on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The annexation of new lands gave the Greeks the opportunity to become acquainted with the artistic culture of other peoples.
In the archaic era, a city was usually built around an acropolis hill, on top of which there was a sanctuary with a temple. At the foot of the acropolis there were residential areas. The houses were built spontaneously, the streets were crooked. Craftsmen of each profession settled in separate areas. The center of the lower city was the square, or agora,- a gathering place for townspeople to hold various meetings. In the archaic era, construction from stone began. With the emergence of new forms of society, various types of public buildings arose, but the main place was occupied by the construction of temples, the basis of which was the megaron. The temple closest to the megaron was called temple in anta. If a developed portico was attached to it, it was called prostyle, two porticos - amphiprostyle, and when the temple was surrounded by a single colonnade - peripter, double colonnade - dipter. The main types of temples that developed during this period are presented in Fig. 6.
Figure 6 (Types of Greek temples)
The main room of the temple was the naos, or cella. She represented
the oblong hall is the front part of the deity’s dwelling. In front of the cella there was a vestibule, in the depths of which there was a treasury where the city donated its wealth under the protection of the deity Temenos- a sacred site on which temples, open altars, and treasuries were located (usually they had the shape of a temple in anta). The site was surrounded by a fence with a monumental entrance - propylaea, a portico with a pediment that repeated the shape of the front facade of the temple.
Along with the temple, other types of public buildings arose. Bu-leuterium - house for the congregational meeting or joint council of the sanctuary. The plan of such a house had a square - a central hall, around which other rooms were located. Prytanius- a house with the sacred fire of the community. The house, square in plan, had a front entrance with a gate. Other types of public buildings included schools for the physical and general education of youth - palaestra and gymnasium.
The archaic era is notable for the fact that it was during this period that the order system mentioned above was created.
2.3 Ensemble of the Acropolis of Athens
The order system helped the Greek architects achieve the individuality of each building. Greek architects different countries, changing the sizes of architectural elements and the distances between them created unique masterpieces, skillfully using this system.
An example is the famous Acropolis of Athens - the greatest achievement of the architects of Ancient Hellas, which was created in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. Destroyed during the Persian invasions, the Acropolis was rebuilt on an unprecedented scale.
Being the embodiment of the civil unity of the city-state, the temple was placed in the center of the acropolis or city square, receiving clearly emphasized dominance in the architectural ensemble of the city. Therefore, although in the old sacred places(as, for example, in Delphi), often located at a far distance from cities, and new, more advanced temples were built, the type of temple itself developed, solving the problem of creating an architectural center of public life, capable of clearly expressing the spiritual and civil structure of the city-state.
Acropolis - (Greek akropolis, from akros - upper and polis - city), an elevated and fortified part of an ancient Greek city, a fortress, a refuge in case of war.
Even before the 5th century. The Acropolis was not a desert rock. Life has been going on here since the end of the 3rd century. BC. Even then, the elevation was a refuge for residents of the surrounding plains when attacked by enemies. In the 6th century BC. On the Acropolis there was a temple of Athena called Hekatompedon. It was located directly opposite the Propylaea and amazed the person who entered the Acropolis with its beauty. The placement of buildings dates back to the 6th century. BC. symmetry prevailed, which archaic masters often adhered to. The architectural forms of archaic temples are ponderous and severe. The columns seem to swell under the weight of the roof pressing on them. The severity was softened only by sculptural decorations.
All that remains of the buildings of that period are the foundations, and not all of them. This is explained by the fact that the buildings were destroyed during the Greco-Persian wars.
The entire second half of Vn. BC e. Construction was underway on the Acropolis. In 447, work began on the Parthenon. It was finished in rough form in 438 BC. e., and finishing continued until 434 BC. e. In 437 BC. e. laid out the Propylaea and completed it only in 432 BC. e., and around 425 BC. e. created a temple to Nika the Wingless. Before the Peloponnesian War, the colossus of Athena the Warrior was erected in front of the Propylaea on the Acropolis. In 421 BC. h. They began to build the Erechtheion and finished it in 407 BC. e. For almost half a century, construction was in full swing here, architects, sculptors, and artists worked, creating works of which humanity is proud after millennia.
His buildings are exquisite in proportion and harmoniously connected with the landscape. This ensemble, created under the general direction of Phidias, consists of a main entrance Propylaea(437–432 BC, architect Mnesicles), temple Athens Nike Apteros ("Wingless Victory")(449–420 BC, architect Kallikrates), the main temple of the Acropolis and Athens, the Parthenon (447–438 BC, architects Iktin and Kallikrates), the temple of Erechtheion (421–406 BC). (see Appendix 1)
In the arrangement of the temples of the Acropolis of the time of Pericles, architects dig out the symmetry that was typical of the archaic era. The buildings now gradually come into view of a person walking along the Acropolis. The Athenian, having passed the Propylaea, saw first of all not the facade of the temple, but the huge statue of Athena the Warrior. As he came closer to her, he ceased to perceive this colossus. All his attention was drawn to the Parthenon, which seemed to grow gradually to the right. The Erechtheion temple, located on the left, became especially clearly visible from the Parthenon.
Thus, it was possible to examine either the details of a nearby work, or an entirely different, distant monument. The attention of a person standing at the Propylaea at the entrance to the Acropolis could be occupied by the finishing of the architectural details of the ceremonial gates of the Acropolis. But he could also contemplate the huge statue of Athena, which stood in front of the Propylaea. The Erechtheion and Parthenon have not yet been revealed in all their beauty. Approaching the colossus of Athena and being at the pedestal of the statue, the Athenian could get carried away by examining its relief decorations, but from here he already saw the temple of Athena - the Parthenon - from a vantage point. The Erechtheion was still obscured for him by the pedestal of the Colossus of Athena and opened only completely at sea from the Parthenon, where either the details of the Parthenon or the entire Erechtheion could be viewed in the same way.
The change of artistic impressions and their gradual inclusion in human consciousness, the use of various forms and contrasts, when looking at details alternates with the perception of the whole structure - this principle was new in comparison with the simple comparison of monuments in archaic ensembles.
Propylaea
At the foot of the cliff, on the western side, the path to the Acropolis of Athens begins.
The first structure that is encountered on the way is the propylaea or entrance gate (440 - 432 BC). It is assumed that in the original plan the left and right sides of the Propylaea should have been the same and the entire building should have been symmetrical. But around 425 B.C. rose to the right of the gate Temple of the Goddess Nike, and this part of the propylaea was made somewhat smaller than the left one, as they strived for an overall balance of architectural volumes.
The Propylaea is the first structure where two different orders were applied. The Propylaea of the Acropolis had five openings (gates), with small six-columned halls and side structures on both sides. The middle opening was wider than the others.
The western portico, located on the side of the main approach to the Acropolis, is much more elaborately decorated than the others.
In the Propylaea, as in the Parthenon, the Doric and Ionic orders are combined. The solemnity and impressiveness of the external Doric columns was revealed to the eyes of a person approaching the Propylaea. But, entering under the roof of the gate, he found himself among the graceful and light Ionic ones. To smooth the transition from one order to another, the architect made square projections at the base of the Doric columns, reminiscent of bases. By introducing the Ionic order, Mnesical complicated and enriched the impression of the architectural image of the Propylaea. The different sizes of the Doric order columns - large in the center of the Propylaea and small in the side parts - also contribute to the variety.
On both sides of the western portico of the propylaea there were buildings with porticoes of unequal size: on the left, the larger one was an art gallery and on the right, the smaller one was the library.
Temple of Nike Apteros
In front of the short side of the propylaea of the library rises a small graceful temple, the smallest building on the Acropolis (architect Callicrates, 449-421 BC). Made in the Ionic style, this temple is dedicated to Nike Apteros - “Wingless Victory”. In Greece, the goddess of Victory was depicted with large wings: she is fickle, flies from one enemy to another. But the Athenians believed that they had become invincible, and so that Nike would never leave them, they depicted her as wingless.
Rising above the powerful fortress wall, the temple crowns it with its light proportions. Built in the Ionic order, it has four columns on the end sides and has blank side walls without colonnades. Placed at an angle to the Propylaea, it seems to turn slightly towards the gate, as if directing a person approaching the sacred hill towards it. Next to the Doric colonnade of the Propylaea, the Ionic Temple of Nike may seem too light. Therefore, some Doric features were introduced into the order of the temple. The ancient Greek masters were not afraid to deviate from the rules of the order, and if they thought it was necessary, they boldly introduced elements of another into one order. The interior of the temple is small. The walls inside may have been covered with paintings: the surface of the marble walls is unpolished and rough. This temple was destroyed during the Turkish rule in Greece, and only later was it restored.
The outside of the temple is decorated with a low frieze made of Pentellian marble, the short parts of which show the gods of Olympus, and the long parts show scenes of battles with the Persians. The eastern part of the frieze depicts solemn and calm gods. Above the columns there are mostly standing figures, and between them the gods are sitting or slightly bending; the composition of the frieze is related to the architecture of the structure, as in other buildings of the Acropolis.
Parthenon
A little to the right of the statue, at a short distance, in honor of the goddess Athena, the patroness of the city, the architects Iktinos and Callicrates built a majestic marble temple - the Parthenon. The temple took 9 years to build. Construction began in 477 BC. e., but only in 432 BC. e. The consecration of the temple took place. The temple was built on the site of the Parthenon, destroyed by the Persians in the archaic era. The old temple had the same length, but its width was smaller; it was made of tuff. The Parthenon occupied the very top part of the Acropolis, being the central structure of the entire ensemble. From distant points of the city, residents saw the silhouette of a temple that towered over the city. The Parthenon crowns the Acropolis. The logically clear architectural forms of the temple are not only contrasted with the wild slopes of the rock, but are also connected with them into artistic unity.
Researchers of ancient Greek architecture often drew attention to the fact that in the works of Hellenic architects the principle, or rule, of the “golden section” was often used. A segment is considered divided according to the law of the “golden ratio” if its length is related to its larger part as the larger part is to the smaller one. A segment whose value is 1 is divided in the “golden ratio”, when the parts are equal to approximately 0.618 and 0.382. It was considered harmonious and beautiful to give structures the proportions of the “golden section”.
The relationship between the sizes of the Parthenon and the Acropolis Hill is not accidental. The dimensions of the temple are determined by the size of the rock. The ancient architects, in addition, placed the Parthenon on the Acropolis in the most artistically advantageous place, so that the size of the temple and the rock are perceived to be consistent when viewed from a distance.
The Parthenon is the largest temple in the ensemble of the Acropolis and the entire Greek metropolis. Inside it has two large halls - rectangular and square, the entrances to which were located on opposite sides. The eastern rectangular hall with a statue of Athena in the back was divided into three parts by two-tiered colonnades of the Doric order. The square hall served as a treasury and was called the Parthenon.
The type of Greek temple, which many generations worked on to create, received its most perfect interpretation in the Parthenon. In its basic forms it is a Doric peripterus with eight columns on the short sides and seventeen on the long sides. The Doric order in the Parthenon is not as severe as in archaic temples. It is softened by the introduction of some elements into the architecture graceful Ionic order. Behind the outer colonnade, on the top of the temple wall, you can see a continuous relief strip depicting the solemn procession of the Athenians. A continuous figured frieze - zophorus - belongs to the Ionic order, and, nevertheless, it was introduced into the architecture of the Doric Parthenon, where there should have been a frieze with triglyphs and metopes. It is noteworthy that under the band of this relief one can see small shelves with projections, such as are usually placed under the triglyphs of the Doric order.
It organically includes elements of the Ionic order: elongated columns, a lightweight entablature, a continuous frieze encircling the building, made of squares of Pentelic marble.
The Parthenon is internally divided into eastern and western parts. In the western one, called the Parthenon itself, was the treasury of the Athenians. In the eastern, larger room there was a statue of Athena Parthenos.
Optical distortion at the Parthenon
Ancient Greek architects skillfully combined their buildings with the landscape, harmoniously “fitting” them into the surrounding nature.
The connection between the Parthenon and nature was expressed not only in the proportional relationship between the temple and the hill. Greek architects and sculptors saw that distant objects or their parts seemed smaller, and knew how to correct optical distortions.
Careful architectural measurements of the Parthenon showed that its lines are not straight and its surfaces are not flat, but slightly curved. Ancient architects knew that a strictly horizontal line and a flat surface from a distance appear to bend in the middle. They sought to somehow correct and change this impression. Therefore, for example, the surface of the steps of the Parthenon gradually, almost imperceptibly, rises from the edges to the center. The columns of the Parthenon are also not strictly vertical, but slightly inclined into the building. The axes of the corner columns, when mentally continuing them, must intersect each other at a great height. This eliminated the effect of that optical illusion in which a series of vertical lines seem to expand slightly upward.
It is also noteworthy that the columns of the Parthenon are not all the same thickness. The corner ones are made thicker than the others, since, silhouetted against a light background, they should appear somewhat thinner. Later, the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius said that the corner columns were “absorbed by the surrounding light.” One of the Greek treatises notes that “the cylinder seems compressed in the middle” and it is necessary to thicken it slightly to avoid this impression. It is possible that this also explains entasis - the thickening of Greek columns.
Knowing the effect of optical distortion, the Greeks used it to achieve the desired effect. Thus, the columns of the second inner row of the Parthenon portico are smaller than the outer columns, and it seems that they stand further and the portico is deeper than it actually is.
Deviations from horizontals and verticals are almost invisible. Nevertheless, they are important, as they give the temple integrity and composure. All lines visible to the eye are connected to each other; there are none that do not intersect and seem alienated from each other. Like the plastic human body, it is probably impossible to find a straight line in the Parthenon. The most complex structure made of huge amount building blocks and parts are not perceived, therefore, as a “constructed” building made up of individual elements, but it seems to be a “living”, plastic organism, like the beautiful athletes embodied in Greek sculpture.
Marble is a material that helps this impression. By the time the Parthenon was built, the Greeks had long known and appreciated this wonderful stone, understanding how well marble captures light and, absorbing it, glows with its surface, resembling the tenderness of human tissue.
Before the Parthenon, temples were built mainly from rough porous stone - limestone, which, after construction was completed, was covered with a layer of marble plaster. The Parthenon is all marble. Naturally, some of its parts were made of wood; metal was also used to fasten marble blocks; the main material was marble.
Not far from Athens, in the Pentelikon mountains, deposits of good white marble were found. The smallest ferrous particles contained in it appeared on the surface after processing. When they came into contact with air moisture, they gradually oxidized and formed a uniform layer, and sometimes spots of a beautiful, golden patina. The snow-white, coldish stone became warm, saturated with the sun, as if absorbing the moisture of the air. This ability of processed marble to react to light and to the surrounding air strengthened the building’s connection with nature.
Erechtheion Temple
The lightness of its forms, the special sophistication of decorative decoration and the complexity of the composition, the small Erechtheion contrasts with the strict and majestic, emphatically monumental Parthenon, which is a Doric peripterus.
The place where the Erechtheion was built was not chosen by chance. It was determined in advance. It was believed that it was here that Poseidon struck with his trident and carved out a stream, and Athena planted an olive tree. The architect was faced with the difficult task of constructing a building on a site with a strong slope. It was not possible to carry out large planning work and level the site for the Erechtheion, since at that time the burdensome Peloponnesian War was going on. The premises of the Erechtheion therefore have different levels.
The location of the Erechtheion is nevertheless successful in the ensemble of the Acropolis. Indeed, if in the western part of the Acropolis the heavier part of the Propylaea is located on the left, and the light Temple of Nike is on the right, then in the eastern part of the hill the weight is transferred to the right side, protruding into the volume of the Parthenon, and the graceful and lighter Ionic Erechtheion is on the left. The harmonic distribution of masses, the balance of architectural volumes with general asymmetry is not perceived immediately, but gradually, when moving along the Acropolis.
The layout of the Erechtheion takes into account the unevenness of the ground. The temple consists of two rooms located on different levels. WITH three sides it has porticoes of various shapes, including the famous portico of the kor (caryatids) on the south wall (see Appendix 1).
The Erechtheion is very different from the Parthenon. Next to the Doric order of the Temple of Athena the Virgin, the Ionic order of the Erechtheion is perceived as small, although it is a rather large temple in absolute size. Near the strict columns of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion with its rich ornamental decoration seems especially elegant.
Looking at the Parthenon from one point, from a corner, gives an idea of the entire temple. In contrast, the complex and asymmetrical Erechtheion must be walked around on all sides to appreciate the richness of its architectural forms. This is why it was obviously impossible to go to the northern entrance to the Erechtheion directly from the Propylaea. The architect seemed to force the person to walk around the temple.
The architecture of the Erechtheion is dominated by the principle of contrast. Shaded porticoes are juxtaposed with smooth walls. The white marble of the temple is contrasted with the purple marble of the frieze. Massive bases are combined with light columns. The large surfaces of the steps are perceived next to the complex pattern on the bases of the columns.
The Erechtheion faces the Acropolis square on the south side with a portico, the roof of which is supported by six caryatids, three caryatids resting on the left leg, three on the right. It would seem that the symmetry is clearly and infallibly maintained here. But, looking closely at the marble sculptures of the girls, you see how different they are. The folds of their clothes not only outline strong, beautiful figures, but reveal the degree of tension of each girl. The caryatids calmly, without excessive effort, carry the heavy roof of the portico. Their burden is for them And not heavy And not too easy. They perceive the load extremely naturally. Classical harmony lives in each of these statues, in their beautiful clothes and elegant hairstyles. The stripes, tightly braided at the head, gradually unravel and flow freely down the backs. The master is not trying to deceive the viewer by making him believe that in front of him is not a stone, but hair. It preserves the texture of marble. But the relationships of hair density - tightly braided, loosely braided and loose - are accurately conveyed by the differences in marble surfaces, and this evokes the feeling of almost real hair.
To the right of the portico of the caryatids, rich in light and shadow contrasts, on the dark surface of which the illuminated figures of girls emerge, the calm surface of a large wall protrudes. Only at first glance does it seem massive and monotonous. In fact, this wall, made of large beautiful blocks of marble, has a kind of small pedestal at the bottom, decorated with a relief ornament, and at the top there is a belt with a pattern carved in damask. The decorative completions of the wall at the top and bottom are respectively at the level of the capitals and bases of the columns of the eastern portico. The wall is thus subordinated to the order system of the entire temple.
The interior layout of the Erechtheion is complex. In the eastern part, behind the threshold of the sanctuary of Athena, there was a room with an ancient wooden statue of the goddess, in front of which stood a golden lamp with an unquenchable fire. Next were the sanctuaries of Erechtheus and Poseidon. Their walls are believed to have been decorated with picturesque images.
In contrast to the flat eastern portico, the northern one is made deep so that a dense shadow is created under its roof, on which the light marble columns would appear. Otherwise, they would not be noticeable from the distance below from the city. The northern portico is especially well decorated. Its ceiling is divided into beautiful square recesses that lighten the weight.
Ionic columns stand on richly ornamented bases and bear ornate capitals. The door leading to the temple is especially beautiful with its decorative patterns. The elegance of the decoration of the Erechtheion sets off the restrained grandeur of the Parthenon. Much attention was paid to the decoration of the Erechtheion. Orders for the production of decorative patterns were given to various artists so that there were no repetitions.
Conclusion
Thus, in the course of the work, we found out that in Greek architecture the order represents a special type of architectural composition, the characteristic features of which are tripartite (stereobat, columns and entablature), a clear division of parts into supporting and load-bearing, increasing complexity of construction from the bottom up. The order arose as an important element of the architecture of a public building.
The simplest and oldest type of stone archaic temple was the so-called “temple in the antas”. It consisted of one small room - a naos, open to the east. On its façade, between the antas, i.e., the projections of the side walls, two columns were placed. In all this, the “temple in the antas” was close to the ancient megaron. As the main building of the polis, the “temple in the antas” was of little use: it was very closed and designed to be perceived only from the facade. Therefore, he later, especially in the 6th century. BC e., was used most often for small structures.
A more advanced type of temple was the prostyle, on the front facade of which four columns were placed. In the amphiprostyle, a colonnade decorated both the front and rear facades, where there was an entrance to the treasury.
The classic type of Greek temple was the peripterus, that is, a temple that had a rectangular shape and was surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade.
The development of the peripterus and other types of temples in the archaic and classical eras gives the most vivid idea of changes in the order composition and the formation of the characteristic features of Greek architecture. Of exceptional importance for the subsequent development of world architecture are the principles of architectural and planning solutions in Greece, expressed most fully in ensembles.
Thus, in the ensemble of the Athens Acropolis, asymmetry is combined with a harmonious balance of masses, the interaction of individual structures with each other is thought out and the consistency in the perception of buildings outside and inside the complex is taken into account, the architects thought out the close connection of this architectural structure with the surrounding landscape. The Acropolis of Athens (“upper city”) is an elongated natural rock with a flat top. Its dimensions are about 300 m in length and 130 m in width. The ensemble is based on two sequential principles that ancient Greek architecture followed: the harmonious balance of masses and the perception of architecture in the process of its gradual, “dynamic” development.
The thoughtful composition of the entire ensemble, perfectly found general proportions, a flexible combination of various orders, the finest modeling of architectural details and their unusually accurate drawing, the close relationship between architecture and sculptural decoration make the buildings of the Acropolis the highest achievement of ancient Greek architecture.
The ancient Greek masters were not afraid to deviate from the rules of the order, and if they thought it was necessary, they boldly introduced elements of another into one order.
The Greek order system was not an abstract stencil, mechanically repeated in each successive decision. The order was exactly common system rules based on the general solution method. The solution itself was always of a creative, individual nature and was consistent not only with the specific tasks and goals of construction, but also with the surrounding nature, and during the classical period - with other buildings of the architectural ensemble. Each temple was created specifically for these conditions, for this place. Hence the feeling of artistic uniqueness that Greek temples evoke in the viewer.
In the architecture of Ancient Greece, the functional, technical, and aesthetic principles “usefulness, strength, beauty” are interconnected. The purpose and functions of the architectural structures of Hellas determine their plan and volumetric-spatial structure.
The figurative and aesthetic origin of the architecture of Ancient Greece is connected with its social function and is manifested in the formation of the volumetric-spatial and constructive structure of architectural structures.
The expressive means of architecture of Ancient Greece (Hellas) - composition, tectonics, scale, proportions, rhythm, plasticity of volumes, texture and color of materials created a unique synthesis of arts that distinguishes the architecture of Ancient Greece from other architectural styles.
Applications e
Temple of Athia Nika Apteros
Portico of the Caryatids in the Erechtheion Temple
Parthenon Temple
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Members of the group "Name of God"
Group Research Topic
"Name of the Gods"
Problematic question (research question)
What gods were Greek temples dedicated to?
Objectives of the study
1. Find out which gods are the ancient Greek temples?
2. Explain why the Parthenon is considered the most perfect temple of the Doric order?
3. List what characteristic classical features did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have?
Results of the study
1. The ancient Greek religion, like the Egyptian and many other religions of the world, was characterized by a local character of development. Those. in various places in Greece their own deities were revered, often associated with local relief features or personifying them, on which the lives of believers depended: thus in Psofida they worshiped the local river Erymanthos, to which the temple was dedicated; in Orkhomenes - the sacred stones, as if they had once fallen from the sky, on Mount Ankhesme, Zeus Ankhesmius was revered, Zeus Laphistius - the personification of Mount Laphistion. Each locality or city had its own patron patron. This cult was of a state nature. Moreover, this cult was very strict: in general one could be skeptical about the gods, the Greek religion did not know generally binding dogmas, but one could not shirk the duties of rituals in honor of the patron god, one could not show disrespect for him. Violation of this law was punishable by severe punishment.
Of the many local gods, over time, some images merged into single pan-Greek deities, for example, Zeus Laphistius, Zeus Croceat, the cult of Zeus in Crete and Thessaly, grew into the cult of Zeus - as the supreme god, “the father of gods and people.” The very name Zeus means shining sky and goes back to a common Indo-European root (Dyaus among the Indians, Tiu among the Germans). The name Zeus had about 50 epithets indicating his functions: underground, i.e. ensures fertility, rain-bearer, all-begetter, ruler of destinies, etc.
The image of Hera, the main goddess, the wife of Zeus, grew out of the image of the cow goddess, the patroness of Mycenae. Poseidon was the ancient sea deity of Pelaponesse. The cult of Poseidon, having absorbed a number of local cults, became the god of the sea and the patron of horses. Athena is an ancient deity - the patroness of cities and city fortifications. Her other name is Pallas, also an epithet meaning “Shaker of the Spear.” According to classical mythology, Athena acts as a warrior goddess; she was depicted in full armor. The goddess Artemis is one of the most revered deities by the Greeks. It is usually believed that the cult of Artemis originated in Asia Minor, where she was considered the patroness of fertility. In classical mythology, Artemis appears as a virgin huntress goddess, usually with her companion, a doe. An extremely complex and unclear image is represented by Apollo, who had a very prominent place in Greek mythology and religion. In Pelaponesse, Apollo was considered a shepherd deity. Near Thebes, Apollo Ismenias was revered: this epithet is the name of a local river, which was once deified by the inhabitants. Apollo later became one of the most popular gods in Greece. He is considered the embodiment of the national spirit. The main functions of Apollo: divination of the future, patronage of the sciences and arts, healing, cleansing from all filth, the deity of light, a correct, orderly world order. The healer god Axlepius developed on purely Greek soil. The god of the shepherds, Pan, was of Arcadian origin. The Asia Minor goddess of fertility, Aphrodite, became the goddess of beauty, love, and an idealized personification of femininity among the Greeks. Ares, borrowed from the Franks, became the frantic gods of war. Further: Demeter is the goddess of fertility, Hephaestus is the personification of earthly fire and blacksmithing, Hestia is also the personification of fire, only at home, the deity of the family hearth, Hermes is the patron of roads and travelers, the god of trade. Some of the Greek gods are more or less abstract images - personifications of individual abstract concepts: Plutos - the direct personification of wealth, Nemesis - the goddess of retribution, Themis - the goddess of justice, Moira - the goddess of fate, Nike - the goddess of victory, and these are not all the deities of the Greeks.
Cosmogonic themes did not occupy a prominent place in folk beliefs. The idea of a creator god was absent in this religion. According to Hesiod, from Chaos were born Earth, Darkness, Night, and then Light, Ether, Day, Sky, Sea and other great forces of nature. From Heaven and Earth the older generation of gods was born, and from them Zeus and other Olympian gods.
There was no central cult in Greece, but on the basis of cultural community, some cult centers acquired broad, pan-Greek significance. The sanctuaries of Apollo in Delphi, Zeus in Olympia, Demeter in Epidaurus and others became widely known and were revered throughout Greece. In general, the religion of Greece was disunited, although more or less stable.
2. The temple is a peripterus of the Doric order of 46 columns (8 on the main facade and 17 on the side ones). The Parthenon is an example of the Doric order! Ideally measured proportions Doric order, which appeared at the beginning of the 6th century. BC, can be considered fundamental in the development of Greek architecture. The strict and solemnly monumental Doric order, which appeared at the beginning of the 6th century. BC e., consists of the following parts:
three-stage base - stereobat;
load-bearing column. Vertically, the column trunk was divided by flutes (vertical grooves) with sharp edges. The column ends with a capital consisting of an echina (a flattened pillow) and an abacus (a tetrahedral slab.)
the supporting part is an entablature, including an architrave (a horizontal beam lying on columns), a frieze with alternating triglyphs (a slab with vertical grooves) and metopes (a slab made of stone or ceramics decorated with relief or painting) and a cornice.
3. In contrast to the archaic with its predilection for rigid symmetry, the picturesque panorama of the classics set a sublimely solemn mood. To the left of the central axis of the Propylaea, on the flat plateau of the hill, stood the seventeen-meter colossus of Athena Promachos (Warrior) made of gilded bronze. To the right, the architects Ictinus and Kallikrates erected the Parthenon (447–438 BC) as a symbol of the victory of Greek democracy over eastern despotism, dedicating it to Athena Parthenos (Virgin). At the same time, the temple symbolized the triumph of the organizing, light principles of religion over its chthonic, unbridled sources. This was evidenced by the relief on the Doric metopes and the Ionic frieze that followed the colonnade along the top of the cella. The east pediment was decorated sculptural compositions on the theme of the birth of Athena 6; western - her dispute with Poseidon7 for power over Attica*. The roof was crowned with stylized lotus petals at the corners. The snow-white mass of the temple made of Pentellian marble, which has the property of acquiring a golden patina of extraordinary beauty over time, emerges against the background blue sky. Transparent air and bright sunlight wash the outer colonnades in a radiant stream, pouring into the open space of the cella, dissolving the marble volumes.
Conclusion
The peoples of Ancient Greece made many discoveries, created many magnificent works art, architecture, literature, which are still interesting to us, attracting, beckoning, teaching, giving the best examples of art and morality.