What thoughts, what concepts come to your mind first when you think about photographic composition? Many will say: balance in the frame, the rule of thirds, rhythm, leading lines... Yes, all this is true. All this affects the composition of the frame. It all works and works great. But not only that! There is also foreshortening, perspective, the relationship of tones, colors, contrasts... The photographer needs to know all this and be sure to study composition, the laws of constructing an image on a plane. Those who have recently decided to seriously engage in photography, who have just come to photography and are still discovering it for themselves, getting acquainted with the rules and laws of composition, sometimes cannot even imagine how many interesting things this most interesting art includes. The laws of composition are much deeper than it might seem at first glance. But when starting to study composition, there is no need to worry at all. It's not that difficult. Just gradually getting acquainted with its laws, mastering them, you need to train. How? As the famous movie character used to say, “Elementary. Watson! Take more photos! Fortunately, current technology allows you to take a lot of photographs. Today there is practically no need for photographic film and expensive consumables.
Today we decided to talk to you about geometry in composition. Yes, yes! Don't be surprised! Geometry is one of the most important aspects of composition. And in this article we will try to prove this to you.
The majority of people who have a camera, without thinking about it, unconsciously use their knowledge of geometry when taking photographs, introducing various geometric shapes into a given frame. Don't believe me? Read the article further - and you will see that we are right. I would like to think that the information presented just below will give you an impetus to further develop your mastery of composition, to further improve your skills in photography.
Rectangles
Using photographs of these, perhaps the most popular figures in geometry, in a composition is akin to using the rule of thirds. But, unlike this well-known rule, the frame is divided not into three imaginary equal parts, but into imaginary rectangles of various sizes. Just look at this photo. The bottom of the photo, the bank and the grass, form a horizontal rectangle. A left side picture, where the large blue spot of the water surface is a vertical rectangle. These two rectangles in the composition of the photo very well highlight the lantern standing on the shore. It looks like an isolated, independent object.
Circles
Circles have their own energy. They seem to concentrate a certain energy in themselves, and thereby direct the viewer’s gaze into the depths of the frame. In order to create an effective composition, experienced photographers and good artists Often they use not only circles, but also semicircles. This photo, which we gave as an example, shows this very well. The circles in her composition concentrate the attention of the viewer and gradually lead him to the main thing in the frame - to the consideration of the beautiful mountain peaks in the distance.
Triangles
The triangle is perhaps the most frequently encountered geometric element in the composition of any image on a plane. Look carefully at least at your own photographs. Please note: triangles are everywhere! They are literally scattered throughout your photos! Here's an example for you - the most ordinary mountain landscape. The triangles in this photograph create an imaginary, but completely natural path that leads the viewer's eye from the hedge in the foreground towards the mountains themselves. And the mountains themselves, look closely, also have the shape of a triangle!
Polygons
Looking through the camera viewfinder, most photographers, especially beginners, hardly think that right now, mentally working on the composition of the future frame, they will imagine some kind of polygons. But then, when they see their pictures on the monitor screen, they will be very, very surprised: there will be a huge number of polygons on them! They are what give photographs their visual meaning. Pay attention to these pictures. They clearly show that geometric polygons appear in the plane of the frame not only due to the shape of the subjects themselves. They are also clearly visible due to the contrast of individual areas, due to light spots and shadows.
Squares
The square is considered an ideal figure not only in geometry, but also in fine art in general. Remember, at least, the famous “Black Square” by Kazimir Malevich. And for photography a square - perfect shape. Look at this illustration. The main subject of the photo fits easily and naturally into the square. And this square, in turn, is in perfect harmony with other squares - squares formed from books and bookshelves in the background.
Arches
Arches, in their manifestation in the composition of constructing an image on a plane, in some way repeat the “work” of circles. But, unlike circles, arches are more of a background element than an independent geometric shape. In this photograph, for example, a woman’s hands holding a rose and folded in the shape of a heart form three arches! And these imaginary arches form, as it were, a frame framing a beautiful and delicate flower.
Converging and parallel lines
Any experienced photographer or artist will tell you that using various types of lines correctly in a composition can be very difficult. However, it is quite possible. Both converging and parallel lines can, and even moreover, should be effectively used in the composition of the frame! Such lines work especially effectively when composing a background. Look at this photo. It is easy to see both converging and parallel lines. They very well direct the viewer's gaze to the main subject of the photograph - to the person sitting on the grass. Plus, these lines visually seem to be reflected from each other.
Attitude and balance of space
If you want to add to your photo works make more sense, in some way increase their emotional impact on the viewer, then try to understand the understanding of space. In some cases, compositionally photographs may be quite simple at first glance. Like these, for example. What's most important here? Right. The viewer’s proximity to the bench shown by the author and the presence of space, or rather even emptiness, directly behind it. This kind of compositional construction of a frame allows the viewer to mentally, at the subconscious level, recreate in his mind the history of this plot, based on his experiences, on his personal experience, on your emotions.
Take your time to understand everything that we told you about today. Try to understand how geometric elements influence the composition of an image on a plane. This understanding may not come to you right away. But it's not scary at all. The main thing is that it seems to us that we, so to speak, have sown our seed. You just have to wait for the shoots first, and after a while the fruits.
Photography is what painting, composition, plastic rhythm, geometry become, placed in a matter of seconds (Henri Cartier-Bresson).
When we think about compositions in photography, the first thing that comes to mind is the rule of thirds...
But there is another important element in the composition - geometry. Geometry in photography refers to simple shapes such as square, triangle, circle, straight and curved lines.
Geometric objects are usually auxiliary, they enhance perception and can combine individual elements of a photograph into a single whole. By choosing one or another geometric shape in a photograph, the author can in advance focus the attention of the future viewer on certain areas of it. It has been established, for example, that the corners of a square turn out to be very active zones, and for a circle or oval it is the center. It is no coincidence that since ancient times there has been a tradition of portraits in an oval. The angles did not distract attention from the main thing - the image of the face. The most common and most versatile geometric tool is lines. Read more about them in our separate section.
In fact, any environmental object can be compared to any geometric figure, but they all awaken different emotions and feelings in the viewer. Simple geometric shapes, such as a circle and a square, are recorded much faster by our eyes and perceived by the brain, and therefore are remembered better than complex and irregular ones. In general, there are three basic figures. This rectangle, triangle and circle. Everything else - oval, square, trapezoid, ellipse, rhombus - are just their variations. They are all different both graphically and (don't be surprised) emotionally.
SQUARE IN COMPOSITION
The square is the most stable, complete form, ready to evoke affirming images. It is associated with concepts such as order, stability, reliability, strength. At the same time, the square is perceived as somewhat mundane and ponderous.
Photo: Robertino Nikolic. “Light plays with geometry or geometry with light?”Winner of the Black & White Spider Awards, 2007.
Photo: Alma (source - 1510.deviantart.com)
RECTANGLE IN COMPOSITION
A rectangle located with its larger side horizontally evokes a feeling of stability, peace, and solidity.
It looks especially harmonious if it is made in the proportions of the “golden section”. A rectangle, located with its larger side along the vertical, creates a feeling of lightness and airiness.
TRIANGLE IN COMPOSITION
Triangle is the most common shape found in nature. The triangle is the most dynamic, unstable shape, which is associated with movement, development, and speed. In the “top up” position it evokes images of stability, stability (pyramid). Several triangles - positive dynamic movement. In the “top down” position - shaky balance, balancing. Unlike a rectangle, the sides do not oppose each other, but change the direction of development. This can be used to create specific images. The triangle naturally introduces a sense of spatial depth into the composition.
CIRCLE IN COMPOSITION
In the form of a circle, more than any other, the idea of nature, earth, and the universe is expressed. Circles abound both in nature and in the world of man-made objects. Therefore, such concepts as “good”, “life”, “happiness”, “prosperity” are associated with this form. This shape directs the eye into the frame. The circle is associated with something light, airy and at the same time balanced. But, unlike a square, this equilibrium is closer to the physical concept of “unstable equilibrium.” Circles are the most pleasing shapes to the eye that can be safely used in the frame. They immediately attract the viewer's attention and, thanks to their perfect symmetry, bring harmony to the image. Since the circle has no corners, it contrasts nicely with the rectangular edge of the frame.
Like a triangle, a circle is a very effective geometric figure that can be usefully used in the composition of a shot, albeit with a different meaning. Unlike diagonals, which charge the frame with dynamics and tension, curved lines create harmony. Thus, you can create expressive and informative compositions based on simple geometric shapes Oh.
Geometric objects can be divided into three groups according to their functions: guide lines, space dividers and framing. Space dividers divide the photo into separate zones that carry their own meaning, but work together to create a single composition. An example of the simplest space separator is the horizon line separating the sky from the surface of the sea. Triangles look very good as a space divider, but elements such as diagonals and open lines can also be confidently used.
Framing has the function of attracting the viewer's gaze and focusing it on the main object. Doorways, arches, and windows work well as framing elements. In addition, natural elements, such as tree branches, do an excellent job of this function. It is important that the frame is present on at least two sides of the photo and is done in a calm tone, preferably darker than the main object, so as not to distract the viewer. The framing element should have an interesting color, shape, texture or other noteworthy characteristics, but it is worth remembering that framing elements should guide, not distract. Triangles or arches work especially well in this regard. The arch can create an interesting dynamic composition.
Try, experiment and don’t forget that in one shot you can use several geometric shapes at once to build a composition.
The perspective of the composition is carried out according to individual instructions. Number individual assignment corresponds to the serial number according to the list in the group journal. Individual tasks in table No. 3
Table No.
|
№Option |
Parallelepiped |
Pyramid |
Cone |
Cylinder |
|
|
Т=10, =60, AB=80, AE=40, | |||||
|
T=20, =55, | |||||
|
T=10, =60, | |||||
|
T=10, =50, | |||||
|
T=10, =50, | |||||
|
T=20, =60, | |||||
|
T=40, =50, | |||||
|
T=20, =50, | |||||
|
T=30, =50, | |||||
|
T=10, =60, | |||||
|
T=25, =55, | |||||
|
T=15, =60, | |||||
|
T=20, =50, | |||||
|
T=10, =50, | |||||
|
T=10, =55, | |||||
|
T=10, =50, | |||||
|
T=30, =55, | |||||
|
T=15, =60, | |||||
|
T=40, =50, | |||||
Instructions for completing SHEET 1
Before making a perspective image of a composition of geometric bodies, you must first draw up the composition itself, that is, determine the relative position of the objects, their position relative to the main line of the picture, and the distance from the plane of the picture. Depending on the composition you have created, you can choose the position of the point of view (height of the point of view and distance). The point of view distance is chosen equal to one size of the composition. The height of the point of view is chosen to be either slightly lower or slightly higher than the height of the tallest object.
The individual task determines the shape of the objects, their size, the angle of rotation to the picture plane, and the distance from the picture plane. It is required to build a perspective composition of faceted bodies, one of which is located frontally in relation to the picture plane, the other - with given angle rotation to the picture and one body of rotation.
When making a perspective image of a composition of geometric bodies, it makes sense to carry out preparatory work - to build a plan for the future composition. You can simply draw this plan or, by cutting out the contours of the plans of geometric bodies from paper and moving them along the plane, you can choose the best compositional solution, as well as determine the position of objects on the object plane and the distance between them. This will determine the overall overall size of the composition, which will determine the position of the height of the point of view, and the distance (the distance from the observer to the picture).
An example of SHEET 1 - a perspective image of a composition of geometric bodies is shown on ( rice. 91)
Interior perspective
The interior is the internal view of the room as a whole or its individual parts. In the practice of building interiors, various ways of depicting interiors are known, depending on the task that the artist sets for himself. This manual discusses one of the ways to build an interior using perspective scales. Depending on the location of the walls of the room relative to the painting, the image of the interior can be frontal or angular. If one of the walls of the room is located parallel to the picture, then such an image is called a frontal perspective of the interior. If the walls of the room are at an angle to the picture plane, then such an image is called an angular perspective of the interior.
MBOUDO Irkutsk CDT
Methodical manual
Drawing of geometric bodies
Additional education teacher
Kuznetsova Larisa Ivanovna
Irkutsk 2016
This manual “Drawing of Geometric Solids” is intended for teachers working with school-age children. From 7 to 17 years. Can be used both when working in additional education, and in the drawing course at school. The manual is compiled on the basis of the author's textbook "Drawing of geometric bodies" intended for first-year students of the specialty Decorative and Applied Arts and Folk Crafts and Design (not published).
Drawing of geometric bodies is introductory material when teaching drawing. The introduction reveals the terms and concepts used in drawing, the concepts of perspective, and the order of drawing work. Using the material presented, you can study the required material, teach children, and analyze their practical work. Illustrations can be used both for your own deeper understanding of the topic, and in the lesson as visual material.
The purpose of teaching drawing from life is to instill in children the basics of visual literacy, teaching them to realistically depict nature, i.e., understanding and depicting a three-dimensional shape on the plane of a sheet. The main form of training is drawing from a still nature. It teaches how to correctly convey visible objects, their features, properties, and gives children the necessary theoretical knowledge and practical skills.
Objectives of learning drawing from life:
Instill the skills of consistent work on a drawing according to the principle: from general to specific
Introduce the basics of observational, i.e. visual perspective, the concept of light and shadow relationships
Develop technical drawing skills.
In drawing classes, work is carried out to develop a set of qualities necessary for an artist:
- “position of the eye”
Development of “steady hand”
The ability to “see completely”
The ability to observe and remember what you see
The sharpness and accuracy of the eye gauge, etc.
This manual examines in detail one of the first topics of drawing from life - “Drawing of geometric bodies”, allowing you to study in detail the shape, proportions, structural structure, spatial relationships, perspective reductions of geometric bodies and the transfer of their volume using light-and-shadow relationships. Educational tasks are considered - layout on a sheet of paper; construction of objects, transfer of proportions; from end-to-end drawing to the transmission of volume in tone, the shape of objects to reveal light, penumbra, shadow, reflex, highlight, complete tonal solution.
Introduction
Drawing from life
Drawing is not only an independent form of fine art, but also the basis for painting, engraving, posters, arts and crafts and other arts. With the help of a drawing, the first thought of the future work is fixed.
The laws and rules of drawing are learned as a result of a conscious attitude towards working from life. Every touch of pencil to paper must be thought out and justified by a feeling and understanding of the real form.
An educational drawing should perhaps give a more complete idea of nature, its shape, plasticity, proportions and structure. It should be considered, first of all, as a cognitive moment in learning. In addition, knowledge of the characteristics of our visual perception is necessary. Without this, it is impossible to understand why the objects around us in many cases do not appear to us as they really are: parallel lines seem to converge, right angles are perceived as acute or obtuse, a circle sometimes looks like an ellipse; a pencil is larger than a house, and so on.
Perspective not only explains the mentioned optical phenomena, but also equips the painter with techniques for spatially depicting objects in all rotations, positions, as well as at various degrees of distance from him.
Three-dimensionality, volume, shape
Every object is defined by three dimensions: length, width and height. Its volume should be understood as its three-dimensional value, limited by surfaces; under the form - the appearance, the external outlines of the object.
Fine art mainly deals with three-dimensional form. Consequently, when drawing, one should be guided by the volumetric form, feel it, and subordinate it to all the methods and techniques of drawing. Even when depicting the simplest bodies, it is necessary to develop this sense of form in children. For example, when drawing a cube, you cannot depict only its visible sides, without taking into account the sides hidden from view. Without imagining them, it is impossible to either build or draw a given cube. Without a sense of the entire form as a whole, the depicted objects will appear flat.
For better understanding forms, before starting to draw, it is necessary to consider the nature from various angles. The painter is advised to observe the form from different points, but draw from one. Having mastered the main rules of drawing on the simplest objects - geometric bodies - in the future it will be possible to move on to drawing from life, which is more complex in its design.
The design, or structure, of an object means the relative arrangement and connection of its parts. The concept of “design” is applicable to all objects created by nature and human hands, from the simplest household items to complex forms. The drawer must be able to find patterns in the structure of objects and understand their shape.
This ability develops gradually in the process of drawing from life. The study of geometric bodies and objects that are close to them in their form, and then objects that are more complex in their structure, obliges those who draw to consciously approach drawing and to identify the nature of the design of the depicted nature. So, the lid seems to consist of a spherical and cylindrical neck, the funnel is a truncated cone, etc.
Line
A line, or a line drawn on the surface of a sheet, is one of the main elements of a drawing. Depending on the purpose, it may have a different character.
It can be flat and monotonous. In this form, it mainly has an auxiliary purpose (this is placing a drawing on a sheet of paper, sketching the general outline of nature, indicating proportions, etc.).
The line can also have a spatial character, which the drawer masters as he studies the form under lighting and environmental conditions. The essence and meaning of a spatial line is most easily understood by observing the master’s pencil in the process of his work: the line either strengthens or weakens or disappears completely, merging with environment; then it appears again and sounds with all the power of a pencil.
Beginning draftsmen, not understanding that a line in a drawing is the result of complex work on a form, usually resort to a flat and monotonous line. Such a line, which outlines the edges of figures, stones and trees with equal indifference, conveys neither form, nor light, nor space. Having absolutely no understanding of the issues of spatial drawing, such draftsmen pay attention, first of all, to the external outlines of an object, trying to mechanically copy it in order to then fill the contour with random spots of light and shadow.
But the flat line in art has its purpose. It is used in decorative paintings, wall paintings, mosaics, stained glass, easel and book graphics, poster - all works of a planar nature, where the image is linked to a certain plane of the wall, glass, ceiling, paper, etc. Here this line makes it possible to convey the image in a general way.
The deep difference between plane and spatial lines must be learned from the very beginning, so that in the future there will be no mixing of these different elements of the drawing.
Beginning draftsmen have another characteristic feature of drawing lines. They put too much pressure on the pencil. When the teacher demonstrates light line drawing techniques with their hand, they trace the lines with increased pressure. It is necessary to wean yourself from this bad habit from the very first days. The requirement to draw with light, “airy” lines can be explained by the fact that at the beginning of the drawing we inevitably change or move something. And by erasing lines drawn with strong pressure, we spoil the paper. And, more often than not, a noticeable mark remains. The drawing looks untidy.
If you first draw with light lines, in the process of further work it is possible to give them a spatial character, sometimes strengthening, sometimes weakening.
Proportions
A sense of proportion is one of the main elements in the drawing process. Maintaining proportions is important not only in drawing from life, but also in decorative drawing, for example, for ornament, applique, etc.
Compliance with proportions means the ability to subordinate the sizes of all elements of the drawing or parts of the depicted object in relation to each other. Violation of proportions is unacceptable. The study of proportions is given great value. It is necessary to help the artist understand the mistake he has made or warn against it.
A person drawing from life should keep in mind that, with the same size, horizontal lines seem longer than vertical ones. Some of the elementary mistakes of beginning artists include the desire to stretch objects horizontally.
If you divide a sheet into two equal halves, the bottom part will always appear smaller. Due to this property of our vision, both halves of the Latin S seem equal to us only because its lower part is made larger in the typographic font. This is the case with the number 8. This phenomenon is well known to architects; it is also necessary in the work of an artist.
Since ancient times, great importance has been attached to instilling in the artist a sense of proportion and the ability to accurately measure quantities by eye. Leonardo da Vinci paid a lot of attention to this issue. He recommended games and entertainment that he invented: for example, he advised sticking a cane into the ground and, at a given distance, try to determine how many times the size of the cane fits within this distance.
Perspective
The Renaissance was the first to create a mathematically rigorous doctrine of how to convey space. Linear perspective(from Lat. Rers ri ser e “I see through”“penetrating with my gaze”) is an exact science that teaches how to depict objects of the surrounding reality on a plane so that an impression is created the same as in nature. All construction lines are directed to the central vanishing point, corresponding to the viewer’s location. The shortening of the lines is determined depending on the distance. This discovery made it possible to build complex compositions in three-dimensional space. True, the retina of the human eye is concave, and straight lines do not appear to be drawn along a ruler. Italian artists did not know this, so sometimes their work resembles a drawing.
Square perspective
a – frontal position, b – at a random angle. P – central vanishing point.
Lines receding into the depth of the drawing appear to converge at a vanishing point. Vanishing points are located on the horizon line. Lines receding perpendicular to the horizon converge at central vanishing point. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon converge at lateral vanishing points
Circle perspective
The upper oval is above the horizon line. For circles lying below the horizon line, we see their upper surface. The lower the circle, the wider it seems to us.
Already in the first tasks of drawing geometric bodies, children have to construct the perspective of rectangular objects and bodies of rotation - cylinders, cones.
F 1 and F 2 – lateral vanishing points lying on the horizon line.
Perspective of a cube and parallelepiped.
P is the vanishing point lying on the horizon line.
Chiaroscuro. Tone. Tonal relationships
The visible shape of an object is determined by its illumination, which is a necessary factor not only for the perception of the object, but also for its reproduction in the drawing. Light, spreading across the form, depending on the nature of its relief, has various shades- from lightest to darkest.
This is how the concept of chiaroscuro arises.
Chiaroscuro presupposes a specific light source and predominantly the same light color of the illuminated object.
Examining the illuminated cube, we notice that its plane facing the light source will be the lightest, called in the figure light; opposite plane - shadow; halftone we should call planes that are at different angles to the light source and therefore do not completely reflect it; reflex– reflected light falling on the shadow sides; glare– a small part of the surface in the light, completely reflecting the strength of the light source (observed mainly on curved surfaces), and finally, falling shadow.
In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be conventionally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest: highlight, light, halftone, reflex, own shadow, falling shadow.
Light reveals the shape of an object. Each form has its own character. It is limited to straight or curved surfaces or combinations of both.
An example of chiaroscuro on faceted surfaces.
If the shape is faceted, then even with a minimal difference in the aperture ratio of the surfaces, their boundaries will be definite (see illustration of a cube).
An example of chiaroscuro on curved surfaces.
If the shape is round or spherical (cylinder, ball), then light and shadow have gradual transitions.
So far we have talked about chiaroscuro of equally colored objects. The means of this chiaroscuro were limited until the second half of the 19th century when depicting illuminated plaster casts and nude models.
At the end XIX and early XX centuries, during the period of development of a deeper understanding of color, painterly demands began to be placed on drawing.
Indeed, all the colorful diversity of nature, especially festive elegant costumes, diffused lighting, excluding clear chiaroscuro, the rendering of the environment - all this puts before the draftsman a number of tasks, as if of a picturesque nature, the solution of which is impossible with the help of chiaroscuro alone.
Therefore, the pictorial term entered into drawing - "tone".
If we take for example yellow and blue, then being in the same lighting conditions, they will appear one light, the other dark. Pink seems lighter than burgundy, brown seems darker than blue, etc.
In a drawing it is impossible to “fully” convey the brightness of the flame and deep shadows on black velvet, since the tonal differences between pencil and paper are much smaller. But the artist must convey all the various tonal relationships using modest means of drawing. To do this, take the darkest thing in the depicted object or still life at full pencil strength, and leave the paper as the lightest. He places all other shadow gradations in tonal relationships between these extremes.
Drawers need to practice developing the ability to subtly distinguish gradations of lightness in full-scale productions. You need to learn to pick up small tonal differences. Having determined where there will be one or two lightest places and one or two darkest places, it is necessary to take into account the visual capabilities of the materials.
When performing educational tasks, it is necessary to observe a proportional relationship between the aperture ratio of several places in nature and the corresponding several parts of the drawing. At the same time, you need to remember that comparing the tones of only one place in nature with its image is the wrong method of work. All attention should be given to the method of working relationships. In the process of drawing, you need to compare 2 - 3 areas in terms of lightness in nature with the corresponding places in the image. After applying the desired tones, it is recommended to check.
Drawing Sequence
Modern drawing techniques provide for the 3 most general stages of working on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determining the general nature of the form; 2) plastic modeling of the form with chiaroscuro and detailed characterization of nature; 3) summing up. In addition, each drawing, depending on the tasks and duration, may have more or fewer overall stages, and each stage may also include smaller drawing stages.
Let's take a closer look at these stages of working on a drawing.
1). The work begins with the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper. You need to examine the nature from all sides and determine from which point of view it is more effective to place the image on the plane. The painter must familiarize himself with the nature and mark it characteristic features, understand its structure. The image is outlined with light strokes.
When starting a drawing, first of all, they determine the ratio of the height and width of the model, after which they proceed to determine the sizes of all its parts. During work, you cannot change the point of view, since in this case the entire perspective construction of the drawing will be disrupted.
The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is also determined in advance, and is not developed in the process of work. When drawing in parts, in most cases the nature does not fit on the sheet, it turns out to be shifted up or down.
Premature loading of the sheet with lines and spots should be avoided. The form is drawn very generally and schematically. The basic, generalized nature of the large form is revealed. If this is a group of objects, you need to equate them to a single figure - generalize.
Having completed the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper, the basic proportions are established. In order not to be mistaken in proportions, you should first determine the ratio of large quantities, and then select the smallest from them. The teacher’s task is to teach how to separate the important from the secondary. So that the details do not distract the beginner’s attention from the main character of the form, you need to squint your eyes so that the form looks like a silhouette, like a general spot, and the details disappear.
2). The second stage is plastic modeling of the shape in tone and detailed elaboration of the drawing. This is the main and longest stage of work. Here, knowledge from the field of perspective and the rules of cut-off modeling are applied.
When drawing, it is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects and the three-dimensionality of their structural structure, since otherwise the image will be flat.
While working on a perspective construction of a drawing, it is recommended to regularly check by comparing the abbreviations of the surfaces of volumetric forms, comparing them with the verticals and horizontals, which are mentally drawn through characteristic points.
After choosing a point of view in the drawing, a horizon line is drawn, which is at the eye level of the person drawing. You can mark the horizon line at any height of the sheet. This depends on the inclusion in the composition of objects or parts thereof that are located above or below the eyes of the painter. For objects located below the horizon, their upper surfaces are depicted in the figure, and for objects placed above the horizon, their lower surfaces are visible.
When you need to draw a cube or other object with horizontal edges standing on a horizontal plane, which is visible at an angle, then both vanishing points of its faces are located on the sides of the central vanishing point. If the sides of the cube are visible in the same perspective cuts, then their upper and lower edges are directed outside the picture to the lateral vanishing points. When the cube is in a frontal position at the horizon level, only one of it is visible. side shaped like a square. Then the ribs receding into the depth are directed to the central vanishing point.
When we see 2 sides of a horizontally lying square in a frontal position, then the other 2 are directed to the central vanishing point. The square pattern in this case looks like a trapezoid. When depicting a horizontal square lying at an angle to the horizon line, its sides are directed towards the lateral vanishing points.
In perspective contractions, circles look like ellipses. This is how bodies of rotation are depicted - a cylinder, a cone. The higher or lower the horizontal circle is from the horizon line, the more the ellipse approaches the circle. The closer the depicted circle is to the horizon line, the narrower the ellipse becomes - the minor axes become increasingly shorter as they approach the horizon.
On the horizon line, both squares and circles look like one line.
The lines in the drawing depict the shape of the object. The tone in the drawing conveys light and shadows. Chiaroscuro helps to reveal the volume of an object. By constructing an image, for example a cube, according to the rules of perspective, the painter thereby prepares the boundaries for light and shadows.
When drawing objects with rounded surfaces, children often experience difficulties that they cannot cope with without the help of a teacher.
Why is this happening? The shape of the cylinder and ball remains unchanged when rotated. This complicates the analytical work of a novice draftsman. Instead of the volume of a ball, for example, he draws a flat circle, which he then shades from the contour line. Light and shadow relationships are given as random spots - and the ball appears to be just a dirty circle.
On the cylinder and the ball, light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side that carries the reflex, but slightly moving away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex must always obey the shadow and be weaker than the halftone, which is part of the light, that is, it must be lighter than the shadow and darker than the halftone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than the halftone in the light.
When drawing a group setting of geometric bodies located at different distances from a light source incident on the side, one should keep in mind that as they move away from it, the illuminated surfaces of the bodies lose their luminosity.
According to the laws of physics, the intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the object from the light source. Taking into account this law when placing light and shadow, we should not forget the fact that close to the light source the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, and with distance they weaken.
When all the details are drawn and the drawing is modeled in tone, the process of generalization begins.
3). The third stage is summing up. This is the last and most important stage of working on the drawing. At this stage, we summarize the work done: we check the general condition of the drawing, subordinating the details to the whole, and clarify the drawing in tone. It is necessary to subordinate lights and shadows, highlights, reflections and halftones to the general tone - we must strive to bring to real sound and completion the tasks that were set at the very beginning of the work. Clarity and integrity, the freshness of the first perception should already appear in a new quality, as a result of long and hard work. At the final stage of work, it is advisable to return again to a fresh, original perception.
Thus, at the beginning of work, when the draftsman quickly outlines the general appearance of nature on a sheet of paper, he follows the path of synthesis - generalization. Further, when a careful analysis of the form is carried out in a generalized form, the draftsman enters the path of analysis. At the very end of the work, when the artist begins to subordinate the details to the whole, he again returns to the path of synthesis.
The work of generalizing a form is quite difficult for a beginning draftsman, because the details of the form attract his attention too much. Individual, insignificant details of an object observed by the draftsman often obscure the holistic image of nature, do not make it possible to understand its structure, and, therefore, interfere with the correct depiction of nature.
So, consistent work on a drawing develops from defining the generalized parts of an object through a detailed study of complex details to a figurative expression of the essence of the depicted nature.
Note: This manual describes the image of a composition made from frames of geometric bodies that is quite complex for younger schoolchildren. It is recommended to first draw the frame of one cube, one parallelepiped or cone. Later - a composition of two geometric bodies of simple shape. If the training program is designed for several years, it is better to postpone the image of a composition of several geometric bodies for subsequent years.
3 stages of working on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determining the general nature of the form; 2) construction of frames of geometric bodies; 3) creating the effect of depth of space using different line thicknesses.
1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determining the general nature of the form. Starting the drawing, determine the ratio of the height and width of the overall composition of all geometric bodies as a whole. After which they move on to establishing the sizes of individual geometric bodies.
During work, you cannot change the point of view, since in this case the entire perspective construction of the drawing will be disrupted. The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is also determined in advance, and not during the work. When drawing in parts, in most cases the nature either does not fit on the sheet, or turns out to be shifted up, down or to the side.
At the beginning of drawing, the form is drawn very generally and schematically. The basic, generalized nature of the large form is revealed. A group of objects needs to be equated to a single figure - generalized.
2). The second stage is the construction of frames of geometric bodies. It is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects, their three-dimensionality, how the horizontal plane is located on which geometric bodies stand relative to the level of the drawer’s eyes. The lower it is, the wider it appears. In accordance with this, all the horizontal edges of geometric bodies and the circles of bodies of rotation look more or less wide to the painter.
The composition consists of prisms and bodies of rotation - a cylinder, a cone, a ball. For prisms, it is necessary to find out how they are located relative to the drawer - frontally or at an angle? A body located frontally has 1 vanishing point - in the center of the object. But more often, geometric bodies are located at a random angle relative to the person drawing. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line converge atlateral vanishing points located on the horizon line.
Perspective of a parallelepiped at a random angle.
Construction of a body of rotation - a cone.
All geometric bodies are constructed in this way.
3) The third and final stage is creating the effect of depth of space using different line thicknesses. The drawer sums up the work done: checks the proportions of geometric bodies, compares their sizes, checks the general condition of the drawing, subordinating the details to the whole.
Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies:
cube, ball (black and white modeling).
Note: This manual describes the image of a plaster cube and a ball on one sheet. You can make a drawing on two sheets. For tasks involving cut-off modeling, illumination by a closely located lamp, spotlight, etc. is highly desirable. on one side (usually the window side).
Cube
1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper. The plaster cube and ball are drawn sequentially. Both are illuminated with directional light. The upper half of the sheet of paper (A3 format) is reserved for the cube, the lower half for the ball.
The image of the cube is composed together with the falling shadow in the center of the upper half of the sheet. The scale is chosen so that the image is neither too large nor too small.
2). The second stage is building a cube.
It is necessary to determine the location of the horizontal plane on which the cube stands and the horizontal edges relative to eye level, their width. How is the cube positioned - frontally or at an angle? If viewed from the front, the cube has 1 vanishing point at the eye level of the drawer - in the center of the cube. But more often the edges are located at a random angle relative to the person drawing. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon converge atlateral vanishing points located on the horizon line.
Building a cube
The drawer must find out which of the side faces of the cube seems wider to him - on this face, the horizontal lines are directed towards the vanishing point of the hollower one, and the vanishing point itself is located further from the depicted object.
By constructing a cube according to the rules of perspective, we thereby prepared the boundaries for light and shadows. Examining an illuminated cube, we notice that its plane facing the light source will be the brightest, called light; the opposite plane is a shadow; halftone refers to planes that are at angles to the light source and therefore do not fully reflect it; reflex - reflected light falling on the shadow sides. The falling shadow, the contour of which is constructed according to the rules of perspective, is darker than all the surfaces of the cube.
Black and white cube modeling
You can leave the surfaces of the cube or the sheet of paper on which it stands white, illuminated directly, bright light. The remaining surfaces need to be shaded with light, transparent shading, gradually intensifying it on the light separation lines (edges of the cube where the illuminated and shadow edges meet). In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be conventionally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest: highlight, light, halftone, reflex, own shadow, falling shadow.
To summarize, we check the general condition of the drawing, clarifying the drawing in tone. It is necessary to subordinate lights and shadows, highlights, reflexes and halftones to the general tone, trying to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.
Ball
1). The first stage is the compositional placement of the image of the ball along with the falling shadow in the center of the lower half of the sheet of paper. The scale is chosen so that the image is neither too large nor too small.
Construction of the ball
2). The light and shadow modeling of a ball is more complex than that of a cube. Light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side, which carries the reflex, but slightly moved away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex must always obey the shadow and be weaker than the halftone, which is part of the light, that is, it must be lighter than the shadow and darker than the halftone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than the halftone in the light. Close to the light source, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, and as they move away, they weaken.
Black and white modeling of the ball
3). When all the details are drawn and the drawing is carefully modeled in tone, the process of generalization begins: we check the general condition of the drawing, refining the drawing in tone. Trying again to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.
Topic 3. Drawing a still life from plaster
geometric bodies (black and white modeling).
Note: This manual describes the image of a complex composition of plaster geometric bodies. If the training program is designed for several years, it is better to postpone the image of such a composition for subsequent years. It is recommended to first depict the composition of two geometric bodies of simple shape. Later you can move on to a more complex composition. For a task on cut-off modeling, illumination by a closely located lamp, spotlight, etc. is highly desirable. on one side (usually the window side).
3 stages of working on a drawing: 1) compositional placement of the image on the plane of a sheet of paper and determining the general nature of the form; 2) construction of geometric bodies; 3) modeling of forms with tone.
1). The first stage is the compositional placement of images of geometric bodies on the plane of a sheet of A3 paper. Starting the drawing, determine the ratio of the height and width of the overall composition of all geometric bodies as a whole. After which they move on to establishing the sizes of individual geometric bodies.
The scale of the objects depicted in the drawing is determined in advance. Premature loading of the sheet with lines and spots should be avoided. Initially, the shape of geometric bodies is drawn very generally and schematically.
Having completed the compositional placement of the image on a sheet of paper, the basic proportions are established. In order not to make mistakes in proportions, you should first determine the ratio of large quantities, and then smaller ones.
2). The second stage is the construction of geometric bodies. It is necessary to clearly imagine the spatial arrangement of objects, how the horizontal plane is located on which geometric bodies stand relative to the level of the drawer’s eyes. The lower it is, the wider it appears. In accordance with this, all the horizontal edges of geometric bodies and the circles of bodies of rotation look more or less wide to the painter.
The composition consists of prisms, pyramids and bodies of rotation - a cylinder, a cone, a ball. For prisms, it is necessary to find out how they are located relative to the drawer - frontally or at an angle? A body located frontally has 1 vanishing point - in the center of the object. But more often, geometric bodies are located at a random angle relative to the person drawing. Horizontal lines receding at an angle to the horizon line converge at lateral pointsright away located on the horizon line. In bodies of revolution, horizontal and vertical axial lines are drawn, and distances equal to the radius of the depicted circle are laid out on them.
Geometric bodies can not only stand or lie on the horizontal plane of the table, but also be at a random angle in relation to it. In this case, the direction of inclination of the geometric body and the plane of the base of the geometric body perpendicular to it are found. If a geometric body rests on a horizontal plane with 1 edge (prism or pyramid), then all horizontal lines converge at the vanishing point lying on the horizon line. This geometric body will have 2 more vanishing points that do not lie on the horizon line: one on the line of direction of the body’s inclination, the other on a line perpendicular to it, belonging to the plane of the base of this geometric body.
3). The third stage is modeling the shape with tone. This is the longest stage of work. Here, knowledge of the rules of cut-off modeling is applied. By constructing geometric bodies according to the rules of perspective, the student thereby prepared the boundaries for light and shadows. The planes of bodies facing the light source will be the lightest, called light; opposite planes - shadow; halftone refers to planes that are at angles to the light source and therefore do not fully reflect it; reflex - reflected light falling on the shadow sides; and, finally, a falling shadow, the contour of which is constructed according to the rules of perspective.
The surfaces of the prisms, pyramids, or sheets of paper on which they stand, illuminated by direct, bright light, can be left white. The remaining surfaces need to be shaded with light, transparent shading, gradually intensifying it on the light separation lines (edges of geometric bodies where the illuminated and shadow edges meet). In order of decreasing light intensity, all light shades can be conventionally arranged in the following sequence, starting with the lightest: highlight, light, halftone, reflex, own shadow, falling shadow.
In a ball, light and shadow have gradual transitions, and the deepest shadow will not be on the edge of the shadow side, which carries the reflex, but slightly moved away in the direction of the illuminated part. Despite the apparent brightness, the reflex must always obey the shadow and be weaker than the halftone, which is part of the light, that is, it must be lighter than the shadow and darker than the halftone. For example, the reflex on the ball should be darker than the halftone in the light. Close to the light source, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, and as they move away, they weaken.
White is left with only a highlight on the ball. The remaining surfaces are covered with light and transparent shading, applying strokes to the shape of the ball and the horizontal surface on which it lies. The tone builds up gradually.
As they move away from the light source, the illuminated surfaces of bodies lose their luminosity. Close to the light source, the contrasts of light and shadow intensify, and as they move away, they weaken.
4). When all the details are drawn and the drawing is modeled in tone, the process of generalization begins: we check the general condition of the drawing, clarifying the drawing in tone.
It is necessary to subordinate lights and shadows, highlights, reflexes and halftones to the general tone, trying to return to the clarity, integrity and freshness of the first perception.
Literature
Main:
Rostovtsev N. N. “Academic drawing” M. 1984
“School of Fine Arts” vol. 2, M. “Iskusstvo” 1968
Beda G.V. “Fundamentals of visual literacy” M. “Enlightenment” 1988
“School of Fine Arts” 1-2-3, “Fine Arts” 1986
"Drawing Basics", " Brief dictionary artistic terms" - M. "Enlightenment", "Title", 1996
Additional:
Vinogradova G. “Drawing lessons from life” - M., “Enlightenment”, 1980
Library " Young artist» Drawing, tips for beginners. Issue 1-2 – “Young Guard” 1993
Kirtser Yu. M. “Drawing and painting. Textbook" - M., 2000
Kilpe T. L. “Drawing and painting” - M., Publishing House “Oreol” 1997
Avsisyan O. A. “Nature and drawing from idea” - M., 19885
Odnoralov N.V. “Materials and tools, equipment in fine arts” - M., “Enlightenment” 1988
Applications
Topic 1. Construction of frames of geometric bodies
Topic 2. Drawing of plaster geometric bodies: cube, ball
Topic 3. Drawing a still life from plaster geometric bodies
Explanatory note _____________________________________ 2
Introduction ________________________________________________ 3
Topic 1. Construction of frames of geometric bodies _____________ 12
Topic 2. Drawing of gypsum geometric bodies: cube, ball (black and white modeling) __________________________________________ 14
Topic 3. Drawing a still life from plaster geometric bodies (black and white modeling) _____________________________________________ 17
Applications _____________________________________________________ 21
Select one or two of the best sketches and frame them in frames whose proportions correspond to the proportions of the future drawing. Thus, a sheet of A-3 format measuring 30 by 40 centimeters has a 3 to 4 ratio (Fig. 172). In search of the most successful composition of the sheet, you may have to adjust the point of view, and in some cases even make changes to the setting itself.
When composing the sheet, you should also take into account the location of illuminated and shadow surfaces, as well as the boundaries of falling shadows. Remember that chiaroscuro can disrupt the compositional harmony of a linear design.
Stage 1.
Figure 173 Starting a drawing on a large sheet of paper, try to accurately transfer onto it the arrangement of objects recorded in the best sketch. Mark the location of each geometric body with light lines. Check again the size of the entire composition, as well as its compliance with the size of the sheet. Make the necessary changes to the drawing and continue working, clarifying the size of each geometric body in relation to other bodies and to the entire composition as a whole.
Stage 2.
Figure 174. Draw linearly all geometric bodies. As you work, pay special attention to the correspondence of the opening of squares and ellipses lying in horizontal and vertical planes.
Stage 3.
Figure 175. At this stage it is necessary to strengthen those lines that are closer to the viewer, thus you will create the effect of depth of space already in the linear constructive drawing. Draw the lines of your own and falling shadows and cover all the shadows with a light stroke.
Stage 4.
Figure 176. Continue working in the shadows, making them more intense towards the viewer and towards the light source, and the falling shadows also towards the object casting the shadow. Gradually move on to working in the light. Carefully model shape using knowledge of the distribution of light and shadow on geometric bodies. On round surfaces, create smooth light-and-shadow transitions; on bodies formed by planes - sharp and clear.
When comparing light and dark tones of plaster in nature, you should strive to correctly convey their relationships in the drawing, but you also need to know about special techniques, helping the draftsman create a sense of three-dimensional space on a flat sheet:
1. Dividing the tonal scale into light and shadow parts: in the drawing, the lightest place in the shadow should be darker than the darkest place in the light, in other words, the shadow should always be darker than the light. In reality this is not always the case. For example, when there is a fairly well-lit surface next to the production, the reflections from it on location can be as bright as the light. They need to be “dampened down” by making them darker, otherwise in your drawing they will destroy the shape of the objects depicted.
2. “Aerial perspective.” This phenomenon, which we have already mentioned, can be observed in nature at long distances, when objects significantly removed from the viewer look less contrasting due to the thickness of the air, weakening the shadows and darkening the light. When the size of the depicted production is small, this effect cannot be observed. It is created artificially in a drawing: geometric bodies in the foreground have a greater contrast between light and shadow than bodies in the background, while in nature the difference in illumination of near and distant plans can be almost imperceptible.
The main task of an architectural drawing is not to convey the state of the object, but, if possible, to
new image of the form, creation of volume. That is why, when drawing, we do not copy nature, but try
We want to see, select and transfer into our work only certain features that help us
sew this task.
Stage 5.
Figure 177. Summarize the figure. Once again, carefully monitor the tonal solution of the illuminated and shadow surfaces. At the final stage, the painter works not with a separate object, detail, part of the image, but with the entire sheet at the same time, achieving the integrity of the work, harmonious subordination of its parts. To do this, if necessary, enhance the tone of illuminated surfaces in the background and shadow surfaces in the foreground.
70 Chapter III
Chapter 72 III
black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies 73
Chapter 74 III
Linear constructive drawing of a composition of geometric bodies according to representation.
Make a sketch of the composition, observing the given proportions of geometric bodies (Fig. 178). Determine the general nature of the future composition, the position of the horizon line, the directions of the horizontal edges, and the main insets. Let us immediately warn you about a typical mistake that is often made by those who are working on their first composition based on an idea. When placing geometric bodies on a sheet of paper, a novice draftsman quite freely places round bodies next to each other (for example, a ball and a cone) or round bodies and bodies with inclined planes (for example, a ball and a hexagonal prism). The insertion of such bodies into each other is very difficult. Considering the limited time for completing the examination task, it would be more correct to use simple insets in the composition, when round bodies and bodies with inclined surfaces are intersected by horizontal and vertical planes.
You shouldn’t draw the sketch too carefully - on a small scale you still won’t be able to solve all the compositional issues. Even a very detailed sketch cannot be accurately transferred to a large sheet of paper. Secondary and insignificant elements will inevitably undergo quite serious changes, and therefore you should not pay too much attention to them at the sketching stage. Enclose the sketch in a frame of appropriate proportions (3x4), make the necessary adjustments to the composition and begin working on a large-format sheet, trying to preserve the main idea, basic patterns and movements of large masses defined in the sketch.
Continuing to work on the composition, clarify the sizes and proportions of geometric bodies. Monitor the correspondence of the opening of squares and circles lying in horizontal and vertical planes, as well as the uniform convergence of parallel lines in perspective. Carefully draw insets of geometric bodies, depicting the lines of intersection of not only visible, but also invisible surfaces to the viewer. When working on individual elements, try to subordinate them to the general compositional idea, achieve integrity and harmony in your work.
The drawing should be made with clear, expressive lines and easily worked out in a conventional tone: determine the position of the light source and cover the surfaces that are in the shadow with several layers of strokes. Consider figures 179,180,181,182,183, depicting examples of such compositions.
black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies
black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies 77
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black and white drawing of simple geometric bodies 70
Chapter 80 IV
Chapter IV. Drawing of architectural details
Architectural details include architectural profiles (jib, heel, shaft, quarter shaft, fillet, scotia), geometric and floral ornaments, capitals, rosettes, vases, ionics, brackets, supporting and keystones of arches, entablatures. From all this variety, a vase, a capital and an ionic were chosen to perform educational drawings at the Moscow Architectural Institute’s evening preparatory courses.
When starting to draw an architectural detail, first define it geometric basis, imagine a complex shape as a combination of simple geometric bodies. Having depicted a simplified diagram in perspective on a sheet of paper, gradually complicate it, saturating it with details and carefully studying individual elements in a linear constructive drawing. Plan paired symmetrical volumes at the same time, under this condition it is easier to follow the promising reductions. If the image of any part of an architectural detail causes you some difficulties, make small sketches of it in the margins of your drawing - perspective sketches with different points and orthogonal projections. Completing the linear stage, introduce a light tone into the drawing, having previously outlined the lines of your own and falling shadows: this will allow you to clarify the main masses and identify possible errors before starting tonal work.
Chiaroscuro on architectural details is also distributed according to the laws of drawing simple geometric bodies. On curved surfaces the transitions from light to shadow are soft and gradual, on faceted surfaces they are sharp and clear. The closer the light and shadow on an object are to the person drawing and the light source, the stronger the light and shadow contrast, and, conversely, the distant parts of objects have dimmer light and faded shadow. Falling shadows are more saturated with tone, while natural shadows are brightened by reflections, and therefore more airy and transparent. In both linear-constructive and light-and-shade drawings, try to work evenly across the entire sheet, constantly comparing individual parts of the image with the whole. At the final stage, clarify the tonal solution and summarize the work, striving for a feeling of completeness and harmony.
Drawing of a vase.
As an object for drawing, you are offered a plaster cast of a Greek vase (amphora), dating back to the 4th century BC. The masters of that time were distinguished by an amazing sense of proportions and constructive logic.
Start drawing a vase, like drawing any complex architectural detail, by analyzing its shape. Look carefully at the vase (Fig. 184). Mentally break it down into separate volumes and compare them with simple geometric bodies. The body of the vase has a complex drop-shaped shape, which can be conventionally represented as a combination of two balls and a cone; thus, the height contour of the vase body can be divided into three parts, each of which has its own curvature. The neck of the vase is similar to a cylinder, with a noticeable thinning in the middle, and is limited at the top and bottom by narrow shelves. The vase is crowned with a massive neck in the shape of a quarter shaft. The supporting part (base) of the vase consists of two cylinders of different diameters, connected by a jib-shaped profile. The handles of the vase have a complex three-part structure and thicken at the points where they are attached to the neck and body of the vase.
Continuing your study of nature, draw a frontal projection of the vase. To do this, you will have to use not only the sighting method, but also a long strip of paper and even a ruler. The projection must be large enough, only then will you be able to reflect in it all the information you have received: the proportional ratio of the main masses, the dimensions individual parts in height and width
drawing of architectural details 81
rine, their interrelation, subordination and functional validity. Try to accurately convey the proportions of the vase, note how many times its width fits in height, how many times the neck fits horizontally and vertically in the body of the vase, etc. (Fig. 185).
Having depicted the facade of the vase, you will notice that in this projection the neck of the vase looks too thick, the body - more massive, the base - lighter and more graceful than in real life. Of all the ways of depicting, perspective is the closest to what is actually perceived by the human eye. The orthographic projection of an object is always different from its perception in nature. But it is orthogonal projections, due to their accuracy and information content, that will help you now in the best possible way study a complex architectural form, and in the future they will become a convenient and natural means of your professional communication.
Let's go back to nature. As you have already noticed, the main volume of the vase is symmetrical in shape. All its horizontal sections are circles of different diameters with the center lying on the same vertical (the axis of the vase). In a perspective drawing, these circles are depicted as ellipses. different sizes and disclosure. The minor axes of these ellipses coincide with the axis of the vase, and the major axes are perpendicular to it.
Changing your vertical position relative to nature (and, therefore, the level of the horizon line), watch for the reduction in the vertical dimensions of individual elements and the entire vase, as well as how some parts of the vase overlap others.
Choose a point from which the perspective vertical reductions will be slight (for example, when the horizon line is slightly above the neck of the vase or below its base). The position where the horizon line passes through the body of the vase is not recommended due to some difficulties that a novice draftsman may have in determining the opening of the ellipses. In addition, this position is the least successful for creating an expressive drawing.
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Chapter 82 IV
Stage 1.
Figure 186. Determine the dimensions of the vase on the sheet, mark its axis in the middle of the sheet. Divide the overall vertical size into segments corresponding to the large parts of the vase: neck, neck, body, base. Mark the width of these elements.
Stage 2.
Figure 187. Indicate in the figure the position and dimensions of the small parts of the vase.
Stage 3.
Figure 188. Outline the outline of the vase in orthogonal projection. This outline does not take into account future changes, but is a clear constructive basis for further work.
Stage 4.
Figure 189. Draw ellipses on the horizontal axes, in places of characteristic sections. Remember that the opening of the ellipse increases the further it is from the horizon line. Connect the ellipses with tangent arcs where one shape meets another. Outline the handles of the vase, generalizing them to a simple rectangular shape, and only after making sure the basic relationships are correct, work out their details.
Stage 5.
Figure 190. The last stage is tonal development. Start as usual by defining the lines of your own shadow and the falling shadow. To do this, use nature and the knowledge you have already acquired about the nature of light and shadow on simple geometric bodies. The shadows on the neck of the vase, the belts, the shelves of the base, and the handles are similar to the shadows on the cylinder; the shadow on the neck is like the shadow on the ball; the shadow on the body of the vase can be imagined as a complex combination of the shadow on two balls and a cone. Carefully examine the falling shadows on the vase. Analyze what shapes cast shadows on the neck of the vase, its body, base, and handles. Sometimes it is convenient to do this with a pencil. If you slowly move the point of a pencil along the line of your own shadow on a vase, the shadow from the point of the pencil will also move along the line of the falling shadow, fixing at each moment of this movement a certain pair: a point and its shadow.
After determining the position of the lines of your own and falling shadows, continue the tonal drawing in the usual sequence. First, build up enough tone in the shadows, separating them from the light. Then you need to strengthen your own shadows towards the viewer and the light source, and the falling shadows - also towards the source of the falling shadow. Continuing to work in the shadows, gradually move into the shadows, creating smooth light-and-shadow transitions on spherical and cylindrical surfaces. When completing the drawing, generalize the light and shadow relationships, trying to harmoniously subordinate all the elements of the image to the overall tonal design.
The staged approach to conducting work that we propose is not accidental: it contains important rule, mandatory for everyone, and especially for beginning draftsmen: drawing from the general to the specific and from the specific to the general. Always start your drawing with the general mass and only then proceed to the details. But do not immediately work out one of the details to the end. Draw the drawing across the entire sheet, moving from one part to another, checking the parts with the whole, constantly looking at the whole. This rule is true for both linear constructive and black and white drawings.
Naturally, your desire is to see the final result as quickly as possible, to jump to the next stage without finishing the previous one. If you want, try to do this - and you will see how logical and calm work will turn into chaotic rushing from one detail to another in an effort to put together a drawing that is “crumbling” before your eyes.
Remember also that design is the basis of any forms. Errors in construction cannot be hidden by the most virtuoso tonal elaboration. Therefore, errors in construction and proportions discovered during the work must be corrected immediately.
drawing of architectural details 83
Chapter 86 IV
drawing of architectural details 87
Chapter 88 IV
Drawing of a Doric capital.
The capital is the upper part of the column, which, in turn, is part of the architectural order. Order - strictly verified art system, expressing the essence of the work of a post-beam structure. The name order comes from the Latin “ordo” - order, order. The classical orders - Doric and Ionic - were formed in ancient Greece. Somewhat later, in the architecture of Rome they received their further development. The order consists of load-bearing and non-carrying elements, the load is transferred from the overlying elements to the ones located below. From the entablature (bearing part) to the column (bearing part), the load is transmitted through the capital, which becomes one of the most important components of the entire order composition.
As an object for drawing, you are offered a capital of the Roman Doric order. Roman orders are somewhat drier in their forms than the Greek ones, however, like all order systems, they are distinguished by a strict logic of form, precise proportions and simplicity. The Doric order is the most laconic, strict and courageous of all. A novice architect needs to learn to understand and feel the logic of the structure, expressed in artistic form, which in architecture is called tectonics. Try to feel in the drawing of the capital how the shape changes from the upper, square parts in plan, to the lower, round parts, how each of the profiles is designed to support the elements located above and to transmit pressure from top to bottom.
Start your drawing by analyzing the shape of the capital (Fig. 191). The upper part of the capital is a square abacus (abacus) - a slab with a heel and a shelf. Echinus is a quarter of the shaft and is connected to the neck of the column through three successively decreasing belts. The astragalus, consisting of a roller and a shelf, passes into the trunk of the column through a fillet. The column trunk is decorated with twenty long semicircular grooves in plan - flutes with semicircular endings.
Draw a frontal projection of the capital. The drawing should be large enough so that the details are clearly visible. Label the names of all parts of the capital in the picture. This will make it easier for you to remember them. Analyze the basic proportions of the capital, select the total height of the echinus and belts as the unit of measurement. Compare your drawing with Figure 192.
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| Fig. 191 |
Continuing to study the shape, go around the capital and look at it from different points. You will notice that the main volume, which is a round symmetrical shape, remains unchanged. Only the position of the square abacus changes. Choose a point of view for the drawing so that one side of the abacus is revealed to you more and the other less. The optimal ratio is 1/2-1/3. The horizon line should pass just below the capital, then its proportions will be close to orthogonal. If necessary, make a sketch to more accurately determine the composition of the sheet.
drawing of architectural details
Stage 1.
Figure 193. Place the future image on the sheet, determining its vertical and horizontal dimensions. Mark the corners of the abacus, the main axis, and also determine the dimensions corresponding to the main parts of the capital. It is very important at this stage of the linear drawing to find the correct ratio of the opening of the upper ellipse of the echinus and the square of the abacus. Traditionally, draftsmen first depict an abacus, and then experience considerable difficulty in fitting an ellipse into it. Do it differently: having decided on the size and opening of the ellipse, draw it. Then draw a square around the ellipse, checking the directions of its sides with nature. Stage 2.
Figure 194. Mark all parts of the capital vertically and determine their horizontal dimensions. Draw the main masses taking into account the perspective abbreviations. Drawing the ellipses of the girdles, neck, astragalus and lower section of the column, correlate their openings with each other and with the already drawn upper ellipse of the echinus. Stage 3.
Figure 195. Draw the flutes. A plan of the column trunk will help you depict them correctly. If you do not have the opportunity to place the plan on the drawing itself, then attach an additional sheet of paper to your work. Points transferred from the plan to a perspective image will make the drawing accurate and convincing. At this stage, the drawing is mainly linear in nature, but when clarifying the main elements, it is possible to use tone, which helps to graphically reveal the “movement” of the main surfaces. In this case, the tone should be very light, suggesting further constructive elaboration of the form. Stage 4.
Figure 196. Reveal the shape of the capital using chiaroscuro. Clear idea about mutual location in the space of the light source, the object and the painter, makes it possible to understand the geometry of one’s own and falling shadows, as well as to identify the basic tonal relationships. When determining the lines of your own and falling shadows, use your knowledge of the nature of chiaroscuro in simple Forms: mentally dissect the capital into separate volumes and compare them with the geometric bodies already known to you.
Stage 5.
Figure 197 Work out the shapes in shadows and light in detail, generalize the light-and-shadow relationships
images, harmoniously subordinate them to each other, taking into account the aerial perspective.
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drawing of architectural details 93
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94 Chapter IV
drawing of architectural details 95
Ionic drawing.
Ionic - architectural ornamental element, consisting of an egg-shaped shape cut off from above, framed by a “shell”, a profiled roller, as well as pointed leaves facing downwards. In architecture, Ionics are widely used on capitals and cornices of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. Ionic has two axes of symmetry, one of them runs along the egg-shaped shape, the other - along the middle of the lancet sheet. Studying the form, make a plan, facade and side facade (Fig. 198). This will help you better understand the structure of the ionic, and will also greatly facilitate further work on the drawing.
Stage 1.
Figure 199. Outline the dimensions of the future image on the sheet. Draw a perspective view of the rectangular plate that serves as the basis for the ionic.
Stage 2.
Figure 200. Draw diagonals of the ionic base plate and draw a vertical midline - the main axis of symmetry. Imagine the generalized form of an ionik as a solid quarter shaft with a beveled top, to which a small roller adjoins below. Draw its plan on the upper surface of the ionic, separate the central egg-shaped volume from the side volumes, outline the axes of symmetry passing through the center of the pointed leaves, and clarify the main axis. At this stage, pay special attention to the prospective reduction of horizontal segments of equal length.
Stage 3.
Figure 201. Draw the details - the egg, shells, profiled roller, leaves. When depicting leaves, make a large front view of them in the margins (Fig. 202). This will help you draw the leaves in perspective correctly.
Stage 4.
Figure 203. Draw lines of own and falling shadows. Start, as usual, with the shadow areas and shade them several times, separating them from the light. Then you need to intensify the falling shadows towards the object casting the shadow, the viewer and the light source. At the same time, strengthen the lines of your own shadows, forming reflex zones. At this stage, do not get carried away with details, “sculpt” the general shape in accordance with the law of aerial perspective and the basic principles of the distribution of light and shade on simple geometric bodies.
Stage 5.
Figure 204. Continuing your work, move on to riveting large shapes in the light and then to the details. Complete the drawing with a generalization of the form, a harmonious subordination of all its parts.
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98 Chapter IV
plaster head drawing 99
Drawing of a plaster head
The human head is the most complex natural structure. This is due to its complex function in the human body. You can start drawing a head only if you have a sufficiently developed spatial understanding, a thorough knowledge of the general provisions of the drawing and good practice in depicting simpler forms.
The practical section “Drawing a plaster head” begins with an examination of its external shape in an “introductory drawing”. This first experience will become the basis for further, more detailed analysis. In the drawing of the skull, the structure of the bony base of the head is analyzed. In Houdon's drawing, the location and principle of operation of the main muscles, as well as cartilaginous tissues, are studied. For a detailed examination of the skull and muscles, it would be advisable to refer to anatomical atlases and manuals. In the following drawings, special attention is paid to the main details of the head: nose, lips, eyes and ear. And finally, returning to the drawing of a plaster head at a new level of understanding of its architectonics (i.e., the relationship between the internal structure and external form), you will be able to consolidate and gradually improve your skills in drawing plaster casts from ancient sculptures: Caesar, Aphrodite, Doryphorus, Diadumen, Socrates, Antinous and Apoxyomenos, traditionally offered for drawing at the entrance exams at the Moscow Architectural Institute.
Drawing “antiques” is a continuation of old academic traditions. Plastic perfection classical sculpture, its static nature and extraordinary expressiveness will allow you to quickly understand the general volumetric-spatial structure of the head, understand its details and basic proportions.
24. Introductory drawing. Head of Doryphoros.
The sculpture of Doryphoros was created in the 5th century BC Greek sculptor Polycletus, a representative of the Peloponnesian school. Polykleitos was not only a sculptor, but also an art theorist. He created the treatise “Canon”, where the ideal proportions of the human body were developed in great detail. The figure of Doryphoros, a young hoplite warrior (spearman), was the embodiment of this canon. At the same time, she was supposed to become the personification of the ideal citizen of the Greek polis: a person similar to the immortal gods, equally beautiful in body and spirit, a courageous defender hometown. The face of Doryphoros is schematic, it is devoid of individual features and expression, which is why the head of Doryphoros is offered for the first “introductory” work, as a result of which you will receive an initial, largely simplified idea of the shape of the head.
The head has a brain and a facial part. Its external plasticity is known using a number of anatomical points - nodes (support points or beacons) and lines. Thus, the following are clearly visible on the head: chin tubercles, lower jaw line, corners of the mouth, lines limiting the mouth area, lip line, filter, base, tip and wings of the nose, nose bridge, cheekbones, zygomatic arches, orbital edges, tear ridges, eyebrow arches , lines limiting the eyebrow arches, frontal tubercles, temporal lines, crown, auricles, auditory openings, mastoid processes of the temporal bones, parietal and occipital tubercles, nuchal line, border of the neck and chin, jugular fossa and protrusion of the seventh cervical vertebra. Find all these points and lines in figures 205 and 206, and then on the plaster head.
Knowing the anatomical points - beacons and characteristic lines, you will never get confused in the details and will always be able to distinguish the main thing from the accidental. To better understand the external spatial connections of the points of the head, a simplified diagram is often used, representing its structure in the form of an irregular polyhedron. However, one should not overuse such schemes in drawings. They are needed only as visual aids for a competent and convincing depiction of the human head.
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drawing architectural details 101
Draw from the drawing by P.I. Churilin
from the textbook “Structure of the Human Head”
Chapter 102 v
Draw from Pichurilin's drawing
from the textbook “Structure of the Human Head”
It is also customary to study the human head by analyzing its sections in three mutually perpendicular planes: sagittal, horizontal and frontal (Fig. 207).
The sagittal plane is the plane of symmetry of the body. Its name comes from the Latin “sagttta” - arrow. A cut in this plane gives us the middle line, which is the basis of the professional line of the face and is very important for drawing the head.
The horizontal plane passes through the base of the back of the head and the base of the nose.
Frontal plane perpendicular to the first two and “cuts” the head at its widest point. It passes through the crown, parietal tuberosities and the support points of the skull on the spine. Studying these sections, as well as orthogonal projections of the head: front, back, side and top views will help to you better understand the external plasticity of the head and more accurately convey it in your drawing.
plaster head drawing 103
The task of the “introductory” drawing is good composition on the sheet, the total volume is correctly conveyed, as well as the accurately found location and size of each part of the head.
Stage 1.
Figure 208. When starting work, determine the position of the horizon line and the angle. To do this, mentally enclose your head in a cube. Find the general dimensions and place the future image on the sheet using short serifs. Remember that if you draw the head from the front, the spaces on the left and right must be equal so that the image does not “collapse”; if you draw the head in profile, in 3\4 or 7\8 - the space of the sheet in front of the head (from the side face) should be larger than from the back of the head. Use light lines to outline the outline of the head.
Stage 2.
Figure 209. Draw the main large parts: separate the mass of the head from the neck, outline the front part, its front plane and easily draw an axial profile line. Refining the profile line, find the characteristic points lying on it: the point of the top of the forehead (on the hairline), the point between the eyebrows, the point of the base of the wings of the nose and the fracture point of the chin. These points determine the basic canonical proportional relationships of the parts of the head. According to the Greek classical canon, the distances between these points should be equal. Draw horizontal lines through these points (in the figure going to the vanishing point on the horizon) and mark on them the width of the forehead, base of the nose and chin, respectively. For the right choice directions of these lines, use the sighting method.
In accordance with the ancient canon, along the eye line, the antique head is divided into two equal parts - from the top of the head to the eye line and from the eye line to the base of the chin. The segment from the superciliary arches (the point between the eyebrows) to the base of the wings of the nose is divided into three equal parts - the eye line runs along the upper division line, and the base and wings of the nose are separated along the lower division line. The segment between the point of the base of the wings of the nose and the fracture of the chin is also divided into three equal parts. Along the upper division line runs midline mouth, which is also called the lip line, the lower line divides the chin in half. The distance between the eyes is equal to the length of the eye, i.e. the eye line is also divided into three equal parts. The height of the ear is equal to the length of the nose.
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