EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF MUSIC

Dynamics

“It is possible to convey a hundred dynamic gradations, placed between the limits,
which I call: more no sound and already not sound."
G. Neuhaus

You have, of course, heard of an explosive called dynamite. Do you know the Dynamo sports team? Where else can you find this root? Well, of course, in tape amplifiers - “speakers”. In all these examples we are talking about force: δύναμις [dynamic] is translated from Greek as “power”. But the last example is closest to us, because it deals specifically with the power of sound. We regulate the sound strength not only using the volume lever. This can be done directly on the piano keys by playing louder or softer, forte or piano. These shades (or nuances in French) are called dynamic shades, and the strength of the musical sound is called dynamics.

Dynamics - the strength of sound, dynamic shades (nuances) - shades of sound strength.

Musical dynamics again take us back to the origins of music. After all, loud and quiet sounds, as well as various shades, exist outside of musical works. The thunderstorm is thundering, and the drizzling rain rustles barely audibly; The sound of the sea surf is menacing, but the splash of the lake is gentle and not at all scary. The echo sounds differently, sometimes mimicking our voice almost nearby, sometimes fading away in the distance.

And even such purely musical features as crescendo (crescendo) - a gradual increase in sonority and diminuendo (diminuendo) - its gradual weakening, are also present in nature.

Listen to how the wind rustles in the treetops, first slightly touching the leaves, then becoming louder, stronger, capturing the entire crown at the moment of climax, causing it to sway, make noise, and only then gradually weakening its pressure until it completely calms down. This character of dynamics, which could be schematically depicted by the musical signs cresc., dim., is a universal law of any sound.

Or maybe its manifestation should be sought within broader boundaries - not only in music, not only in sounds in general, but in the diversity of all existing things? Isn’t this what F. Tyutchev wrote about in his poem “Wave and Thought”?

Thought after thought, wave after wave -
Two manifestations of one element:
Whether in a cramped heart, or in a boundless sea,
Here - in prison, there - in the open -
The same eternal surf and rebound,
The same ghost is still alarmingly empty.

If this “eternal ebb and flow” is that very universal law of life, then perhaps music has such an effect on a person because it most clearly carries its obvious embodiment? After all, any piece of music, even the smallest one, has its own rules for the distribution of dynamics, giving it expressiveness and meaningfulness. Moreover, this meaningfulness is the main difference between artistic dynamics and the sound dynamics of nature: in music it never appears as an “alarmingly empty ghost”, but, on the contrary, forms a deeply natural movement, participating in the creation of an artistic image along with other means of musical expressiveness .

Remember the introduction to M. Mussorgsky’s opera “Khovanshchina” - “Dawn on the Moscow River”. The music of this unusually expressive fragment conveys the leisurely approach of the Moscow morning. The monophonic, quiet melody that opens the introduction is like the first ray of light, which increasingly advances, grows, and is colored by the radiance of the rising sun, suddenly flaring up and playing on the golden domes of Moscow churches.

Listening to this fragment, you are once again convinced of how great, how truly limitless are the possibilities of music in conveying not only any movement, process, but also its subtlest shades and gradations. Not just the general line of gradual dynamic growth, but the smallest details, details - all this gives the music such authenticity, a sense of authenticity.

This is the same realism in music that B. Pasternak wrote about: “Everywhere, in any art, realism, apparently, does not represent a separate direction, but constitutes a special degree of art, the highest degree of author’s accuracy.” Such precision is characteristic of the work of every great musician, who is equally conscientious in the construction of a large composition and in the finishing of every detail. The scene of a summer thunderstorm from the IV movement of Symphony No. 6 by L. Beethoven is extremely expressive! Listen to how dynamics manifest themselves in this composition along with orchestration and harmonic colors.

The thunderstorm begins gradually. The music very clearly and vividly depicts its onset: the sky frowns, the wind picks up (timpani tremolo), the first drops of rain appear (pizzicato strings). All this occurs along with increased dynamics, leading to the highest point of the rampant natural disaster. A thunderstorm literally falls: thunderclaps, lightning flashes are heard in the music, and minor colors visibly and tangibly thicken. The gradual subsidence of the storm is accompanied by a gradual calm in the orchestra; the thunderstorm is moving away - and only distant rumbles of thunder can still be heard in the music. However, they soon disappear: the clouds dissipate (the minor gives way to the major), the music brightens.

Dynamics is one of the most striking expressive means of music. One can even say that this is the most important carrier of musicality in general, no matter what it manifests itself in: in poetry, in prose, in the intonations of human speech. After all, any poem has its own indicators of dynamics, allowing us to hear whether it sounds “quiet” or “loud”; and when describing human characters, the writer certainly indicates how this or that hero speaks, what kind of voice he has; and in our everyday observations we often guess a person by the peculiarities of the sound of his speech. And it often turns out that quiet but weighty words convince us much more than noisy verbosity.

Musicians have long explored the artistic possibilities of volume dynamics. Even in the Renaissance, various effects were created by dynamic means - for example, the echo effect in O. Lasso’s choir “Echo”. It was noticed that the comparison of volumes when playing the same melody sounds like an echo, giving the music a special spatiality. It is also known that a quiet, measured melody lulls, and a loud and solemn melody invigorates, therefore all the lullabies of the world are sung quietly, and all marches, on the contrary, are very sonorous.

However, between these extreme manifestations of dynamics there are, as G. Neuhaus accurately noted, many intermediate shades. Not only composers, but also performers are well aware that the reproduction of the author's intention depends to a great extent on the accuracy of observing dynamic shades. G. Neuhaus, an outstanding pianist and teacher, repeated to his students: “Maria Pavlovna (mp) must not be confused with Maria Fedorovna (mf), Petya (r) with Pyotr Petrovich (rr), Fedya (f) with Fedor Fedorovich (ff).” . These words tell us not only about the vivid perception of dynamic shades, but also about the exactingness of a wonderful master in observing the smallest nuances of volume.

Dynamic shades:
pp – pianissimo- extremely quiet performance.
R - piano- quiet.
mp - mezzo piano- moderately quiet.
mf – mezzo forte- moderately loud.
f – forte- loud.
ff – fortissimo- extremely loud.

Of course, like any other means of expression, dynamics are extremely rarely used in any one sound. In the entire history of music, you will not find a piece that is equally loud or equally quiet from beginning to end. The movement of dynamics is influenced not only by the natural laws of volume distribution, but also by many other circumstances.

Try, for example, to sing any melody at the same volume - and you will immediately be convinced that your performance is unmusical. The melody itself is flexible and changeable; when it moves up, you want to sing it a little louder, when it ends, it requires lowering the sound. Moreover, it can sound entirely within any one shade - for example, mf; thus, increasingly subtle gradations of loudness will occur within the boundaries of this designation.

That is why the expressiveness of music is based on dynamic variability. A gradual increase in climax - decline, for example, in the fragment from L. Beethoven's Symphony No. 6 that we examined, is one of the possible dynamics; a contrasting juxtaposition of sonorities, as in O. Lasso’s choir “Echo,” is another version of it.

Dynamics has always been an ally of musical programming. After all, turning to a specific program concept, the composer took on a special responsibility: to express in sounds the content that is hidden behind the title of the work. That is why in program music the artistic role of all its aspects is so high - rhythm, harmony, texture and, of course, dynamics.

The piece “Moonlight” from the “Bergamass Suite” by C. Debussy, like most of the works of this most poetic composer, is distinguished by the finest detail of musical writing. A captivating moonlit night, full of magical charm, mysterious and enigmatic - this is the image of this music, which, as always, is much higher and richer than the words that can be said about it.

The moon was sad. With bows in oblivion
Led by angels. From a trembling chest
Viola, in the silence of flowers, a flammable cry was born
Either white, like fog, or blue harmonies.

These lines are from the poem “The Phenomenon” by S. Mallarmé. They can be attributed to the music of C. Debussy - a bright and consistent exponent of the elusive wonders of nature. Colors, sounds, aromas, sounding light - this flicker is conveyed in his music as if on the edge of its imaginable possibilities. Everything that music says about itself is refined to the limit, detailed - both in the shimmer of harmonic coloring, and in the delicate detail of the rhythm, and in the finest dynamic nuances. Listening to “Moonlight”, you experience the impression of the full visibility of the moonlight, every branch, every dark twig against its background, every barely perceptible rustle.

No less expressive are examples of sound visualization of dynamics.

Have you ever heard how the morning forest wakes up, how it is gradually filled with various sounds, rustles, and birdsong? But the singing of birds has long attracted musicians. For many of them, this became a kind of school of composing skills. The special timbres inherent in each bird, the nature of the chirping, tempo, strokes and, finally, the volume that is characteristic of its singing - all this taught the accuracy, detail, expressiveness of musical characteristics. O. Messiaen's orchestral work “The Awakening of the Birds” is one of the results of such a “forest school”, which very accurately conveys the various sounds of a summer forest filled with the voices of birds. In the musical fragment given below, you can hear the singing of the whirligig, the little owl, the wood lark, the warbler, the blackbird and other birds, gradually awakening and greeting the dawn with their singing. The music of “Waking the Birds” opens up new possibilities for sound imaging – not only rhythmic and timbre, but also dynamic.

"Dynamics" translated means "strength". This force, implying the loudness of the sound, can be understood more broadly - as a force that affects a person along with other musical “forces”. It contains a huge world of imaginative possibilities: the world of sound diversity, the world of expressive musical movement, inner life piece of music, every moment of which is never emotionally neutral, indifferent. Every moment of music is always unique, and therefore the power of every musical sound is unique.

Questions and tasks:
1. What dynamic shades would you use to convey the various sounds of nature: the sound of rain, the roar of thunder, the rustling of leaves, the roar of the sea (continue this series yourself)?
2. Do you think there are dynamic shades in silent phenomena or objects? What do you associate them with (what qualities, with what shades)?
3. In the Diary, identify the “loud” and “quiet” poems.
4. What is the role of nuances in the dynamics of a piece of music? Try to connect your answer with the words of G. Neuhaus, included in the epigraph to this section.
5. Among the means of musical expression, name those that can be found not only in music, but also in the surrounding world; which belong only to music.

Presentation

Included:
1. Presentation - 16 slides, ppsx;
2. Sounds of music:
Debussy. “Moonlight” from the Bergamasco Suite, mp3;
Beethoven. Symphony No. 6 in F major, op.68 - IV. Allegro, mp3;
Lasso. "Echo", mp3;
Messiaen. "Waking the Birds", mp3;
Mussorgsky. “Dawn on the Moscow River” from the opera “Khovanshchina”, mp3;
3. Accompanying article, docx.

Lesson summary on the subject of musical literacy and listening to music on the topic "Dynamic shades, their role and significance in music. The “King” of ballroom dancing (the history of the emergence and spread of the waltz)"

Author: Atamanova Lyudmila Ivanovna, teacher of the Municipal Budgetary Educational Institution of Preschool Children's Art School, Usman, Lipetsk region.
Short description: I offer you a lesson summary on the subject of musical literacy and listening to music for 1st grade. This material will be useful for preschool children's school teachers working in the department of general aesthetic education. The proposed lesson development uses a student-centered approach. This work contains a presentation for clarity of the material being studied. The lesson is aimed at developing musical abilities in students, expanding knowledge in the field of analyzing a musical work, and nurturing musical culture.

Target: Introduce students to the concept of “dynamics”, help them understand the designation, the role of dynamic shades in music, and also talk about the emergence and spread of the waltz, its place in the rich and diverse world of music, involving children in active participation in the lesson.
Tasks:
1. Educational: to cultivate a sense of care and respect for cultural heritage, to accept dance as part of the spiritual and national culture.
2. Developmental: develop musical abilities: hearing, speech, memory, include creative imagination in the lesson, be as active as possible.
3. Educational: to develop the ability to remember, navigate dynamic shades, and apply them in practice. Recognize waltz among other musical genres.
Equipment: musical instrument, sheet music, literary and educational material, technical means.

During the classes

(Slide)
Teacher: Guys, in our very first lesson we were introduced to the concept of “sound”. What is this?
Students: Sound is the result of vibrations of an elastic body (for example, a string, a column of air). Sounds are divided into musical and noise.
Teacher: And by their nature, sounds can be quiet and loud, and no one will ever confuse them. There are two boxes in front of you. (Slide)
Teacher: Guess what sounds are hidden in them? First, write the missing letters in the cells horizontally, then indicate in the frames what sounds they are: loud or quiet.

Teacher: And yet the concept of “loud” or “quiet” is very relative. For example, when you good mood, you turn on the player at full volume, and that day your neighbor has Bad mood, so he is indignant. The sound seems too loud for him. We perceive the same sound differently. But it may not sound the same. For example, sounds that are quiet for a trumpet are too loud for, say, a harp or guitar. Let's knock on the table: quietly, a little louder, even louder, loudly, very loudly! Please note: the louder we knock, the more force we have to apply. (Slide)
Teacher: The sound strength is called volume and is a very important property of musical sounds.
Write the definition in your notebook.
Music can be loud or quiet, and can change abruptly or smoothly from one volume to another. (Slide)
Teacher: Changing the volume of sounds in music is called dynamics.
Write the definition in your notebook
Dynamics (the Greek word dinamikos means “power”) is the strength of sound. Music, like human speech, is filled with many sound shades. The more such shades, the more expressive it is. These sound tones are called dynamic. You never speak only loudly or only quietly. The strength of the sound depends on what and how you want to say. To speak, sing or play with force means with feeling, with great spiritual uplift. If you hit the keys hard, you get...
Students: Loud!
Teacher: What if it’s weak?
Students: Quiet!
Teacher: Italian words forte (loud), piano (quiet). What instrument's name comes from these words?
Students: Piano.

Teacher: Remember these notations and write them down. (Slide)
Teacher: Now let's play. Solve the charade and fill in the cells. The answer is written on the board
To the two well-known notes we add a preposition,
You will get a long and loud beep.
SIREN)

Teacher: Use your voice to pretend to be a siren. Start quietly, gradually increase the volume - the siren is approaching, passing by, moving away... The closer, the louder, the further, the quieter. (Slide) Let's write down the definitions:
(crescendo) crescendo - gradually strengthening, (diminuendo) diminuendo - gradually weakening.

Homework

draw dynamic forks for these notations:
P_________f ; f_________p
Teacher: Today we got acquainted only with the basic dynamic shades, but if you look at the dynamic forks, you can see that the sound will change at different points of these forks. We will talk about this in the next lesson, but now listen to music and you will probably pay attention to the dynamic shades that will sound in it, as one of the most important means of musical expressiveness. But before the music starts, I have to talk about it. You, of course, have been convinced many times that music is closely connected with all the arts: literature, theater, cinema, and even the fine arts: painting, architecture, sculpture. But all these arts exist without music, having completely independent meaning. But there is a field of art that does not exist without music. What kind of art is this?
Students: Dance.

Teacher: Of course, dance. And therefore, when we say the word “dance,” not only the dance figures of the dance itself always appear in our minds, but also the characteristic music - musical image of this dance. Dance and choreography are a huge and very diverse area of ​​art. There are dances that were born by one people, but have become the property of many. Some were danced only by the common people in villages and cities, others only in aristocratic salons, and there were also those that enjoyed equal success among the common people and in court circles.

Today we will talk about only one dance, an amazing dance! It arose on a certain national basis, but gradually became the dance of almost all peoples of the world, appeared in a broad democratic environment, one might say, in city and village squares, and became an absolutely universal dance. At first it was only intended to be danced. And very soon it literally permeated all areas of music without exception. This dance has existed for more than three centuries and shows no signs of aging. I think you can guess what kind of dance this is. Well, to make your answer more convincing, guess the riddle:

The whole hall sparkled brightly,
Everyone is invited to the ball,
I ask you to answer,
What kind of dance is this?
Waltz!

Well, of course, the waltz, a dance that has a three-beat meter (one, two, three). It is emphasized by the presentation of the accompaniment typical of a waltz: in the first quarter there is a bass sound, and in the second and third quarters there are two chords that form a unified-sounding harmony with the bass. (show music text)
Now listen to how this waltz sounds when performed.
Performed by student R. Bazhilin “Waltz”
For homework, distribute notes with “Waltz”, where children must arrange dynamic shades.
Teacher: Do you know how the waltz originated?

A long time ago, residents of small Austrian towns and villages gathered on the lawns to relax after work. They sang and danced, briskly stamping their wooden shoes, spinning and jumping: one-two-three. The violin played a simple melody cheerfully, the boys picked up the girls and slightly tossed them in the dance. And so this dance reached the most important city of Austria, its capital - Vienna. And the residents of Vienna were all inveterate dancers. They danced at home, at parties, in dance halls, and simply on the streets of the city. When the village dance "one-two-three" came to Vienna, the inhabitants Austrian capital They looked down on him and said disdainfully: “landl”, which meant provincial, hillbilly. Well, what kind of dance is this! Shoes knock, men throw women up, they scream in unison; try to dance such a dance on a smooth parquet floor - you will immediately fall down! Maybe try it as a joke? Of course, not so dashingly...hush, hush! No need to jump like that! The movements are softer, smoother. But he’s okay, this “landler”, this provincial! And the Ländler dance became a regular guest in all dance halls. (Slide)
Performed by F. Schubert "Ländler"
Discussion related to character and dynamics
Teacher: And then this dance turned into another, which began to be called a waltz. But where did this name come from? Maybe it is nobler than the previous one? Not at all! There is a device called rollers, between which metal plates are flattened and rolled. These two rollers rotate all the time and draw in the metal tape with their rotation. Isn’t that how the music of dance draws you in, draws you into whirling? So they called it new dance the word “Walzen” means spinning, rotating. (Slide)
This is how A.S. describes the character of the waltz in his novel “Eugene Onegin”. Pushkin:
Monotonous and crazy
Like a young whirlwind of life,
A noisy whirlwind swirls around the waltz,
Couple flashes after couple.
But the waltz really became famous when composers paid attention to it. Do you know who was the first to compose waltzes? No? Then I'll tell you now. But for this, let's remember Andersen's fairy tales.
Students: Flint, Wild Swans, Thumbelina.
Teacher: Well, in what fairy tale main role music is playing?
Let me remind you that in this fairy tale, the princess refused to accept gifts from the prince - a real rose and a nightingale - and to marry him. Then the prince smeared soot on his face and went to work for the king, the princess’s father. By evening, the prince made a magic pot, all hung with bells: when something was cooked in this pot, the bells called out an old song.
Sounds like “Ah, my dear Augustine”
Student: The tale is called "The Swineherd". (Slide)

Teacher: Well, who is Augustine?
Augustine is the name of a singer. He lived in Vienna almost four hundred years ago. He walked around the city and sang songs. Everyone loved Augustine very much, because in his company life became brighter and more fun. The singer became especially popular in the year of the plague epidemic. The Black Pestilence mercilessly mowed down people. But Augustine walked around the city and sang his songs. People listened to his songs and believed that the plague would soon pass. One day, returning home late in March after a feast with friends, Augustine found himself in a cemetery and fell into a pit where poor people who died of the plague were buried. Waking up in the morning, Augustine, as if nothing had happened, got up and went into the city, telling his friends about his unusual overnight stay. After this, the singer’s fame increased even more, and people believed that his music and his songs were stronger than the plague.
The song sounds again.
Teacher: It's a waltz! It is possible that Augustine is one of the first musicians in the world to begin composing waltzes! How much beautiful waltzes written by composers in different countries! These are Russian composers, and French, and German. (Slide)

And now we will listen to the waltz of the German composer K.-M. Weber from the opera "The Magic Shooter".
This is one of the earliest waltzes; the opera was created in 1821. Here you can still feel the connection with the Landler, especially since in the opera he is danced by peasants to the simple accompaniment of village musicians right in the square.
The traditional shooting competition between hunters ends with a merry holiday. The peasants in their simple, uncomplicated clothes and rustic shoes dance slowly, smoothly describing circles. And the melody is simple and artless, has a uniform rotational movement.
The waltz of K.-M sounds. Weber from the opera "The Magic Shooter"
There is only one theme in the waltz, it sounds several times throughout the play. Each waltz formation has 8 bars - this structure is typical for dance music. Well, we will end our lesson with one of the most beautiful waltzes in the world. It was composed by a man who, at the beginning of the 20th century, lived in the capital of waltzes, the city of Vienna, and received the title “Waltz King” there. This is the famous Johann Strauss (there were two of them - father and son, both were famous and both famous, but the son significantly surpassed his father). (Slide)

In the previous article we looked at the concept of tempo as a means of expression in music. You also learned about tempo notation options. In addition to tempo, the volume of a piece of music is of great importance. Volume is a powerful means of expression in music. The tempo of the piece and its volume complement each other, creating a single picture.

Dynamic shades

The level of volume of music is called dynamic tone. We immediately draw your attention to the fact that within the framework of one piece of music various dynamic shades can be used. Below is a list of dynamic shades.

Constant volume

Full title Reduction Translation fortissimo ff very loud forte f loud mezzo forte mf average volume mezzo piano mp medium-quiet piano p quiet pianissimo pp very quiet

.

Volume changes

.

Changing the volume

Let's look at examples of the interaction between volume and tempo. The march will most likely sound loud, clear, and solemn. The romance will not sound very loud, at a slow or medium tempo. With a high degree of probability, in the romance we will encounter a gradual acceleration of the tempo and increasing volume. Less often, depending on the content, there may be a gradual slowdown in tempo and lower volume.

Bottom line

In order to perform music, you need to know the designation of dynamic shades. You saw what signs and words are used for this in the notes.

In this article you will get acquainted with the basic concepts of dynamics, learn the most popular notations and methods of dynamic work, as well as mistakes and problems that novice musicians encounter.

What is dynamics in general?

If we turn to the etymology of the word dynamics, we learn that from the Greek. δύναμις - strength, power.

Musical shades- see Nuance.
Music Encyclopedia

Dynamic Problems of the Theory of Elasticity- - a range of issues in the theory of elasticity related to the study of the propagation of oscillations or the state of steady oscillations in elastic media. In the simplest and most......
Mathematical Encyclopedia

Dynamic Characteristics of Mental Processes- - an important aspect of any mental activity, including its speed and regulatory aspects. Syn. psychodynamic properties. D. x. p.p. are regulated by nonspecific........
Psychological Encyclopedia

Formal-dynamic Properties- - see Dynamic characteristics mental processes, Personality properties, Temperament.
Psychological Encyclopedia

Colors, Shades- 1. Colors with luminance darker than average or neutral gray. 2. Colors with luminosity lighter than average or neutral gray.
Psychological Encyclopedia

Dynamic Patterns- more or less general, necessary, essential, repeating connections and dependencies that characterize the behavior of relatively isolated objects during research........
Philosophical Dictionary

Designations

Volume (relative)

Two basic designations for volume in music:

Moderate degrees of loudness are indicated as follows:

Besides the signs f And p , There are also

Additional letters are used to indicate even more extreme degrees of loudness and silence. f And p . Thus, quite often in musical literature we encounter the designations fff And ppp . They do not have standard names; they usually say “forte fortissimo” and “piano pianissimo” or “tri forte” and “tri piano”.

In rare cases, with the help of additional f And p even more extreme degrees of sound intensity are indicated. Thus, P. I. Tchaikovsky in his Sixth Symphony used pppppp And ffff , and D. D. Shostakovich in the Fourth Symphony - fffff .

The designations of dynamics are relative, not absolute. For example, mp does not indicate an exact volume level, but rather that this passage should be played somewhat louder than p , and somewhat quieter than mf . Some computer audio recording programs have standard key velocity values ​​that correspond to a particular volume designation, but these values ​​can usually be customized.

Gradual changes

Terms used to denote a gradual change in volume crescendo(Italian crescendo), denoting a gradual increase in sound, and diminuendo(Italian diminuendo), or Decrecendo(decrescendo) - gradual weakening. In sheet music they are abbreviated as cresc. And dim.(or decresc.). For the same purposes, special “fork” signs are used. They are pairs of lines connected on one side and diverging on the other. If the lines diverge from left to right () - weakening. The following piece of notation shows a moderately loud start, then a louder sound, and then a softer sound:

“Forks” are usually written below the staff, but sometimes above it, especially in vocal music. They usually indicate short-term changes in volume, and signs cresc. And dim.- changes over a longer period of time.

Designations cresc. And dim. may be accompanied by additional instructions poco(poko - a little) poco a poco(poko and poko - little by little), subito or sub.(subito - suddenly), etc.

Sforzando designation

Drastic changes

Sforzando(Italian: sforzando) or sforzato(sforzato) denotes sudden sharp emphasis and is indicated sf or sfz . The sudden intensification of several sounds or a short phrase is called rinforzando(Italian rinforzando) and is designated rinf. , rf or rfz .

Designation fp means “loudly, then immediately quietly”; sfp indicates sforzando followed by piano.

Musical terms related to dynamics

• al niente- literally “to nothing”, to silence
• calando- “going down”; slowing down and lowering the volume.
• crescendo- strengthening
• decrescendo or diminuendo- lowering the volume
• perdendo or perdendosi- losing strength, wilting
• morendo- fading (fading down and slowing down)
• marcato- emphasizing every note
• più- more
• poco- A little
• poco a poco- little by little, gradually
• sotto voice- in a low voice
• subito- suddenly

Often in conversation people use words whose meaning they do not know or do not understand. In this article we will look at what the word forte means.

This word, which originated from the musical environment, today can more often be used in the name of medicines, but is still used in music.

“Forte” in the name of drugs

In Latin there is a word forte. It is translated into Russian as “strong”, “strong”, “persistent”. In medicine, this term is used as “impact dosage” or “strong concentration”. Therefore, if the name of the medicine is written on the package and the word forte is added, this will mean that this drug contains double the content of the active substance. For example, Essliver Forte or Mezim Forte. Thus, we can say that these are two tablets in one. However, this does not mean that if you are prescribed two tablets a day, you can replace it with one forte.

Tablets with the word forte on the packaging are covered with a special coating. It dissolves well in the intestines and (unlike a regular tablet) is not immediately digested in the stomach. Basically, Forte drugs reach the duodenum, where their effect begins.

"Forte" in music

A forte is a part of a piece of music that requires a loud, amplified sound from the instrument. This concept also has the following meanings:

• Forte means "loud" and requires the singer's voice to be raised as high as possible.
• Forte is the fullness of sound, which is the opposite of piano - quiet sound.

The term “forte” is associated with the concept “strong,” which refers to the loudness of the performance of a piece or a separate part of it. The same word formed the name of a well-known musical instrument - the piano, which literally translates from Italian as “loud-quiet”.

Forte can indicate the degree of loudness:

• Mezzoforte says that part of the piece should be performed moderately and quietly.
• Fortissimo indicates the need to sing or play very loudly.
• Forte piano indicates a jump in volume. In this case, you first need to play loudly, and then immediately quietly.

Musical dynamics is one of the most important tools in the hands of a performing musician. The impact of dynamics is most direct and powerful. Any listener is clearly aware of the difference between loud and quiet sound; without thinking, he can detect an increase or decrease in sonority. This is due to the fact that all kinds of increases and decreases in the strength of sound, sounds of different strengths are often found in the reality surrounding a person. Therefore, to perceive musical dynamics, to understand its meaning and meaning, almost no prior artistic experience is required.

Every person is capable of hearing and perceiving fairly subtle relative differences in loudness. Judgments about the absolute value of loudness are much less definite and accurate. The subjective assessment of loudness may depend on the timbre, physical capabilities of the voice, or choral part, the interaction of comparable adjacent nuances, the duration of the nuance, etc. Thus, a sound in which high overtones predominate, the frequency of which will correspond to the maximum "sensitivity of hearing (approximately 1000-3000 Hz), even at the same strength as a sound in which low overtones predominate overtones will be perceived as louder; even a weak voice with a bright characteristic timbre can cut through the sound of a powerful choir and be perceived as very loud; the perception of pianissimo after piano is completely different than after forte; with a long forte or fortissimo, the power of influence of these nuances is gradually lost, and vice versa, even sounds of average strength seem loud after prolonged listening to quiet sounds. It is also impossible not to take into account that the nuances indicated by the composer do not have the same meaning everywhere and can vary depending on the form, genre, character, style of the work. cannot reflect all shades of loudness to the same extent as, for example, a metronome determines local speed.

From what has been said, it is clear that the volume gradations used in musical practice are relative in nature. The most correct and clear is only the judgment about the volume of sound and the boundaries of three qualities: “quiet”, “moderate” and “loud”. There are no clear boundaries between these “steps”. Therefore, when performing music, exact adherence to one or another shade does not play a special role. Much more important are relative differences, relationships that do not depend on the physical strength of the voice or instrument. Such relativity, the conventionality of dynamic designations naturally gives the performer great scope for the manifestation of his creative initiative. Very often the performer has to “overestimate” the meaning of this or that dynamic indication, introduce additional shades not indicated by the author, and sometimes deviate from the nuances indicated in the text. The reason for this may be the acoustic conditions of the hall, quantitative and ka-. honest composition of the choir, register, timbre, different composition vowels, the role of the voice in the ensemble.

For example, experienced directors of choirs whose members do not have strong voices try to use the most subtle piano gradations as the main nuance so that even mezzo forte gives the impression of fortissimo required by the composer. Sometimes the conductor, taking into account the specific bright timbre coloring of a choral part, changes the nuance indicated in the notes to dim its brightness. The same thing happens in cases when a composer writes a part in a register that is inconvenient for it (or too high - and then it sounds tense, or too low - then the sound is quiet). In such cases, in order to create a choral ensemble, the leader is forced to either reduce or increase the volume of its sound.

Choirs bring together singers with different vocal abilities. For singers of each individual choral part, as a rule, both the overall range of sound strength and the intensity of sound in different tessitura do not coincide. During the rehearsal process, it turns out that with the forte nuance, weaker voices disappear under the pressure of more powerful ones and in the overall sound important elements of the musical fabric are lost for the listener.

Therefore, in the choir there is a need to adjust the usual ideas. Here we can talk about the concept of loudness in four meanings: 1) the loudness of each voice separately; 2) loudness, voices in the ensemble; 3) party volume; 4) the volume of the entire ensemble. Based on experience, we can say that the volume level of the voice in the ensemble (in the party) is determined by the dynamic capabilities of the weakest singer. For the remaining members of the party, the forte of the weakest should serve as a standard by which they accordingly measure the strength of the sound of their voice. The strength of the sound of an individual part in the overall ensemble depends on the features of the presentation and texture. The forte of the leading part should be more intense than the forte of the accompanying part; forte in brighter registers should be consistent with the sound in duller ones; with a transparent, light texture, the forte will be different than with a dense and massive one.

Similar remarks apply to the execution of the piano nuance. The piano standard when performed together depends on the specifics of high and low male and female voices and on the skill of their owners. For example, pianissimo in the upper registers is easily performed by sopranos and tenors, but requires considerable skill from basses and altos. Therefore, in some cases, for the sake of general balance, the piano nuance is performed somewhat louder than the “ideal”, which, of course, should not lead to a coarsening of the overall piano ensemble.

Some composers, well understanding the uniqueness of ensemble dynamics and the difference between the nuance “in general” and the nuance “in the ensemble,” provide refined, differentiated instructions. But this happens quite rarely. As a rule, the performer needs to adjust the nuances himself to achieve the required sonority balance.

A common drawback is the overload of the sonority of the background, associated with the loss of sound perspective, that is, the relationship between the leading and accompanying voices, between the main thematic material and the background. Sometimes conductors try to restore this ratio by increasing the volume of the thematic voice. However, this technique, at first glance absolutely logical and natural, does not always give the desired effect. It is much better to highlight the foreground not by emphasizing its amplification, but by reducing the sonority of the background. This technique, undoubtedly more subtle, is especially appropriate in lyrical, discreet, quiet works, where the thematic voice should sound piano (examples of this are “Winter Road”, “Birch”, “The Lark” by V. Shebalin, “The Dawn Is Warming”, “ Alps" by P. Chesnokov, "The Nightingale" by P. Tchaikovsky, "On the Old Mound", "Lark" by Vik Kalinnikov, etc.).

The execution of nuance in each part is inextricably linked with the characteristics of the choral instrumentation, with the tessitura of other parts, with the semantic meaning of individual voices and their role in the overall musical development.

The basis of the loudness of the ensemble is the premise that the combined sound of all choral parts will be stronger than each one individually. Therefore, the overall sonority depends on the number of simultaneously sounding choral voices and can, as a result of simply connecting or switching off parts, change in one direction or another.

In addition, it must be taken into account that not all dynamic shades are indicated in the notes and that the appearance of one or another nuance in the text does not always mean that it should be executed with the same force from the very beginning to the end. On the contrary, some deviations from the main nuance often contribute to greater expressiveness of the performance. So, for example, in order to emphasize the culminating sound of a phrase, to make the phrasing convex, you need to highlight an important note with the help of “pressure”, a slight increase in volume, and vice versa, “remove” the sonority after the climax. Expressiveness is often achieved not so much by emphasizing the culminating note, but by facilitating, fading the end of the phrase.

Hans Schmidt, a professor at the Vienna Conservatory, in his book “On the Natural Laws of Musical Performance” formulated the rules according to which each longer note should be played louder than a shorter one. In the case where a longer note follows several short notes, he advised making a small intervening crescendo to it so that the long note receives the necessary strength of sound. After a long note, Schmidt advised “to play as weakly as the long note sounded for half its duration,” otherwise the immediately following note will not closely adjoin the long note (“pouring out” of it). Formulating his rules in relation to piano performance, Schmidt at the same time emphasized that “even in singing, the longer note receives the strongest emphasis, with the only difference being that the singer in most cases transfers this emphasis to the middle of the long note.”0.

A certain interdependence between the duration of sound and its strength was noted by famous modern musicians and teachers. Thus, A. Goldenweiser wrote in this regard: “If I play, say, forte without crescendo and diminuendo, with equal strength melodic line, which goes in quarters, and then at some quarter I play four sixteenths, with the same strength each, then the listener gets the impression that I played louder, since in the same unit of time he will perceive not one, but four sounds . Of course, this cannot be understood arithmetically, that is, that we must play these four notes exactly four times quieter than the previous quarter notes, but, in any case, if we do not want these sixteenth notes to sound much louder than the rest, we must play each of them is easier."

Researchers have also noted a certain dependence of the sound strength on the rhythmic pattern: the more energetic the rhythm, the more active it should be performed.

how ^ Syncopation sung weaker than the note representing -

singing before it, after it, or simultaneously with it, but in a different voice, ceases to be syncopation, that is, it loses its rhythmic and dynamic characteristics.

Performing nuance is largely associated with harmonic movement, with the alternation of musical stability and instability, with the functional role of chords in the mode. For example, if a dissonant chord is followed by a resolution, then it should be played quieter than the chord.

The direction of the melody is of considerable importance for nuance. Quite often in performing practice we are faced with an increase in the strength of sound when the melody moves up and a decay when moving down. The expressiveness of this technique is due to the perception of upward movement and ascending dynamics as an increase in expression, emotional uplift, and a decrease in dynamics and downward movement as an emotional decline. However, such an association is not always legitimate. No less often, the downward movement of the melody should be accompanied by crescendo, and the upward movement by diminuendo, associated in the first case with an increase in massiveness, heaviness, and in the second with relief, melting.

Finally, live performance practice constantly reminds us of the dependence of dynamics on tempo, and tempo on dynamics. Loud sound, as a rule, is difficult to combine with fast, virtuoso movement. The louder the sound, the heavier it is and therefore the more difficult it is to control at a fast pace. Therefore, in works in which the composer demands forte or fortissimo at the same time as lightness, elegance, and grace, sometimes the strength of sound must be somewhat sacrificed in order to achieve the desired character of the music.

All this indicates that certain tempo, melodic, rhythmic, harmonic, textural features musical language often prompt the performer to adjust the author's dynamic instructions. However, this should be done with great caution. Too frequent, unjustified changes in the main nuances do not achieve the goal; they only tire and dull the perception of the listeners, introduce mannerisms into the performance and can even produce a humorous impression. “Nothing can damage a work more,” noted R. Wagner, “than arbitrary nuance, since it opens up scope for the fantastic whims of any vain beater, counting only on the effect,” 2.

The main criterion for correct nuance is the content and form of the work, its composition and structure, and the nature of the melody. In choral literature there are many episodes written with a broad, rich stroke, during the performance of which it is necessary to

We must avoid fractional nuances. And vice versa, in works rich in colorful, bright, contrasting details, psychological moments, monotonous, monotonous dynamics can significantly impoverish the meaningful and figurative side of the music. “In order not to lose the logic of the relationship between the strength of sonorities and to create a sound palette rich in variety and colors,” wrote A. Pazovsky, “the conductor needs to feel and realize the “end-to-end dynamics** of the work he is performing.” Like an end-to-end tempo rhythm, the palette of musical dynamics is the rise and fall of sound tensions, continuous contrasts, changes of dynamic nuances, strokes, and shades of heterogeneous strength and character, harmoniously united into one large whole.”

Through the various use of dynamic nuances, the conductor can reveal one or another possibility for the development of musical performance dramaturgy, creating a form that most closely matches the content of the work.

As already noted, a relatively stable volume level can contribute to the unification of a form, and sudden changes in volume can be a means of dividing it. Therefore, with the help of certain dynamic techniques, the performer can influence the form of the composition. A very common technique of performing nuance is, for example, the dynamic contrast of repeated motifs, phrases, etc. (the first time louder, the second time quieter, or vice versa).

Especially great importance acquires dynamics in songs and choirs with a verse structure, becoming here perhaps the main performing means of musical development. Changes in nuance in different verses of a song add contrast and variety to the repetitive musical material and enliven the form. On the contrary, the technique of gradual amplification of sound from the first verse to the last or the combination of a smooth amplification with a smooth attenuation, especially often used, for example, in soldiers’ and barge workers’ songs, in to a large extent combines the entire verse form into a single whole.

In principle, the long crescendo and diminuendo are a very important means of unifying the form and a powerful means of development. But both nuances make a truly convincing impression only if they are performed gradually and evenly. In order for the rise and fall of sonority to be carried out with great consistency, it is recommended to start the crescendo somewhat weaker than the main nuance, and the diminuendo somewhat louder. A wise rule was recommended by G. Bülow: “Crescendo means piano, diminuendo means forte.” That is, support for a long crescendo must be sought in deep piano, and for an equally long diminuendo - in a rich and full forte. During a gradual dynamic transition, it is very useful to conditionally divide the melodic line into a number of motives, each of which should be performed somewhat louder or quieter than the previous one. Moreover, even in episodes that require a lot of sound power, you need not give it all.

Perhaps even more difficult than the gradual execution of crescendo and diminuendo is the sudden change of nuances for the performer. The performer must be able to convey vivid sound contrasts without any softening. This requires great skill. Very often, singers cannot immediately change from one nuance to another, which distorts the author’s dynamic plan and artistic design works. The particular difficulty of such an instantaneous restructuring for singers is associated with the specificity of the singing mechanism of breathing, which allows for some inertia. To achieve distinct sound contrasts, caesura (short breathing) is usually used before changing nuances. Such a caesura, in addition, helps to avoid the “absorption” of the future nuance by the previous sonority.

The dynamics techniques described above can be used by all performing musicians, regardless of the instrument they play. At the same time, the implementation of dynamic shades in choral performance has a number of features due to the specifics of singing in general and choral singing in particular. It is known, for example, that *) the main reflex connection regulating dynamic modulations of the voice is the connection between breathing and the larynx. Changes in vocal volume occur mainly as a result of modulations of subglottic pressure, changing the vibrations of the vocal cords: the greater the air pressure, the greater the strength of the sound. It can be said without exaggeration that the volume control in singing is breathing. Therefore, the choir conductor needs to pay special attention to developing proper breathing in the singers. Another important pattern of the singing voice is that the strength of the voice increases with pitch. Acoustic studies have proven that among masters of singing, the volume of sound smoothly increases from the lower tones of the range to the upper tones, right up to the extreme limits of the range; on the contrary, when moving from upper tones to lower ones, the strength of the sound decreases. These natural changes in sound volume in the ascending and descending movement of the melody must be taken into account by the conductor when working on dynamic shades. Otherwise, dynamic colors may turn out to be either exaggerated or not bright enough. At the same time, it should be noted that a smooth increase in the strength of sound, which is natural among masters, requires a great sense of proportion and significant muscle training. Most singers fail to balance volume across the entire range.

A particularly common drawback is the forcing of the sound in the upper tones. As a method of combating the forcing of high sounds, weakening their volume, thinning, is used. The technique of filing is very widely used in choral practice, where each singer, due to the specific conditions of collective work, is limited in the full manifestation of his vocal abilities: he must moderate and limit the power of his voice, giving only as much as is required to create an overall collective sonority, to create choral ensemble. The dynamics of this sonority are established and regulated by the conductor in accordance with the nature of the work being studied and its performance plan.

One more specific point must be taken into account. Researchers have found that different voices of an inexperienced singer have different strengths. Vowels are the strongest a, e, o, and vowels And And at- weaker and... Only as a result of the conductor's work with the singer can the difference in loudness between vowels be eliminated. The strength of sound is also related to its formation. As the volume increases, the sound expands; as it fades, the sound narrows. The entire choral sound, according to the principles of one of the best Soviet choral schools - the choral school of A. Sveshnikov, must go through the narrow: first narrow - then wide. A very common mistake is when singers immediately start singing loudly after taking their breath. This is due to the fact that the singer involuntarily strives to “widely” and “freely” use up the large supply of air that he now has. The conductor should constantly warn singers against such a habit, which has a disastrous effect on phrasing and the direction of the musical line. It is necessary to ensure that the sound after taking the breath is not louder than what it was before (of course, except in cases where a change in nuances is indicated in the notes). In other cases, the main rule should be this: when you begin to sing, always sing softer than the tone that, in all likelihood, will be at the climax! Following this rule makes phrasing easier, making it comfortable and natural.

The same applies to the endings of musical phrases. Often, at the end of phrases at the moment of “release,” conductors require an active “release” of breathing. This active exhalation is usually accompanied by an increase in sonority, which often does not correspond to the necessary phrasing. I would like to note, by the way, that the end of a sound, like its origin, has an innumerable number of dynamic gradations. The sound can freeze, fade, and then a dynamic thinning effect is applied, and it can end suddenly. It is especially difficult in a choir to quickly stop the end together

sound, which is usually achieved instant delay breathing with the help of hard consonants b, p, t, stopping the sound at lightning speed.

The dynamic range of a choir depends, as already mentioned, on the breadth of the dynamic range of each singer. Practice shows that for inexperienced singers the difference in voice strength between forte and piano is very small. Most often they perform everything at approximately the same dynamic level, which usually corresponds to mezzo forte sonority. It is clear that the expressiveness of singing suffers from this, not to mention the harm of constant vocal tension for the singer himself. Therefore, the conductor should pay special attention to developing piano and pianissimo skills in choral singers. Then the boundaries of their dynamic range will expand significantly.

Wagner R. About conducting. - Russian musical newspaper. 1899.JS&38.

3 Pazovsky A. Notes of a conductor, p. 291-292.

See, for example: Zernov V.D. Absolute measurement of sound power. M., 1909.

February 18, 2016

The world of home entertainment is quite varied and can include: watching movies on a good home theater system; exciting and exciting gameplay or listening to music. As a rule, everyone finds something of their own in this area, or combines everything at once. But whatever a person’s goals for organizing his leisure time and whatever extreme they go to, all these links are firmly connected by one simple and understandable word - “sound”. Indeed, in all of the above cases, we will be led by the hand by sound. But this question is not so simple and trivial, especially in cases where there is a desire to achieve high-quality sound in a room or any other conditions. To do this, it is not always necessary to buy expensive hi-fi or hi-end components (although it will be very useful), but good knowledge is sufficient physical theory, which can eliminate most of the problems that arise for everyone who sets out to obtain high-quality voice acting.

Next, the theory of sound and acoustics will be considered from the point of view of physics. In this case, I will try to make this as accessible as possible to the understanding of any person who, perhaps, is far from knowing physical laws or formulas, but nevertheless passionately dreams of realizing the dream of creating a perfect acoustic system. I do not presume to say that in order to achieve good results in this area at home (or in a car, for example), you need to know these theories thoroughly, but understanding the basics will allow you to avoid many stupid and absurd mistakes, and will also allow you to achieve the maximum sound effect from the system any level.

General theory of sound and musical terminology

What is it sound? This is the sensation that the auditory organ perceives "ear"(the phenomenon itself exists without the participation of the “ear” in the process, but this is easier to understand), which occurs when the eardrum is excited by a sound wave. The ear in this case acts as a “receiver” of sound waves of various frequencies.
Sound wave it is essentially a sequential series of compactions and discharges of the medium (most often the air medium under normal conditions) of various frequencies. The nature of sound waves is oscillatory, caused and produced by the vibration of any body. The emergence and propagation of a classical sound wave is possible in three elastic media: gaseous, liquid and solid. When a sound wave occurs in one of these types of space, some changes inevitably occur in the medium itself, for example, a change in air density or pressure, movement of air mass particles, etc.

Since a sound wave has an oscillatory nature, it has such a characteristic as frequency. Frequency measured in hertz (in honor of the German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz), and denotes the number of oscillations over a period of time equal to one second. Those. for example, a frequency of 20 Hz indicates a cycle of 20 oscillations in one second. The subjective concept of its height also depends on the frequency of the sound. The more sound vibrations occur per second, the “higher” the sound appears. A sound wave also has another important characteristic, which has a name - wavelength. Wavelength It is customary to consider the distance that a sound of a certain frequency travels in a period equal to one second. For example, the wavelength of the lowest sound in the human audible range at 20 Hz is 16.5 meters, and the wavelength of the highest sound at 20,000 Hz is 1.7 centimeters.

The human ear is designed in such a way that it is capable of perceiving waves only in a limited range, approximately 20 Hz - 20,000 Hz (depending on the characteristics of a particular person, some are able to hear a little more, some less). Thus, this does not mean that sounds below or above these frequencies do not exist, they are simply not perceived by the human ear, going beyond the audible range. Sound above the audible range is called ultrasound, sound below the audible range is called infrasound. Some animals are able to perceive ultra and infra sounds, some even use this range for orientation in space (bats, dolphins). If sound passes through a medium that is not in direct contact with the human hearing organ, then such sound may not be heard or may be greatly weakened subsequently.

In the musical terminology of sound, there are such important designations as octave, tone and overtone of sound. Octave means an interval in which the frequency ratio between sounds is 1 to 2. An octave is usually very distinguishable by ear, while sounds within this interval can be very similar to each other. An octave can also be called a sound that vibrates twice as much as another sound in the same period of time. For example, the frequency of 800 Hz is nothing more than a higher octave of 400 Hz, and the frequency of 400 Hz in turn is the next octave of sound with a frequency of 200 Hz. The octave, in turn, consists of tones and overtones. Variable vibrations in a harmonic sound wave of the same frequency are perceived by the human ear as musical tone. High-frequency vibrations can be interpreted as high-pitched sounds, while low-frequency vibrations can be interpreted as low-pitched sounds. The human ear is capable of clearly distinguishing sounds with a difference of one tone (in the range of up to 4000 Hz). Despite this, music uses an extremely small number of tones. This is explained from considerations of the principle of harmonic consonance, everything is based on the principle of octaves.

Let's consider the theory of musical tones using the example of a string stretched in a certain way. Such a string, depending on the tension force, will be “tuned” to one specific frequency. When this string is exposed to something with one specific force, which causes it to vibrate, one specific tone of sound will be consistently observed, and we will hear the desired tuning frequency. This sound is called the fundamental tone. The frequency of the note “A” of the first octave is officially accepted as the fundamental tone in the musical field, equal to 440 Hz. However, most musical instruments never reproduce pure fundamental tones alone, they are inevitably accompanied by overtones called overtones. Here it is appropriate to recall an important definition of musical acoustics, the concept of sound timbre. Timbre- this is a feature of musical sounds that gives musical instruments and voices their unique, recognizable specificity of sound, even when comparing sounds of the same pitch and volume. The timbre of each musical instrument depends on the distribution of sound energy among overtones at the moment the sound appears.

Overtones form a specific coloring of the fundamental tone, by which we can easily identify and recognize a specific instrument, as well as clearly distinguish its sound from another instrument. There are two types of overtones: harmonic and non-harmonic. Harmonic overtones by definition are multiples of the fundamental frequency. On the contrary, if the overtones are not multiples and noticeably deviate from the values, then they are called non-harmonic. In music, operating with multiple overtones is practically excluded, so the term is reduced to the concept of “overtone,” meaning harmonic. For some instruments, such as the piano, the fundamental tone does not even have time to form; in a short period of time, the sound energy of the overtones increases, and then just as rapidly decreases. Many instruments create what is called a "transition tone" effect, where the energy of certain overtones is highest at a certain point in time, usually at the very beginning, but then changes abruptly and moves on to other overtones. The frequency range of each instrument can be considered separately and is usually limited to the fundamental frequencies that that particular instrument is capable of producing.

In sound theory there is also such a concept as NOISE. Noise- this is any sound that is created by a combination of sources that are inconsistent with each other. Everyone is familiar with the sound of tree leaves swaying by the wind, etc.

What determines the volume of sound? Obviously, such a phenomenon directly depends on the amount of energy transferred by the sound wave. To determine quantitative indicators of loudness, there is a concept - sound intensity. Sound intensity is defined as the flow of energy passing through some area of ​​space (for example, cm2) per unit of time (for example, per second). During normal conversation, the intensity is approximately 9 or 10 W/cm2. The human ear is capable of perceiving sounds over a fairly wide range of sensitivity, while the sensitivity of frequencies is heterogeneous within the sound spectrum. This is how the frequency range 1000 Hz - 4000 Hz, which most widely covers human speech, is best perceived.

Because sounds vary so greatly in intensity, it is more convenient to think of it as a logarithmic quantity and measure it in decibels (after the Scottish scientist Alexander Graham Bell). The lower threshold of hearing sensitivity of the human ear is 0 dB, the upper is 120 dB, also called the “pain threshold”. The upper limit of sensitivity is also perceived by the human ear not in the same way, but depends on the specific frequency. Low-frequency sounds must have much greater intensity than high-frequency sounds to trigger the pain threshold. For example, the pain threshold at a low frequency of 31.5 Hz occurs at a sound intensity level of 135 dB, when at a frequency of 2000 Hz the sensation of pain will appear at 112 dB. There is also the concept of sound pressure, which actually expands the usual explanation of the propagation of a sound wave in the air. Sound pressure- this is a variable excess pressure that arises in an elastic medium as a result of the passage of a sound wave through it.

Wave nature of sound

To better understand the system of sound wave generation, imagine a classic speaker located in a pipe filled with air. If the speaker makes a sharp movement forward, the air in the immediate vicinity of the diffuser is momentarily compressed. The air will then expand, thereby pushing the compressed air region along the pipe.
This wave movement will subsequently become sound when it reaches the auditory organ and “excites” the eardrum. When a sound wave occurs in a gas, excess pressure and excess density are created and particles move with constant speed. About sound waves, it is important to remember the fact that the substance does not move along with the sound wave, but only a temporary disturbance of the air masses occurs.

If we imagine a piston suspended in free space on a spring and making repeated movements “back and forth”, then such oscillations will be called harmonic or sinusoidal (if we imagine the wave as a graph, then in this case we will get a pure sinusoid with repeated declines and rises). If we imagine a speaker in a pipe (as in the example described above) performing harmonic oscillations, then at the moment the speaker moves “forward” the well-known effect of air compression is obtained, and when the speaker moves “backwards” the opposite effect of rarefaction occurs. In this case, a wave of alternating compression and rarefaction will propagate through the pipe. The distance along the pipe between adjacent maxima or minima (phases) will be called wavelength. If the particles oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave, then the wave is called longitudinal. If they oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation, then the wave is called transverse. Typically, sound waves in gases and liquids are longitudinal, but in solids both types of waves can occur. Transverse waves in solids arise due to resistance to change in shape. The main difference between these two types of waves is that a transverse wave has the property of polarization (oscillations occur in a certain plane), while a longitudinal wave does not.

Sound speed

The speed of sound directly depends on the characteristics of the medium in which it propagates. It is determined (dependent) by two properties of the medium: elasticity and density of the material. The speed of sound in solids directly depends on the type of material and its properties. Velocity in gaseous media depends on only one type of deformation of the medium: compression-rarefaction. The change in pressure in a sound wave occurs without heat exchange with surrounding particles and is called adiabatic.
The speed of sound in a gas depends mainly on temperature - it increases with increasing temperature and decreases with decreasing temperature. Also, the speed of sound in a gaseous medium depends on the size and mass of the gas molecules themselves - the smaller the mass and size of the particles, the greater the “conductivity” of the wave and, accordingly, the greater the speed.

In liquid and solid media, the principle of propagation and the speed of sound are similar to how a wave propagates in air: by compression-discharge. But in these environments, in addition to the same dependence on temperature, the density of the medium and its composition/structure are quite important. The lower the density of the substance, the higher the speed of sound and vice versa. The dependence on the composition of the medium is more complex and is determined in each specific case, taking into account the location and interaction of molecules/atoms.

Speed ​​of sound in air at t, °C 20: 343 m/s
Speed ​​of sound in distilled water at t, °C 20: 1481 m/s
Speed ​​of sound in steel at t, °C 20: 5000 m/s

Standing waves and interference

When a speaker creates sound waves in a confined space, the effect of waves being reflected from the boundaries inevitably occurs. As a result, this most often occurs interference effect- when two or more sound waves overlap each other. Special cases of interference phenomena are the formation of: 1) Beating waves or 2) Standing waves. Wave beats- this is the case when the addition of waves with similar frequencies and amplitudes occurs. The picture of the occurrence of beats: when two waves of similar frequencies overlap each other. At some point in time, with such an overlap, the amplitude peaks may coincide “in phase,” and the declines may also coincide in “antiphase.” This is how sound beats are characterized. It is important to remember that, unlike standing waves, phase coincidences of peaks do not occur constantly, but at certain time intervals. To the ear, this pattern of beats is distinguished quite clearly, and is heard as a periodic increase and decrease in volume, respectively. The mechanism by which this effect occurs is extremely simple: when the peaks coincide, the volume increases, and when the valleys coincide, the volume decreases.

Standing waves arise in the case of superposition of two waves of the same amplitude, phase and frequency, when when such waves “meet” one moves in the forward direction and the other in the opposite direction. In the area of ​​space (where the standing wave was formed), a picture of the superposition of two frequency amplitudes appears, with alternating maxima (the so-called antinodes) and minima (the so-called nodes). When this phenomenon occurs, the frequency, phase and attenuation coefficient of the wave at the place of reflection are extremely important. Unlike traveling waves, there is no energy transfer in a standing wave due to the fact that the forward and backward waves that form this wave transfer energy in equal quantities in both the forward and opposite directions. To clearly understand the occurrence of a standing wave, let’s imagine an example from home acoustics. Let's say we have floor-standing speaker systems in some limited space (room). Having them play something with a lot of bass, let's try to change the location of the listener in the room. Thus, a listener who finds himself in the zone of minimum (subtraction) of a standing wave will feel the effect that there is very little bass, and if the listener finds himself in a zone of maximum (addition) of frequencies, then the opposite effect of a significant increase in the bass region is obtained. In this case, the effect is observed in all octaves of the base frequency. For example, if the base frequency is 440 Hz, then the phenomenon of “addition” or “subtraction” will also be observed at frequencies of 880 Hz, 1760 Hz, 3520 Hz, etc.

Resonance phenomenon

Most solids have a natural resonance frequency. It is quite easy to understand this effect using the example of an ordinary pipe, open at only one end. Let's imagine a situation where a speaker is connected to the other end of the pipe, which can play one constant frequency, which can also be changed later. So, the pipe has its own resonance frequency, in simple terms - this is the frequency at which the pipe “resonates” or makes its own sound. If the frequency of the speaker (as a result of adjustment) coincides with the resonance frequency of the pipe, then the effect of increasing the volume several times will occur. This happens because the loudspeaker excites vibrations of the air column in the pipe with a significant amplitude until the same “resonant frequency” is found and the addition effect occurs. The resulting phenomenon can be described as follows: the pipe in this example “helps” the speaker by resonating at a specific frequency, their efforts add up and “result” in an audible loud effect. This phenomenon can easily be seen in the example of musical instruments, since the design of most instruments contains elements called resonators. It is not difficult to guess what serves the purpose of enhancing a certain frequency or musical tone. For example: a guitar body with a resonator in the form of a hole mating with the volume; The design of the flute tube (and all pipes in general); The cylindrical shape of the drum body, which itself is a resonator of a certain frequency.

Frequency spectrum of sound and frequency response

Since in practice there are practically no waves of the same frequency, it becomes necessary to decompose the entire sound spectrum of the audible range into overtones or harmonics. For these purposes, there are graphs that display the dependence of the relative energy of sound vibrations on frequency. This graph is called a sound frequency spectrum graph. Frequency spectrum of sound There are two types: discrete and continuous. A discrete spectrum plot displays individual frequencies separated by blank spaces. The continuous spectrum contains all sound frequencies at once.
In the case of music or acoustics, the usual graph is most often used Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics(abbreviated as "AFC"). This graph shows the dependence of the amplitude of sound vibrations on frequency throughout the entire frequency spectrum (20 Hz - 20 kHz). Looking at such a graph, it is easy to understand, for example, the strengths or weaknesses of a particular speaker or acoustic system as a whole, the strongest areas of energy output, frequency dips and rises, attenuation, and also to trace the steepness of the decline.

Propagation of sound waves, phase and antiphase

The process of propagation of sound waves occurs in all directions from the source. The simplest example to understand this phenomenon is a pebble thrown into water.
From the place where the stone fell, waves begin to spread across the surface of the water in all directions. However, let’s imagine a situation using a speaker in a certain volume, say a closed box, which is connected to an amplifier and plays some kind of musical signal. It is easy to notice (especially if you apply a powerful low-frequency signal, for example a bass drum) that the speaker makes a rapid movement “forward”, and then the same rapid movement “backward”. What remains to be understood is that when the speaker moves forward, it emits a sound wave that we hear later. But what happens when the speaker moves backward? And paradoxically, the same thing happens, the speaker makes the same sound, only in our example it propagates entirely within the volume of the box, without going beyond its limits (the box is closed). In general, in the above example one can observe quite a lot of interesting physical phenomena, the most significant of which is the concept of phase.

The sound wave that the speaker, being in the volume, emits in the direction of the listener is “in phase”. The reverse wave, which goes into the volume of the box, will be correspondingly antiphase. It remains only to understand what these concepts mean? Signal phase– this is the sound pressure level at the current moment in time at some point in space. The easiest way to understand phase is through playback example musical material an ordinary floor-standing stereo pair of home speaker systems. Let's imagine that two such floor-standing speakers are installed in a certain room and play. In this case, both acoustic systems reproduce a synchronous signal of variable sound pressure, and the sound pressure of one speaker is added to the sound pressure of the other speaker. A similar effect occurs due to the synchronicity of signal reproduction from the left and right speakers, respectively, in other words, the peaks and troughs of the waves emitted by the left and right speakers coincide.

Now let’s imagine that the sound pressures still change in the same way (have not undergone changes), but only now they are opposite to each other. This can happen if you connect one speaker system out of two in reverse polarity ("+" cable from the amplifier to the "-" terminal of the speaker system, and "-" cable from the amplifier to the "+" terminal of the speaker system). In this case, the opposite signal will cause a pressure difference, which can be represented in numbers as follows: the left speaker will create a pressure of “1 Pa”, and the right speaker will create a pressure of “minus 1 Pa”. As a result, the total sound volume at the listener's location will be zero. This phenomenon is called antiphase. If we look at the example in more detail for understanding, it turns out that two speakers playing “in phase” create identical areas of air compaction and rarefaction, thereby actually helping each other. In the case of an idealized antiphase, the area of ​​compressed air space created by one speaker will be accompanied by an area of ​​rarefied air space created by the second speaker. This looks approximately like the phenomenon of mutual synchronous cancellation of waves. True, in practice the volume does not drop to zero, and we will hear a highly distorted and weakened sound.

The most accessible way to describe this phenomenon is as follows: two signals with the same oscillations (frequency), but shifted in time. In view of this, it is more convenient to imagine these displacement phenomena using the example of an ordinary round clock. Let's imagine that there are several identical round clocks hanging on the wall. When the second hands of this watch run synchronously, on one watch 30 seconds and on the other 30, then this is an example of a signal that is in phase. If the second hands move with a shift, but the speed is still the same, for example, on one watch it is 30 seconds, and on another it is 24 seconds, then this is a classic example of a phase shift. In the same way, phase is measured in degrees, within a virtual circle. In this case, when the signals are shifted relative to each other by 180 degrees (half a period), classical antiphase is obtained. Often in practice, minor phase shifts occur, which can also be determined in degrees and successfully eliminated.

Waves are plane and spherical. A plane wavefront propagates in only one direction and is rarely encountered in practice. A spherical wavefront is a simple type of wave that originates from a single point and travels in all directions. Sound waves have the property diffraction, i.e. ability to go around obstacles and objects. The degree of bending depends on the ratio of the sound wavelength to the size of the obstacle or hole. Diffraction also occurs when there is some obstacle in the path of sound. In this case, two scenarios are possible: 1) If the size of the obstacle is much larger than the wavelength, then the sound is reflected or absorbed (depending on the degree of absorption of the material, the thickness of the obstacle, etc.), and an “acoustic shadow” zone is formed behind the obstacle. . 2) If the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength or even less than it, then the sound diffracts to some extent in all directions. If a sound wave, while moving in one medium, hits the interface with another medium (for example, an air medium with a solid medium), then three scenarios can occur: 1) the wave will be reflected from the interface 2) the wave can pass into another medium without changing direction 3) a wave can pass into another medium with a change in direction at the boundary, this is called “wave refraction”.

The ratio of the excess pressure of a sound wave to the oscillatory volumetric velocity is called wave resistance. In simple words, wave impedance of the medium can be called the ability to absorb sound waves or “resist” them. The reflection and transmission coefficients directly depend on the ratio of the wave impedances of the two media. Wave resistance in a gaseous medium is much lower than in water or solids. Therefore, if a sound wave in air strikes a solid object or the surface of deep water, the sound is either reflected from the surface or absorbed to a large extent. This depends on the thickness of the surface (water or solid) on which the desired sound wave falls. When the thickness of a solid or liquid medium is low, sound waves almost completely “pass”, and vice versa, when the thickness of the medium is large, the waves are more often reflected. In the case of reflection of sound waves, this process occurs according to a well-known physical law: “Angle of incidence equal to angle reflection". In this case, when a wave from a medium with a lower density hits the boundary with a medium of higher density, the phenomenon occurs refraction. It consists in the bending (refraction) of a sound wave after “meeting” an obstacle, and is necessarily accompanied by a change in speed. Refraction also depends on the temperature of the medium in which reflection occurs.

In the process of propagation of sound waves in space, their intensity inevitably decreases; we can say that the waves attenuate and the sound weakens. In practice, encountering a similar effect is quite simple: for example, if two people stand in a field at some close distance (a meter or closer) and start saying something to each other. If you subsequently increase the distance between people (if they begin to move away from each other), the same level of conversational volume will become less and less audible. This example clearly demonstrates the phenomenon of a decrease in the intensity of sound waves. Why is this happening? The reason for this is various processes of heat exchange, molecular interaction and internal friction of sound waves. Most often in practice, sound energy is converted into thermal energy. Such processes inevitably arise in any of the 3 sound propagation media and can be characterized as absorption of sound waves.

The intensity and degree of absorption of sound waves depends on many factors, such as pressure and temperature of the medium. Absorption also depends on the specific sound frequency. When a sound wave propagates in liquids or gases, a friction effect occurs between different particles, which is called viscosity. As a result of this friction at the molecular level, the process of converting a wave from sound to heat occurs. In other words, the higher the thermal conductivity of the medium, the lower the degree of wave absorption. Sound absorption in gaseous media also depends on pressure (atmospheric pressure changes with increasing altitude relative to sea level). As for the dependence of the degree of absorption on the frequency of sound, taking into account the above-mentioned dependences of viscosity and thermal conductivity, the higher the frequency of sound, the higher the absorption of sound. For example, at normal temperature and pressure in air, the absorption of a wave with a frequency of 5000 Hz is 3 dB/km, and the absorption of a wave with a frequency of 50,000 Hz will be 300 dB/m.

In solid media, all the above dependencies (thermal conductivity and viscosity) are preserved, but several more conditions are added to this. They are associated with the molecular structure of solid materials, which can be different, with its own inhomogeneities. Depending on this internal solid molecular structure, the absorption of sound waves in this case can be different, and depends on the type of specific material. When sound passes through a solid body, the wave undergoes a number of transformations and distortions, which most often leads to the dispersion and absorption of sound energy. At the molecular level, a dislocation effect can occur when a sound wave causes a displacement of atomic planes, which then return to their original position. Or, the movement of dislocations leads to a collision with dislocations perpendicular to them or defects in the crystal structure, which causes their inhibition and, as a consequence, some absorption of the sound wave. However, the sound wave can also resonate with these defects, which will lead to distortion of the original wave. The energy of the sound wave at the moment of interaction with the elements of the molecular structure of the material is dissipated as a result of internal friction processes.

In this article I will try to analyze the features of human auditory perception and some of the subtleties and features of sound propagation.