Architecture and decorative arts of the Indian region. Buddhist style in fine arts and architecture Artistic and decorative applied art of the peoples of India

29.06.2020

In ancient times, in Sri Lanka, as well as in India, decorative and applied arts were not distinguished as an independent field of art. The creation of sculptures and artistic products, painting and architecture were all considered crafts. The works were, as a rule, anonymous.

The main, most widespread type of decorative and applied art should be considered the art of artistically designed things, that is, artistic products - everyday objects and tools, accessories of sacred ritual and weapons. This art has existed since ancient times.

The form of simple tools was, as a rule, harmonious and artistic, and the images on them were of a plot-thematic or purely ornamental nature. Decoration always took into account the everyday purpose and shape of the object.

Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially often used.

The materials from which the artistic products were made were extremely diverse; almost everything that nature provided was used: wood, leaves and herbs, plant fiber, nut shells; plain, semi-precious and precious stone; clay, metals, including precious ones; bone, horn, turtle, shell, etc. The most important of these are: wood, stone, metal, ivory and fiber.

Sri Lankan artistic products are close to Indian ones, but they are, of course, not identical; they differ in their specificity and local originality. It is interesting that in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art of ancient times have been preserved - the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism. By the 11th century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhala tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to distinguishing Sinhalese crafts from Tamil ones, which were no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception brought originality to local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.

The bulk of the artistic products that have survived to us date back to no earlier than the 18th century.

The artistic crafts of Sri Lanka were closely related to those of South India. For many centuries, skilled Tamil artisans from South India were imported to Sri Lanka, and even in the 18th century. they competed with Sinhalese artisans. Visiting weavers from major cities In the south of India, members of local craft organizations (shreni), called "salagamayo" in Sinhalese, wove gold threads on thin muslins for the robes of the Sinhala nobility. The Tamil kings of Sri Lanka especially encouraged their native fashions of clothing and jewelry.

For many centuries, until the English occupation of Kandy in 1815, the form and decoration of the crafts remained without noticeable changes from previous centuries. The colonial era in Sri Lanka was disastrous for the arts and crafts. State organization artisans were destroyed by the British colonialists, traditional artistic production fell into decay. The development of capitalist relations and the import of foreign manufactured goods completely undermined folk arts and crafts. The fall of national decorative and applied art actually meant the disappearance from the everyday life of the people of the only form of art accessible to them in general. However, some types of artistic production survived in Sri Lanka by the time it achieved independence, when a new period in the development of national art began.

Ivory products

In Sri Lanka, as in India, bone carvers were famous for their art. Ivory is an excellent material for fine carving due to its strength and fine-grained, uniform texture; it is especially pleasing to the eye with its fine, graceful layering and delicate tint.

79-80. Ivory box and cup.

Local chronicles report on the high art of ancient Sinhalese craftsmen - ivory carvers. An interesting testimony is preserved in the Chulavamsa (37.100) that King Jetthatissa (IV century) was famous for his ivory carvings and even taught others his wonderful art. Ancient chroniclers reported that the king made an ivory figure of a bodhisattva and parts of his royal throne.

In Sri Lanka, figurines, panels, doorposts with carvings (for example, from Ridivihara, with dancers and animals), caskets (Fig. 79), book bindings, women's jewelry, combs, knife handles, etc. were made from elephant tusks.

The traditions of the art of ivory carving were stable. This is clearly evidenced by surviving examples of work from the 18th – early 19th centuries.

The combs were very elegant and beautiful - panava, two-sided and one-sided. On one of them, for example, stored in a museum in Kandy, in the middle part openwork carving a relief rich in forms was created. In the center, the goddess sits on a throne, holding tree branches in her hands. On either side of her are two dancers. A simple frame with a geometric pattern sets off the complex image.

78. The bases of the doorposts of the temple.

At another double-sided comb, the space enclosed in an elegant openwork frame is divided into three vertical parts: in the middle there is a figure of a mother sitting with a baby in her arms, on the right there is a figure of a standing woman with a child, and on the left side there is a pair of lovers. The clothes are painted with black and red stripes (Colombo Museum).

A comparison of both combs shows with what artistic flair the master changes the shape of the frame depending on the central carving: at the first comb complex drawing inside, with many small details, required simplification of the frame; at the second ridge, the figures without detailed details allowed for a complex frame, which in its design did not compete with the internal images. Decorative taste and experience, based on a long tradition, prove impeccable.

Large artistic value is represented by a skillfully and subtly executed figure of the guardian deity on a plate from the door frame of the temple (collection of A.-K. Kumaraswamy) (ill. 78).

In low relief there is a frontal carving of a goddess holding a bent arms plant shoot and flower.

The fingers and the thin folds of the robe, tightly fitting the figure, are extraordinarily gracefully executed. Scientists dated this plate to the 18th century, but one might think that it is much older in time.

Interesting are the caskets and boxes with fine continuous relief carvings. The carved handles of knives of various shapes are very impressive - sometimes in the form of “liya pata” (plant motifs), sometimes in the shape of a monster’s head with an open mouth - and many other items made of bone (ill. 80).

Artistic wood processing

Wood carving was closely associated with architecture, which during the Kandyan period was mainly wooden. The work of local carpenters, who made various products from wood necessary for home life, was distinguished by its originality. They skillfully made furniture, tools, carved boxes, etc.

81. Playing board. Tree. XIX century

For example, the beautifully ornamented boards for the game “olinda-colombu” are a real work of art. They are located on low legs and have seven round recesses along each longitudinal edge.

It is a local national predominantly women's game. It was usually played by two women who placed five to seven olinda seeds in each hole. Women from royal family They played with pearls instead of seeds.

The sides of the board were decorated with a geometric pattern, the pits were placed in rectangular sections, in pairs or one at a time. A relief figure of a fantastic beast was sometimes carved in the center of the board (an example is in the Kandy Museum). The composition of seed holes and geometric motifs can be quite varied.

The shape of the rice press is original and complex, but very elegant. In the center it has the shape of a barrel, close to a cylinder, into which the ground is poured. boiled rice and squeezed out through holes in the metal bottom. The head of a fantastic bird and (on the opposite side) its tail, made in a stylized form, extend from the cylinder in both directions. The cylinder is decorated with a screw-shaped thread, which seems to go to the neck of the bird. There is a convenient horizontal handle located above. The whole form is quite impressive.

The handles of wooden scoops are beautifully and intricately curved. The head of a monster or ornamental plant motifs were often carved under the scoop. The latter pattern, but in a richer form, was also used on door bolts (“agula”).

In the Kumaraswamy collection there is a round flat wooden box, one of those intended for storing royal regalia. She is a turning technique, covered

varnish, with concentric stripes. The main ornamental detail is a wide openwork brass loop with complex floral motifs.

National furniture is very diverse. Bizarre shapes were given to the legs of stools and chairs; Headboards of beds, etc. were also decorated with rich carvings. Judging by the sources, furniture in rich houses was made of very expensive wood. The Chulavamsa states that in the palace of King Parakramabahu, the furniture was decorated with gold and expensive ivory.

Lucky

Topical varnish is obtained from a resinous substance secreted by two types of insects that live on trees and plants. In addition, imported Indian varnish of similar origin is used in small quantities.

Lacquer workers are called i-vaduvo, which literally means “arrow maker.” These artisans are the lowest class of craftsmen because they primarily work as woodturners. They turn wood and decorate it, making arrows, bows, spears, legs of beds and other furniture, barrel boards, torch handles, banner poles, etc. When turning an object on a lathe, it can be easily varnished by pressing a varnish stick against it ; then the latter, heating up from friction, softens and fills the recesses cut out on the object. A similar Kandyan technique is used in India by the Jodhpur varnishers. Kandyan varnishes were especially famous in the 19th – early 20th centuries.

There was a different technique in Matale, known as niyapoten-veda, that is, working with a fingernail, since here a lathe was not used and the varnish was applied with a fingernail thumb. A coloring agent is added to the varnish: red, yellow, green and black. This varnish is used to cover wooden canes, shafts of ceremonial spears and banners, powder flasks, book bindings, and oboes. Colored lacquer is also inlaid on ivory, horn and shell.

Metal products

Metalworking was considered one of the most ancient and respected professions of artisans. Metalworkers were divided into several groups - blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths. Chronicles also report about these groups of artisans. Chulavamsa (68.25) tells how Parakramabahu hired blacksmiths, coppersmiths and even jewelers for the construction, since at that time there was a noticeable shortage of stone carvers.

Sri Lanka has always been famous for the wonderful work of jewelers. The chronicles repeatedly mention excellently crafted gold jewelry. The Sinhalese loved and continue to love various decorations. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, kings and rich courtiers wore gold earrings, bracelets, and rings with precious stones.

Jewelry art, in particular the processing of precious stones, still flourishes in the city of Ratnapura, in the area of which semi-precious and precious gems are mined. Cutting is done mainly by Sinhala jewelers from Galle. For many centuries, Ceylonese artisans produced a variety of products from simple and precious metals.

However, by the beginning of the 20th century, according to Kumaraswamy, the author of the book “Medieval Sinhalese Art” (54), iron smelting was preserved only in Khatarabagh, near Balangoda, among representatives of the lower caste, and steel production was carried out in those years by only a few people in Alutnuvar. Steel smiths were called “Navandanno”. Since ancient times, they have made not only farmer's tools and carpenter's tools, but also swords, spear and arrowheads, knives, betel mortars, parts of palanquins, surgical instruments, goads for elephants, stilettos for writing, locks, keys and plates for them, door hinges, bolts, handles.

(54) Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Singhalese Art.

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There are three main technical techniques metal decorations in gold or silver:

1) the simplest method, when the surface of the metal is incised with light intersecting grooves, and then a layer of noble metal is attached with blows of a hammer. Due to the plasticity and ductility of gold and especially silver, they adhere tightly to the uneven surface of the product and hold onto it quite firmly. In Northern India, such a notch is called koftgari;

2) inlay, when in iron or steel the lines of the pattern are made in the form of a narrow deep groove, the exit side of which is narrower than the bottom, and a wire of noble metal (or copper, brass - generally of a different color than the metal of the product itself) is driven into it. The wire is driven in very firmly with a hammer, the edges of the groove grip it tightly, and then the surface only needs to be smoothed by polishing. This method is more difficult; more metal is required for the ornament than with notching. But where special strength is required from the ornament, for example on weapons, inlay is used more often than notching;

3) an overlay, when the place under it is slightly deepened and a groove is made along the contour. Then a thin plate of gold or silver (also copper), cut to the shape of the recess, is inserted into it, and the edges of the plate are driven into the groove, hammered and polished. The plate itself can be decorated with engraving or chased relief.

All these methods of decoration are called by the general term “ridiketayanveda”. The work is usually done by blacksmiths, but especially delicate items are processed by a goldsmith.

82-83. Saber handle and knives.

Kandyan blacksmiths often blacken wrought iron to give it a similar appearance to European blued steel. Then the metal rusts less, and the precious metal and, in general, notches and inlays stand out more effectively against a dark background. For blackening, the metal surface is treated with a special compound and fired.

Products from brass are minted by goldsmiths, and molds are cast by smelters - lokaruvo, belonging to a lower group of artisans.

An example of a brass item is the key plate from Malwatte Pansala. Around the hole there are stylized openwork plant and flower forms, and at the top there is an image of the sacred goose (hans), and two birds with crossed necks are shown. Such plates are usually decorated with smaller plant motifs made using openwork technique. The iron plate from Danagirigalavihara is also very impressive, in the form of two heads of a bird of prey facing in opposite directions.

All kinds of vessels are cast from brass and bronze, for example for water, available in every vihara, from which flowers placed on the altar are watered. They often have a spout, and then they also drink water from them. Bronze is less commonly used for casting, but elephant bells, musical cymbals, molds for forging brass, silver and gold, and tools for repousse coining are almost always cast in bronze.

Lamps, which come in a variety of different and very interesting shapes, are more often cast from brass than from bronze. They are available standing and hanging. Among the latter is a good brass example in the Colombo Museum in the form of a bird suspended on a chain. Below there is a spout with a reservoir for oil and wick, on which a small figurine of a bird rises. The same museum houses a standing lamp, decorated on the top with a stylized figure of Hans. Below is an expanding tray for five wicks. The work appears to be Tamil, very typical of South India.

Copper church water vessels (kendiyya) are sometimes studded on the neck and lid with cabochon garnets (with rounded grinding). One such jug from Ridivihara has a rounded body, a high, rather thick neck with a slight bell, a convex lid, a slightly curved, high spout. At its base there is an engraved floral ornament.

Almost every household item is decorated with amazing ingenuity, artistic taste and skill. Let us take, for example, the key to the door of Maduvanvelyvihara, massive, iron, trimmed with brass, with a rich ornament on the ring; ankh (ankuza), brass, with iron tip(from the Paranatella collection), with a bent point in the form of a monster's head, or torches, where a figurine of a peacock or a rearing lion is added to the bowl with decorative boldness and grace - all things amaze with a skillful combination of practical convenience and subtle artistic taste.

After the robbery of Kandy by the British in 1815, little silver and gold items were preserved in Kandyan temples. Mostly vessels, lamps, trays, and fans remained, for example, in the Hindu temple of Maha Devale and the Buddhist temple of the tooth of Buddha - Dalada Maligawa in Kandy (55).

Here are some of these items. Kendiyya is a church water vessel, silver, of excellent proportions: the body is round in cross-section, but flattened vertically, the neck is high, massive, slightly expanding downwards, at the end there is a widening and a convex lid, a round wide leg, a vertical, high spout. Light ornament on the throat in the form of rings. The forms are massive, even monumental, and this corresponds to the almost complete absence of ornament. A large glass for storing sandalwood paste, made of black stone, in a gold frame with inserts of rubies in it and with four sapphires at the corners of the square stem. The glass was in the possession of Rajadhiraja Sinha and was donated by him to the Maha Devale Temple. Along the edges of the glass there is a gold border with a geometric pattern in relief, and gold decorations of complex shapes hang down on four sides. There is a relief ornament on the leg. All this contrasts beautifully with the black stone.

A golden fan in the form of a round disc from Dalada Maligawa is a gift offering made by King Kirti Sri Rajasinha. An ornamented border strip runs along the edges of the disk, and in the center there is an elegant, slightly embossed rosette. The thin profiled handle of the fan is connected by an ornament to the central rosette, and on the opposite edge of the disk protrudes a false tip, as if extending across the entire width of the disk. This skillful technique gives a special grace to the fan and creates a unified visual impression.

77. Silver ladle with ivory handle.

A luxuriously decorated silver scoop - “kinissa” - with a carved ivory handle (London South Kensington Museum (56)), originating from a Kandyan temple or palace (see fig. 77). The scoop is hemispherical, richly decorated with slightly embossed stylized floral patterns.

From the side, a figurine of a man seems to be climbing onto the scoop, the end of an ivory handle resting on his back, representing a single whole with it. This unexpectedly impressive detail, placed between the scoop and the end of the handle, shows the original and bold creative imagination of the master.

In form and composition, the human figure is exceptionally successful and turns out to be appropriate in its decorative role. The ornament on the handle is of the liya pata type with the head of a monster resembling either a sinha (lion) or a dragon fish, like the Indian monster makara.

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(55) See: A. M. Hocart, The Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, London, 1931.

(56) Now called the Victoria and Albert Museum.

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Ceramic products

Ceramics, despite its apparent simplicity, had a great artistic value thanks to the beautiful shapes of the vessels and, although simple, skillfully executed ornaments.

The potter's products were used not only for domestic needs, but also for sacred ritual, as well as architecture, since clay tiles were required for construction.

The potters themselves made the ornament with carvings or stamps. On more expensive products the ornament was figured. Sometimes colorful paintings were also used.

Village potters skillfully knew how to use the plastic qualities of clay as a material and, when giving shape to their products, undoubtedly took into account the specifics of their practical purpose. The ornament usually also corresponded to the material.

There were potters in every village; Sometimes potters' settlements arose near rich clay deposits. From here the products were transported to different regions. It is not surprising that excellent quality red pots from Nikapata (near Haputale), where the Tamils worked, went to Balangoda, and vessels from Kelaniya, decorated with white carved patterns, ended up in Ratnapura, Kegalla and even Kandy. Some pottery was also imported from South India.

The potters' tools were extremely simple; the main thing is a wheel (poruva), with a stone bushing, which was inserted into a stone nest sunk into the ground, so that the wheel rose from the ground no more than 15 cm. Handmade gave artistic products freedom of form and plasticity, in contrast to the dryness that inevitably resulted when the form was executed using a machine stencil.

Here, for example, are several pieces of pottery.

The massive vase (kalakha) which served as a stand for a lamp is beautiful in shape. It has a round cross-section, vertically flattened body, with a thick cylindrical throat, with three annular thickenings; the leg is wide, round, low. All details of the vase are proportional. The painting is light yellow on a red background, in the form of stylized foliage motifs.

There is another vessel of a bizarre shape, with twelve spouts sticking up and with ring rims on a low, wide neck. In full accordance with the complex shape of the vessel, the leg is made very massive, wide and quite high; it visually “holds” the wide body with spouts well. The vessel was used for ritual dances and is called “punava”.

The cornice tiles from the Dalada Maligawa temple were richly decorated; on one side there is a magnificent Sinha (lion) in relief, on the other there is a Khansa (goose). In Kandy, similar tiles were also made in the shape of a leaf of the sacred Bodhi tree and decorated with images of a lion and a goose.

The potter's song is very interesting, dedicated to the description of the work process, including the decorative painting of vessels.

“Waking up at dawn, taking a basket, [the potter] goes to the clay deposits;

Having cleaned the basket and prepared a place among the clay, he pays homage to the guardian deity;

Dressed only in a loincloth, he cheerfully takes the coozin and descends into the pit;

Without touching the sides of the hole, he digs out clay from the middle and fills the basket.

Having crushed the clay into pieces, he puts the basket on the beam and pours the clay into the potter's yard;

He then divides the clay into equal pieces and places them on a large mat in the sun;

Having dried the clay and removed the stones from it, he poundes it in a mortar and sifts it through a culla;

Then, taking the powder, he adds the same amount of water to it and makes balls from the mixture.

He takes these clay balls, places them one on top of the other and covers them with leaves;

After three days he again divides them into three parts, and then kneads them again;

Knowing the correct proportion, he adds the finest sand and, splashing water, mixes everything again;

Having kneaded the mass, he again makes round balls out of it and puts them in a pile; and takes them again after three days.

After preparing them in this way, he tramples and kneads the clay again and again;

When it becomes like sticky wax, he knows that it is ready;

He then divides it into separate lumps for vessels of different sizes;

He places the lumps prepared in this way near the workshop and carefully covers them.

The next day, using split reeds, he separates the clay lumps from one another;

And having divided them properly, he again makes balls of them and holds them together as on the previous day;

The next day, waking up at dawn, he sweeps and tidies up the workshop;

And holding all the clay balls close at hand, he sits down in front of the wheel.

He takes the clay balls one by one with his right hand and places them on the wheel;

With his left hand he turns the wheel, with his right hand he shapes [the vessel];

Knowing the size and shape [of the vessel], he presses down with his hand;

When the desired shape appears, he shapes the edges.

Leaving [the vessel] in this form and making a rim, he rotates the wheel very quickly;

And observing whether it has become smooth, he corrects all the irregularities with the tip of his finger;

Sprinkling a little water, he polishes the pot, then carefully takes it with his wide open palm;

He puts it down and then picks it up again thirty hours after making it.

Then holding a stone galicheda in the left hand and a wooden mallet in the right, holding the vessel firmly with the foot;

He beats [on its lower edges] with the flat surface of the mallet, making [of them] the bottom the entire width of the pot;

And having thus completed the bottom and polished it, he places [the vessel] in the sun;

After it dries a little, he draws branches with leaves [liyavel], garlands and flower petals around the vessel.

Drawing around the lines, flower petals, roosters, parrots, pigeons, selalihini;

And in turn the leaves of the bo [tree], bouquets of flowers and dates, flowers of na, flowers of olu and lotuses;

By creating discs of the sun and moon, makara at the gate [toran] and golden hansu;

Elephants, horses, deer, lions, tigers, wolves, bears, cobras and polongas.

Swimming tisara, flying lihini, beautiful kinduro and honey bees;

Great boas, many fierce snakes, sharks, turtles and golden peacocks;

Beautiful young maidens, whose plumping breasts are like golden swans;

Don't forget to draw cute adorable children.

Drawing around the nari lata, branches with leaves and also letters of the alphabet with vowel signs;

By placing a trident with the sign “om” in the middle as a talisman;

Drawing in the four corners animals with intertwined necks [puttu], a peacock, a cobra, a swan and a snake;

Zodiac signs, nine planets and twenty-seven stars.

He takes good red [paint] gurugal and white - macula and mixes them in water until a thick solution;

Mixing it with the right amount of oil to make the colors shine;

After this, he exposes [the pots] to the sun to dry completely;

And then, having placed them in a kiln, he dries them in the smoke on the first day.

On the second day, adding as much wood as needed, he maintains a moderate fire;

On the third day, he kindles a fairly hot flame and burns [the pots] to the end;

After this, he takes out the wood and extinguishes the flame, leaving [the product] to cool for three days;

On the fourth day, making sure that the oven has completely cooled down, he takes out the vessels one by one.” (57)

This song contains all the production experience of the potter, passed down for centuries from generation to generation, and his work is subtly poeticized.

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(57) Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Singhalese Art.

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Textile art

Weaving, embroidery, and mat weaving have been very widespread throughout the island since ancient times.

Among the Sinhalese there were two groups of weavers: the Salagamayo - craftsmen originating from South India who made fine and brocade fabrics, and the Beravayo - a caste of local weavers who simultaneously worked as musicians, astrologers, etc.

According to tradition, King Vijayabahu III (XIII century) from Dambadeniya, trying to revive fine weaving, sent a messenger to South India with a request to send good craftsmen. The envoy returned, bringing with him eight weavers, to whom the king provided villages, wives and honors. The descendants of these weavers incurred the disfavor of the Kandyan rulers and were forced to move to the southwestern coast. There they were no longer engaged in weaving, but in growing cinnamon on the royal lands. The same was their situation under Portuguese and Dutch rule.

The late medieval work Janavamsa reports the repeated importation of Indian weavers into Sri Lanka. Local production was virtually disappearing and had to be constantly supported by the immigration of craftsmen from South India.

During the period of English rule, folk textile production fell into decline. Before Sri Lanka gained independence, as A.K. writes. Kumaraswamy, weaving from homemade cotton yarn, formerly common in all the Kandyan provinces, survives only in Talagun, Uda Dumbara and locally near Vellasa in Uva.

Since ancient times, the caste of local Sinhalese weavers produced simple cotton fabrics, which were produced until the beginning of the 20th century. The village weavers of the Kandy region were especially famous. Their products were not influenced by changes in court fashions and the art of the South Indian weavers who arrived here.

Local, like Indian, national clothing, as a rule, is not sewn by tailors from various pieces of fabric, its parts are woven ready-made, and therefore they must come out of the loom in different shapes and sizes. This is how towels and napkins (indul kada), wearable fabrics for men (tuppoti), for women (pada, hela), men's aprons (diya kachchi), headscarves or shawls (lensu, ura mala), sashes (pati), blankets are made and sheets (etirili), carpets (paramadana), covers for clay jugs (gahoni) and pillowcases, etc. White, blue or red fabrics without a pattern were made for monks’ clothing, hats, pillowcases, betel bags, etc. These village weavers never made thin muslins.

The patterns were predominantly geometric in nature or in the form of highly stylized forms of animals, snakes, birds, the figures of which were collected in strictly decorative compositions.

An interesting and richly decorated sash, for example, with woven images, belonged to a high Buddhist monk from Malwatta, made in the Uva region. In the horizontal belts there are rows of elephants, horses, lions, and highly stylized birds following each other. These belts alternate with stripes filled with geometric motifs. The colors are also varied: black, red, pink, blue, green and yellow.

Geometric forms are not impersonal: they usually depict plants and flowers, curls from flower cups, etc.

Embroidery, like fabrics, was divided into limited-scale production (for the court and nobility) with decorative motifs of Indian origin, and into strictly local, Sinhalese production.

There were few professional tailors (khannali), they served the king and his court with luxurious embroideries; for Buddhist and Hindu temples they made sacred robes, curtains, temple banners, etc., and participated in decorating chariots for sacred processions. FOR wealthy secular landowners, they made brocade jackets, gold-embroidered square hats (toppiyya), and embroidered sweaters for their families. Expensive materials for such items were mostly imported from India, such as red felt, velvet, sequins and tinsel, brocade for jackets, and gold thread for embroidering hats and ceremonial fans.

One of them, originating from Maha Devale in Kandy, is made of red velvet, embroidered with gold and silver thread, with green velvet appliqué; ornament in the form of geometrical plant forms, in the center there is a rosette, the front side is made of blue velvet, on which the sun, moon and stars are embroidered.

The betel bag was embroidered impressively and variedly, most often with plant and floral motifs, always with a richly ornamented border strip. One of these bags, kept in the Colombo Museum, is embroidered especially elegantly and finely. In the center there is a rosette with four sharp leaves, between which there are small flowers on the thinnest stems and figures of birds. Between the central rosette and the circular border, embroidered with thin floral twists and flowers, there are also bird figures.

Mats (dumbara), which are woven by weavers of the lower caste - kinaraya (58), are of no small importance for economic and everyday life. The fiber is made from hemp. Some of the fiber is left natural white, the rest is painted black, yellow or red.

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(58) See: N. D. Wijesekera, The People of Seoul, Colombo, 1965.

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The warp threads are spun like cotton on a spindle; For the weft, ready-made natural hemp fibers are taken, the length of which is the diameter of the mat. The loom is horizontal, similar to a cotton loom, but more primitive. Mats are also woven from grass and are called “peduru”. The main color for them is Patangi, which gives a beautiful shade of red.

The images on the mats are massive, geometric, even monumental in their form and composition and are extremely suitable for the decorative purpose of the mats as they are inextricably linked with the room and architecture.

There are two interesting examples of such mats in the collection of A. K. Kumaraswamy. On one, in the central square, divided into nine rectangular sections, there are depicted: in the middle - an elephant, in the side rectangles - a naga (cobra), raised with an inflated hood. The upper and lower rows of rectangles have the same filling: in the middle - a doe, on the sides - a pair of birds. The composition of these figures shows the correct artistic tact: the doe (upper and lower) are turned in opposite directions; Each pair of birds is also separated by placing their heads in different directions. With this subtly calculated artistic technique, the master avoids emphasized monotony.

From the central square with figures there are transverse stripes: the first is decorated with zigzag lines, then three wide stripes, and then a number of narrow ones. Everything is designed for visual effect.

On another mat, the general composition is similar to the previous one. In the center are two birds, also turned in opposite directions, and naked on the sides. Above and below are belts with fish and birds, three belts at the top and bottom. All figures are directed in a different, but strictly thought out order, with the right decorative effect.

Making masks

It is impossible not to touch upon such a unique and vibrant art of Sri Lanka as masks. They have long been widespread as an integral part folk drama and dances and have been extremely popular in the country since ancient times (59).

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(59) See: Verge de Zoete, Dance and Magic Drama in Ceylon, London, 1935; E.R. Sarachandra, The Folk Drama in Ceylon, Colombo, 1966.

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The dramatic kolam performance is all about the use of masks. Masks are also used in the demonic “tovil” dances.

85. "Drummer"

Although the symbolic and religious significance of the dances has now been largely lost, the masks of the dancers and actors themselves remain an attractive spectacle for the population, especially in villages.

Carvers of wooden masks did not always pursue purely artistic goals, and many masks have only a specifically symbolic meaning. But a number of them can be considered authentic works folk art thanks to its external expressiveness. Their ethnographic significance is also great.

Much more realistic are the numerous masks of the “Sanniya” dance used in the “Tovil” performance. They seem to reproduce caricatures of people.

Very peculiar, for example, is the mask of an old drummer with a large thick beard and a deeply wrinkled, senile, expressive face, although his bulging eyes and snarling mouth give him a special grotesqueness (ill. 85).

A concentrated but sly expression on the face with a refined fold of the lips of a mudali - a high government official.

86. Raja mask.

The Raja has a face with a beautiful black mustache and a crown in the form of a complex structure three times the size of his head; on the sides of the face are the muzzles of two fantastic makars (ill. 86). The bisawa (queen) has a beautiful face with a graceful line of lips, and her eyes are wide open, as if in surprise. The majestic crown is memorable for its plant and floral motif. From it descend on both sides pendants on “pearl” fabric, against which the queen’s face looks especially solemn.

The face of a black woman with a magnificent face is also interesting wavy hair hairstyle that falls behind the ears to chin level. She laughs with all her might, showing rows of shining teeth. It should be noted that this detail is used to caricature characters of low social rank: they usually have terribly protruding abnormally huge, distorted or sparse teeth. The black woman, whom the artist clearly tried to show as attractive, has straight and beautiful teeth.

If the teeth are not shown at all in the highest persons, in the royal couple, in the mudali, in the village headman and the policeman, then the moneylender (hettiya) has a distorted face, a crooked nose, small predatory eyes and two large teeth in a half-open mouth.

The washerwoman (male) has bulging huge eyes, a wide nose, and a tongue sticking out between rows of large, tightly set teeth. His assistant is even more caricatured with a flattened nose and the upper row of teeth pushed far forward. Sanniya dance masks are very expressive, they have a lot of creativity, but they look much more naturalistic.

87. Mask for ceremonies

The described handicrafts date back to the end of the colonial era, when crafts were in decline, both artistic and industrial. But this industry folk culture, fortunately, did not perish: almost all types of artistic products, although in small quantities, continued to be created, preserving their national characteristics.

The increased interest in local national culture after Sri Lanka achieved independence, comprehensive assistance from the government to artistic crafts contributed to their new development, and some types of artistic production were literally revived.

New types of products appeared, in particular those of a purely decorative nature, whereas in ancient times all artistic production had only a practical purpose.

Ceramics appeared, made on the basis of ancient traditions, decorative sculpture began to be made, for example, wooden sculpture from valuable mountain wood, decorative wall trays, minted from brass and other metals, which reproduce the great art famous ancient “Moon stones”.

By reviving folk artistic crafts, the Sinhala and Tamil population of the island preserves and develops their national traditions; your creative talent and skill.

Madhubani (meaning forest of honey) painting originated in a small village in Maithili state in India.
Madhubani paintings are typically characterized by bold colors, traditional geometric designs, fantastical figures with large expressive eyes, colorful nature. These paintings depict stories from mythology and the favorite character is Lord.
The origin of Madhubani or Maithili painting cannot be traced. Mithila is considered to be the kingdom of King Janaka, father of Sita. The art that was prevalent at the time of the Ramayana in Mithila may have transformed over the centuries into Maithili art. The age-old wall paintings of Bihar have played a significant role in the development of this art form.

Miniature painting

As the name suggests, miniature painting refers to works that are small in size but rich in detail and expression. Miniature painting of India represents a wide variety of categories, including an abundance of Mughal miniature paintings that depict scenes of courtly life and contemporary personalities, events and actions of Mughal times.
The main feature of miniature painting is the intricate drawings with a thin brush and bright colors made from semi-precious stones, sea shells, gold and silver.
Indian miniatures developed during the period of the Mughal Empire (XVI-XIX centuries) followed the best traditions of Persian miniatures. Although miniature painting developed in the Mughal courts, the style was adopted by the Hindus (Rajputs) and later by the Sikhs. Mughal miniature painting flourished during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan. There are quite a few paintings that have survived to this day.

Gond painting is one of the tribal art forms that originated in central India. This art was inspired by the hills, streams and forests in which the Gonds lived.
and social customs are depicted by Gond artists as a series of dots and dashes that are intricately constructed into shapes.
Gond painting was done on walls, ceilings and floors in village houses in honor of customs and holidays. The Gonds also believe that their paintings bring good luck.
The paintings are a combination of earth tones and vibrant hues that reflect life in the canvas.
The way of doing Gond painting can be traced back to the ancient art of tattooing which is common among the Gonds.
The paintings reflected folklore and tribal stories sung by wandering poets and singers. Reflecting history in art has been a common practice in India.

The southern state is famous for its Tanjore painting. Being an art form that flourished in Tanjore of yesteryear, this style of painting is still popular and widely recognized. The paintings are made with inserts of semi-precious stones, glass and gold. They look very beautiful and add grandeur to the place they decorate.
The heroes of these paintings are mainly gods with large round faces and decorated with patterns. This art form flourished from the 16th to the 18th century in Tanjore during the dynasty, was under the patronage of the princes, Nayak, Naidu, and was considered sacred.
The popularity of this art coincided with the times when grand temples were built by various rulers and hence the subject matter revolved around the theme of the deity.
This style of painting gets its name from the method of production: "kalam" means 'handle' and "kari" means 'work'. The artists used exquisite bamboo handles dipped in vegetable dyes.
The designs are made up of fine lines and intricate patterns.
This style of painting was developed in Kalahasti near and Masulipatnam near Hyderabad.

Kalamkari art

Kalamkari originated near temples and therefore has a mythological theme. Some Kalamkari paintings show traces of Persian influence in motifs and patterns. Kalamkari painting flourished during the Maratha rule and developed as a style called Karuppur. It was applied to gold brocade fabrics for royal families.

Anjali Nayyar, Indian Herald magazine

India is one of the ancient states with a vibrant and diverse culture. The formation of its special architectural style, as well as sculpture, painting, music and dance, was influenced by three different religious movements - Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. In this regard, historical cultural monuments that can tell a lot about the life of the country in ancient times have been preserved to this day.

Architecture of India

The main religion of India is Hinduism; it is a multifaceted religious doctrine with a diverse pantheon of gods. Hindu temples, or mandirs as they are also called, are an amazing sight; these are pillar-shaped stone structures covered with exquisite stone carvings. The temple is usually dedicated to one of the incarnations of god or one of the virgins, and it is he who people come to worship. There are also temples dedicated to several gods at once. Hindu temples in India that have survived to this day have important historical or archaeological significance and are therefore protected by the Archaeological Survey of India. Most often, such temples were built of brick and wood, moreover, architectural style they differ from each other depending on the area where they are located. A huge part of the Hindu temples were damaged during the Islamic rule.

Buddhist architecture includes Buddhist temples built into rocks with numerous statues of Buddha in the form of a man. Each of these statues carries an encrypted message to people, so from various small details one can say a lot about what our ancestors wanted to convey to us. In Buddhist temples there are “stupas”, which are circular memorial structures. It is assumed that they once contained the remains of the deceased. The walls of Buddhist temples are decorated with frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Buddha, which have been preserved in excellent condition to this day, thanks to the use of special durable paints.

Since the time when India came under the influence of Islamic conquerors, many beautiful mosques have been built on its territory. The most famous landmark in India is the Taj Mahal mausoleum. She was a symbol of Shah Jahan's love for his wife Mumtaz, who died during childbirth. The Taj Mahal is made of white marble, decorated with the finest carvings and installed on a huge pedestal, so it resembles a white airy cloud. Other mosques located in India also have important cultural significance.

Sculpture of India

In addition to temples, a large number of figurines representing gods have survived to this day. The main Hindu gods are Brahma (the creator, his incarnation is a seated human figure with several heads and several arms, most often he sits on a lotus flower), Vishnu (the guardian, his incarnation is various avatars: most often he is depicted in blue with with four hands, each of which contains a sea shell, a disk, a mace and a lotus, he can also be depicted sitting on a ring of snakes, or on the back of a bird. Other avatars inherent in Vishnu are the Fish, Turtle, Lion Man, Boar, Dwarf, Rama. , Krishna and Buddha. At the feet of Vishnu there may be an image of his wife.) Shiva (the destroyer, he is sometimes depicted in the form of an ascetic, whose body is rubbed with white ash, he himself sits in a pose of meditation on a tiger skin in the Himalayas. Attached to his hair on the top of his head a crescent moon from which flows the sacred river Ganges. Sometimes he, Nataraj, the lord of dance, is depicted in a graceful circle, while he supports the Universe with his endless dance. Shiva is often depicted together with his wife Parvati and the bull Nandi, on which he rides), Shakti (the female embodiment of the wives of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, sometimes they are also called Shaktas. Shiva-Shakti is a beautiful woman, she has many incarnations - Durga, Kali, Chandi or Chamundi. Parvati-Shakta is most often depicted as a beautiful woman sitting in a pose of meditation, in some cases she is depicted next to her husband Shiva and her young son Ganesha). There are many other gods in Hinduism, the most popular of them is Ganesha, he is the son of Shiva and Parvati. He is usually depicted as a figurine of a man with the head of an elephant. Pictorial representations of the gods of the Hindu pantheon, as well as from statues and sculptures, are of great cultural significance.

Arts and Crafts of India

A large number of valuable pieces of art that are the heritage of this amazing ancient civilization kept in museums. These include many ancient texts of religious content, poetry and prose, paintings and many icons, Mughal miniatures, which are illustrations for books, as well as dishes, jewelry, weapons, carpets, textiles, unique lacquerware, bronze and metal products and household items. The Russian artist Roerich made a great contribution to the preservation of treasures and architectural monuments of India. Later, his initiative was supported by his son Svyatoslav Roerich, who at one time contributed to the conclusion International Covenant for the protection of cultural property.

Introduction

Chapter I. History

Chapter II. Types of DPI in India

2.3 Lacquer production in India

2.4 Metal products

2.5 Ceramics

2.6 Textile art

2.7 Making masks

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Very often, when considering the characteristics of the art of any country, we are faced with complete inattention to decorative and applied arts. An analysis of architecture, painting and sculpture is usually considered exhaustive, while decorative and applied art is considered a secondary art form that does not in itself represent great historical and artistic value. That is why I believe that the topic of DPI itself cannot but be relevant. In addition, when talking about the art of India, we usually usually imagine huge sculptural temples or miniature paintings, but DPI is the kind of art whose description you often see even in the description of a small country or a disappeared empire. But the DPI of India amazes with its subtle, heartfelt balance of large and small components, and the jewelry skill of the artisans who created these works. DPI of India amazes with its luxury, its desire to fill the entire space with ornament, vitality, and spirituality. It surprises with its constant contrasts, stylization, dynamism, and a certain national identity. The colorful flavor adds cheerfulness to the works of the DPI of India. Storylines often intertwined so closely that what is most important, intimate in the work can be traced, but not intrusively, and their diversity is amazing...

Often, works of decorative and applied art served as household items; functionality was important to them, and beauty comes after it. In addition, it should be noted that the craftsmen who created these products were primarily artisans who possessed enormous talent and a sense of beauty, and their works remained without the signature of their creator. These works make one admire and be proud of the fact that people more connected with the material than painters were nevertheless able to transform utilitarian and purely functional objects into genuine works of art.

In my coursework I want to show how diverse the decorative and applied arts of India are, to prove that DPI when considering the art of any country is not minor characteristic, and one of the main ones, because where, if not in the DPI, can one trace the change of religions, cooperation with other countries, the economic situation of the country, and its aesthetic ideals...

Chapter I. History

1.1 History of development and influence of religion on DPI in India

In ancient times, in India, as well as in other countries, decorative and applied arts were not distinguished as an independent field of art. The creation of sculptures and artistic products, painting and architecture were all considered crafts. The works were, as a rule, anonymous.

Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially often used.

Artworks of India in different parts countries are not identical and differ in their specificity and local identity. It is interesting that, for example, in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art of ancient times have been preserved - the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism. By the 11th century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhala tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to distinguishing Sinhalese crafts from Tamil ones, which were no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception brought originality to local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.

The bulk of the artistic products that have survived to us date back to no earlier than the 18th century. The artistic crafts of Sri Lanka were closely related to those of South India. For many centuries, skilled Tamil artisans from South India were imported to Sri Lanka, and even in the 18th century. they competed with Sinhalese artisans. Visiting weavers from large cities in southern India, members of local craft organizations (shreni), called "salagamayo" in Sinhala, wove gold threads onto thin muslins for the robes of the Sinhala nobility. The Tamil kings of Sri Lanka especially encouraged their native fashions of clothing and jewelry. For many centuries, until the English occupation of Kandy in 1815, the form and decoration of the crafts remained without noticeable changes from previous centuries. The colonial era in India was disastrous for the arts and crafts. The state organization of artisans was destroyed by the British colonialists, and traditional artistic production fell into decay. The development of capitalist relations and the import of foreign manufactured goods completely undermined folk arts and crafts. The fall of national decorative and applied art actually meant the disappearance from the everyday life of the people of the only form of art accessible to them in general. However, some types of artistic production survived in India by the time it achieved independence, when a new period in the development of national art began.

ChapterII. Types of DPI in India

2.1 Bone carving art of India

In India, bone carvers were famous for their art. Ivory is an excellent material for fine carving due to its strength and fine-grained, uniform texture; it is especially pleasing to the eye with its fine, graceful layering and delicate tint.

Local chronicles report on the high art of ancient Sinhala ivory carvers. An interesting testimony is preserved in the Chulavamsa that King Jetthatissa (IV century) was famous for his ivory carvings and even taught others his wonderful art. Ancient chroniclers reported that the king made an ivory figure of a bodhisattva and parts of his royal throne.

In India, figurines, panels, carved doorposts (for example, from Ri-divihara, with dancers and animals), caskets (2), book bindings, women's jewelry, combs, knife handles, etc. were made from elephant tusks. the ivory carvings were durable. This is clearly evidenced by surviving examples of work from the 18th - early 19th centuries.

The combs - panava, double-sided and one-sided - were very elegant and beautiful. On one of them, for example, kept in a museum in Kandy, in the middle part, an openwork carving created a relief rich in shape. In the center, the goddess sits on a throne, holding tree branches in her hands. On either side of her are two dancers. A simple frame with a geometric pattern sets off the complex image. At another double-sided comb, the space enclosed in an elegant openwork frame is divided into three vertical parts: in the middle there is a figure of a mother sitting with a baby in her arms, on the right there is a figure of a standing woman with a child, and on the left side there is a pair of lovers. The clothes are painted with black and red stripes (Colombo Museum). A comparison of both combs shows the artistic flair with which the master changes the shape of the frame depending on the central carving: the first comb has a complex design inside, with many small details, which required simplification of the frame; at the second ridge, the figures without detailed details allowed for a complex frame, which in its design did not compete with the internal images. Decorative taste and experience, based on a long tradition, prove impeccable.

Of great artistic value is the skillfully and delicately executed figure of the guardian deity on a plate from the door frame of the temple (collection of A.-K. Kumaraswamy) (3). In low relief, a goddess is carved frontally holding a plant shoot and a flower in her bent hands. The fingers and the thin folds of the robe, tightly fitting the figure, are extraordinarily gracefully executed. Scientists dated this plate to the 18th century, but one might think that it is much older in time.

2.2 Artistic wood processing

For example, the beautifully ornamented boards for the game Olinda Colombu are a real work of art. (5)

They are located on low legs and have seven round recesses along each longitudinal edge. It is a local national predominantly women's game. It was usually played by two women who placed five to seven olinda seeds in each hole. Women from the royal family played with pearls instead of seeds. The sides of the board were decorated with a geometric pattern, the pits were placed in rectangular sections, in pairs or one at a time. Sometimes a relief figure of a fantastic beast was carved in the center of the board (an example is in the Kandi Museum). The composition of seed holes and geometric motifs can be quite varied.

The shape of the rice press is original and complex, but very elegant. In the center it has the shape of a barrel, close to a cylinder, into which ground boiled rice is poured and squeezed through holes in the metal bottom. The head of a fantastic bird and (on the opposite side) its tail, made in a stylized form, extend from the cylinder in both directions. The cylinder is decorated with a screw-shaped thread, which seems to go to the neck of the bird. Above is a comfortable horizontal handle. The whole shape is very impressive.

In the Kumaraswamy collection there is a round flat wooden box, one of those intended for storing royal regalia. It is made using turning technology, varnished, with concentric stripes. The main ornamental detail is a wide openwork brass loop with complex floral motifs.

National furniture is very diverse. Bizarre shapes were given to the legs of stools and chairs; Headboards of beds, etc. were also decorated with rich carvings. Judging by the sources, furniture in rich houses was made of very expensive wood. The Chulavamsa says that in the palace of King Parakramabahu, the furniture was decorated with gold and expensive ivory.

2.3 Lacquer production in India

Indian varnish is obtained from a resinous substance secreted by two types of insects that live on trees and plants. In addition, imported varnish of similar origin is used in small quantities.

A different technique was used in Matale, known as niyapoten-veda, that is, working with the nail, since here the lathe was not used and the varnish was applied with the thumbnail. A coloring agent is added to the varnish: red, yellow, green and black. This varnish is used to cover wooden canes, shafts of ceremonial spears and banners, powder flasks, book bindings, and oboes. Colored lacquer is also inlaid on ivory, horn and shell.

2.4 Metal products

Metalworking was considered one of the most ancient and respected professions of artisans. Metalworkers were divided into several groups - blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths. Chronicles also report about these groups of artisans. "Chulavamsa" tells how Parakramabahu hired blacksmiths, coppersmiths and even jewelers for the construction, since at that time there was a noticeable shortage of stone carvers.

India has always been famous for the wonderful work of jewelers. The chronicles repeatedly mention excellently crafted gold jewelry. The Sinhalese loved and continue to love various decorations. In ancient times and the Middle Ages, kings and rich courtiers wore gold earrings, bracelets, and rings with precious stones.

However, by the beginning of the 20th century, according to the testimony of Kumaraswami, the author of the book “Medieval Sinhala Art,” iron smelting was preserved only in Hatara-bagh, near Balangoda, among representatives of the lower caste, and only a few people in Alutnuvar were engaged in steel production in these years. Steelsmiths were called "Navandanno". Since ancient times, they have made not only farmer's tools and carpenter's tools, but also swords, spear and arrowheads, knives, betel mortars, parts of palanquins, surgical instruments, goads for elephants, stilettos for writing, locks, keys and plates for them, door hinges, bolts, handles.

There are three main technical methods for decorating metal with gold or silver: 1) the simplest method, when the surface of the metal is cut with light intersecting grooves, and then a layer of precious metal is attached with hammer blows. Due to the plasticity and ductility of gold and especially silver, they adhere tightly to the uneven surface of the product and hold onto it quite firmly. In Northern India, such a notch is called koftgari; 2) inlay, when in iron or steel the pattern lines are made in the form of a narrow deep groove, the exit side of which is narrower than the bottom, and a noble metal wire (or copper, brass - generally of a different color than the metal of the product itself) is driven into it. The wire is driven in very firmly with a hammer, the edges of the groove grip it tightly, and then the surface only needs to be smoothed by polishing. This method is more difficult; more metal is required for the ornament than with notching. But where special strength is required from the ornament, for example on weapons, inlay is used more often than notching; 3) an overlay, when the place under it is slightly deepened and a groove is made along the contour. Then a thin plate of gold or silver (also copper), cut to the shape of the recess, is inserted into it, and the edges of the plate are driven into the groove, hammered and polished. The plate itself can be decorated with engraving or chased relief. All these methods of decoration are called by the general term "ridiketayanveda". The work is usually done by blacksmiths, but especially delicate items are processed by a goldsmith.

Products from brass are minted by goldsmiths, and molds are cast by smelters - lokaruvo, belonging to a lower group of artisans.

Copper church water vessels (kendiyya) are sometimes studded on the neck and lid with cabochon garnets (with rounded grinding). One such jug from Ri-divihara has a rounded body, a high, rather thick neck with a slight bell, a convex lid, a slightly curved, high spout. At its base there is an engraved floral ornament.

Almost every household item is decorated with amazing ingenuity, artistic taste and skill. Let us take, for example, the key to the door of Maduvanvelyvihara, massive, iron, trimmed with brass, with a rich ornament on the ring; ankh (ankuza), brass, with an iron tip (from the Paranatella collection), with a bent point in the form of a monster’s head, or torches, where a figurine of a peacock or a rearing lion is added to the bowl with decorative boldness and grace - all things amaze with a skillful combination of practical convenience and subtle artistic taste.

After the robbery of Kandy by the British in 1815, little silver and gold items were preserved in Kandyan temples. Mostly vessels, lamps, trays, fans remained, for example, in the Hindu temple of Maha Devale and the Buddhist temple of the tooth of Buddha - Dalada Maligawa in Kandy. These are some of these items. Kendiyya is a church water vessel, silver, of excellent proportions: the body is round in cross-section, but flattened vertically, the neck is high, massive, slightly expanding downwards, at the end there is a widening and a convex lid, a round wide leg, a vertical, high spout. Light ornament on the throat in the form of rings. The forms are massive, even monumental, and this corresponds to the almost complete absence of ornament. A large glass for storing sandalwood paste, made of black stone, in a gold frame with inserts of rubies in it and with four sapphires at the corners of the square stem. The glass was in the possession of Rajadhiraja Sinha and was donated by him to the Maha Devale Temple. Along the edges of the glass there is a gold border with a geometric pattern in relief, and gold decorations of complex shapes hang down on four sides. There is a relief ornament on the leg. All this contrasts beautifully with the black stone.

A golden fan in the form of a round disk from Dalada Maligawa is a gift offering made by King Kirti Sri Rajasinha. An ornamented border strip runs along the edges of the disk, and in the center there is an elegant, slightly embossed rosette. The thin profiled handle of the fan is connected by an ornament to the central rosette, and on the opposite edge of the disk protrudes a false tip, as if extending across the entire width of the disk. This skillful technique gives a special grace to the fan and creates a unified visual impression.

A luxuriously decorated silver ladle - "kinissa" - with a carved ivory handle (London's South Kensington Museum (Now called the Victoria and Albert Museum.)), originating from a Kandyan temple or palace (1). The scoop is hemispherical, richly decorated with slightly embossed stylized floral patterns. From the side, a figurine of a man seems to be climbing onto the scoop, the end of an ivory handle resting on his back, representing a single whole with it. This unexpectedly impressive detail, placed between the scoop and the end of the handle, shows the original and bold creative imagination of the master. In form and composition, the human figure is exceptionally successful and turns out to be appropriate in its decorative role. The ornament on the handle is of the liya pata type with the head of a monster resembling either a sinha (lion) or a dragon fish, like the Indian monster - makara.

2.5 Ceramics

Ceramics, despite its apparent simplicity, had great artistic significance due to the beautiful shapes of the vessels and, although simple, skillfully executed ornaments.

The potter's products were used not only for domestic needs, but also for sacred ritual, as well as architecture, since clay tiles were required for construction.

The potters themselves made the ornament with carvings or stamps. On more expensive products the ornament was figured. Sometimes colorful paintings were also used.

The potters' tools were extremely simple; the main thing is a wheel (poruva), with a stone sleeve, which was inserted into a stone nest sunk in the ground, so that the wheel rose from the ground no more than 15 cm. Handwork gave artistic products freedom of form, plasticity, in contrast to dryness, inevitably resulting from the execution of the form using a machine stencil.