South America- a continent located in the Western Hemisphere of our Planet. It is crossed by the Equator line and divides this continent into two parts. One part (the largest) belongs to the Southern Hemisphere, and the second (the smallest) belongs to the Northern Hemisphere.
The mainland ranks 4th among the continents in terms of its area - 17,840,000 km². On its territory, including adjacent islands, there are 15 states, three of which are dependent. By clicking on the link, you can see a detailed list of South American countries in a table with capitals and characteristics. The population is approximately 400 million people.
In the west, the continent is washed by the Pacific Ocean, in the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and in the north by the Caribbean Sea, which is the border between North America and South America.
Extreme points of the continent of South America
Northern point - Cape Gallinas is located in Colombia on the Caribbean Sea.
Southern (mainland) point - Cape Froward is located in Chile on the Brunswick Peninsula on the shores of the Strait of Magellan.
Southern (island) point – Diego Ramirez – is the southernmost point of America and Chile, which consists of a group of islands occupying an area of just over one square kilometer.
The western point, Cape Parinhas, is located in Peru.
The eastern point is Cape Cabo Branco, located in Brazil.
Relief of South America
The continent of South America is divided by relief into the Mountain West and the Plain East.
The Atacama Desert is located in Chile and is the driest place on our Earth. There are places in the desert where rain falls once in several decades. The air humidity is the lowest here. The only vegetation found is cacti and acacias.
The western part of the continent consists of the Andes mountain system, stretching across seven countries of South America, and the eastern part of the plains. In the North there is the Guiana Plateau, 1930 km long and 300–1000 m high.
In the east of the mainland is the Brazilian Highlands, whose area is about 4 million km2. 95% of Brazil's population lives here. The highest point of this highland is Mount Bandeira. Its height is 2897 meters. Due to the enormous natural diversity, the Brazilian Highlands are divided into three parts: the Atlantic, Central and Southern Plateaus.
To the south of the Brazilian Highlands is the Laplata Lowland, on the territory of which states such as Paraguay and Uruguay, the northern part of Argentina, the southern part of Brazil and the southeast of Bolivia are located. The area of the lowland is more than 3 million km2.
The Amazonian lowland is a lowland covering an area of over 5 million km2. It is the largest lowland on our Planet.
South American climate
There are 6 climatic zones in South America: Northern and Southern subequatorial zones, Equatorial, Tropical, Subtropical and Temperate zones.
The climate of South America in most of its parts is subequatorial and tropical, with clearly defined dry and wet seasons. The equatorial humid climate is characteristic only of the Amazonian lowland. In the south of the continent, a subtropical and temperate climate prevails. In the northern plains the temperature is 20-28 degrees all year round. In the Andes, temperatures decrease with altitude. Even frosts are possible. On the Brazilian plateau, temperatures in winter can drop to 10 degrees, and on the Patagonian plateau to zero degrees.
River systems of South America.
The following river systems are located on the mainland: Parana, Orinoco, Amazon, Paraguay, Uruguay.
The Amazon is the world's largest river in terms of basin area (7,180 thousand km²), formed by the confluence of the Ucayali and Marañon rivers. Considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world. Brazil owns most of the basin. It flows mainly through the Amazonian lowland and flows into the Atlantic Ocean.
The Paraná is the second longest river on this continent, flowing in the southern part of the continent. It flows through the territory of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay. Just like the Amazon flows into the Atlantic Ocean.
Paraguay is a river that is a right tributary of the Paraná. It divides the Republic of Paraguay into Northern and Southern Paraguay, and in its southern part it is the state border between Paraguay and Argentina.
Uruguay is a river originating in Brazil and formed by the confluence of the Canoas and Pelotas rivers. Is the border between Brazil and Uruguay. Its river system is the country's main source of water supply. The country's largest hydroelectric power station is also located here.
The Orinoco is a river that flows through Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Its peculiarity is the bifurcation of the river. The Casichiare River separates from it, which flows into the Rio Negro River. This river is home to the white river dolphin or Amazonian and one of the largest - the Orinoco crocodile.
Lakes of South America
Maracaibo (translated as “Land of Mary”) – large lake with brackish water, located in Venezuela. The depth of this lake differs significantly in its southern and northern parts. The northern one is shallow, and the southern one reaches (by different sources) from 50 - 250 meters. This lake is also one of the oldest lakes.
Titicaca (titi - puma, kaka - rock) - the most big lake in terms of fresh water reserves and second in area after Maracaibo. More than three hundred rivers flow into this lake. It is navigable. Archaeological research shows that the city of Wanaku is located at the bottom of the lake.
Patos is a lake located on the coast of Brazil. Its length is 280 km and its width is 70 km. It is separated from the ocean by a sand spit 8 km wide. Large hydroelectric power stations are located on it. Salt, fish and oil are mined here.
Flora of South America
Thanks to the warm climate and huge amounts of rainfall, the plant world in South America is very diverse. Each climate zone has its own flora. A large area is occupied by jungles, which are located in the tropical zone. Here grow: chocolate and melon trees - papaya, rubber trees, various palm trees, orchids.
To the south of the jungle, deciduous and evergreen plants grow in equatorial forests. Here grows a tree called quebracho, which has very durable wood. In the subtropical zone you can find vines and cacti. Further, moving south, there is a steppe zone where feather grass and various grasses grow. Beyond this zone, deserts and semi-deserts begin, where dry shrubs grow.
Fauna of South America
The fauna of the mainland is as diverse as the flora. The tropics are home to monkeys, sloths, jaguar, anteaters, parrots, hummingbirds, toucans and many other animals. The Amazon jungle is home to crocodiles, anacondas, piranhas, the rodent copybara, and river dolphins. Only here you can meet a wild cat - an ocelot, similar to a leopard. The savanna is inhabited by armadillos, peccary pigs, spectacled bears, ostriches, pumas, foxes and maned wolves. The plains area is home to: deer, llamas, and pampas cats. Only in South America can you find deer - pudú, only 30-40 cm high. Huge tortoises live on the Galapagos Islands, which belong to South America.
South America is the southern continent in America, located mainly in the Western and Southern Hemispheres of planet Earth, however, part of the continent is also located in the Northern Hemisphere. It is washed in the west by the Pacific Ocean, in the east by the Atlantic Ocean, in the north it is limited by North America, the border between the Americas runs along the Isthmus of Panama and Caribbean Sea.
South America also includes various
islands , most of which belong to the countries of the continent. Caribbean territories belong toNorth America. South American countries that border the Caribbean Sea - including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana- known as Caribbean South America.The continent's area is 17.8 million km² (4th place among continents), population - 385,742,554 people (4th place among continents).
The length from north to south is (approximately) 7350 km. Length from west to east - (approximately) 4900 km
Languages
The most widely spoken languages of South America are Portuguese and Spanish . Speaks Portuguese Brazil , whose population accounts for about 50% of the population of this continent. Spanish is the official language of most countries on this continent. Also in South America they speak other languages: in Suriname They speak Dutch, in Guyana they speak English, and in French Guiana they speak French. You can often hearnative Indian languages: Quechua (Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru), Guarani (Paraguay and Bolivia), Aymara (Bolivia and Peru) and Araucanian language(southern Chile and Argentina). All of them (except the last one) have official status in the countries of their linguistic area. Since a large proportion of the population of South America is made up of Europeans, many of them still retain their own language, the most common being Italian and German in countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela and Chile. The most popular studied foreign languages in South American countries the languages are English, French, German and Italian.
Climate zones
There are 5 climate zones in South America:
Subequatorial belt(2 times), Equatorial belt, Tropical zone, Subtropical zone and Temperate Zone.Hydrography
The most important river systems in South America are Amazon, Orinoco and Parana , the total basin of which is 9,583,000 km² (the area of South America is 17,850,568 km²). Most of the lakes in South America are located in Andes , the largest of which and the highest navigable lake in the world is Titicaca , on the border of Bolivia and Peru. The largest lake in area is the lake Maracaibo in Venezuela, it is also one of the oldest on the planet.
South America has the highest waterfall in the world - Angel . The most powerful waterfall is located on the mainland - Iguazu.
South America is the wettest continent Earth.
Minerals
The subsoil of South America contains a very diverse range of mineral resources. The largest deposits of iron ores are confined to the ancient Precambrian of Venezuela (Orinoco River basin) and Brazil (Minas Gerais state), the richest deposits of porphyry copper ores are located in the granitoid batholiths of the Central Andes. Rare element ore deposits are associated with ultramafic alkaline intrusions in Eastern Brazil. Deposits of tin, antimony, silver and other ores have been found on the territory of Bolivia. Foredeep and intermountain troughs of the Andes throughout their entire length contain deposits of oil and gas, especially rich within Venezuela. There are coal deposits; deposits of hard coal are known in the Upper Paleozoic, brown coal - in the Cenozoic. Bauxite deposits are confined to the young weathering crust (especially in Guyana and Suriname).
Animal and Plant World
The natural world of South America is one of the richest on the planet. In the Amazon River basin you can find at least 44,000 different species of plants, 2,500 species of river fish and 1,500 species of birds. The jungle is home to huge spiders that feed on birds, and mammals such as armadillos and sloths. The rivers of South America are home to sea cows, freshwater dolphins, giant catfish and electric eels. Thousands of species of forest insects have not yet been studied.
The Andes are home to alnacs and vicuñas from the camelid family. The large running bird rhea, or American ostrich, lives in the steppes of Pamna. In colder areas on the southern edges of the continent, penguins and seals are common. On the Galapagos Islands, lying in the Pacific Ocean west of the coast of Ecuador, you can find such rare representatives of the animal world as the famous giant tortoises.
Fertile soils nourish rich vegetable world continent. South America is the birthplace of prickly araucaria, rubber plants, potatoes and many domestic plants (for example, monstera).
The nature of South America is under threat of destruction. As people cut down forests, many species of forest animals and invaluable plants that have not adapted to new living conditions disappear without a trace..
South America is the fourth largest continent on Earth. Its area is 17,850 thousand km2 without islands. Together with the islands - 18,280 thousand km2. Most of the continent is located in the southern hemisphere - it crosses it in the northern part. The continent expands its territory from south to north, reaching its maximum parallel length near the equator in the southern hemisphere. South America reaches its greatest width at 5° S - about 5150 km. South of 40° S. The width of the continent does not exceed 600 km.
South America borders only with. The geographic border with North America runs from the Gulf of Darien in the Caribbean Sea to Buenaventura Bay in the Pacific Ocean. Conventionally, the Isthmus of Panama is considered the border between the two continents. South America is separated from the rest of the continents only by oceans. When describing this continent, the meaning “most” is often used. And indeed it is. For example, the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere is Aconcagua; the longest mountain system in the world - ; the highest mountain lake in the world - Titicaca; the highest waterfall in the world - ; The driest coastal desert not only of the mainland, but also of the world is the Atacama.
Extreme points:
- North - Cape Gallinas
- South – Cape Froward
- Trap - Cape Parinhas
- Eastern – Cape Cabo Branco
South America is washed by the waters of two oceans, in the east by the waters Atlantic Ocean, in the west - the Pacific Ocean.
The Atlantic coastal part of South America has a generally flat coastline. There are generally no fairly large and deeply protruding bays into the land. However, there are large semicircular bays off the coast. The most famous bay is San Pedros. It is known for the fact that this bay cuts into the land for 10 km, which is framed on both sides by basalt ledges covered with lava limestones. One basalt ledge has a height of 600 m and is called Santiori de Salvador. A figure rises on the edge of this ledge. Another ledge is called Santiori de Palmos and has a height of about 800 m, on the edge of which is the destroyed Santiori lighthouse, which is still in operation. This Santiori Bay is quite convenient; quite large ships can enter here. You can also note the Bay of San Matias, where the city of San Matias is located, which the local population called the city of fishermen. This place in South America is famous for the fact that it is home to a large number of herring, which is of commercial importance. The large number of herring is caused by upwelling in coastal Atlantic waters.
Video source: AirPano.ru
Upwelling is the rise of cold, and therefore biomass-rich waters. Here you can find not only herring, but also maramish, sprat, nocatus, and red pike. In this regard, this place is the second largest distribution center for all pelican species, after the Namib. Other lesser-known bays include: San Jorge, San Padre, Chilida. You can also note such an interesting bay as La Plata Bay. This is a bay-estuary that is formed when it flows into the ocean. Off the western shore of this bay there is a small island called Parana Cuxa. According to modern scientists, this island is a diatreme. A diatreme is an explosion tube or microvolcano. This bay is wide and long in size, with many convenient bays. Small bays also occur at the river's mouth. This mouth forms a fairly wide bay of Ispolinida, but there are few convenient places here due to the fact that this place is swamped with permangametic silts.
B is quite wide. Almost all the way to the ocean floor, the territory can be disturbed by small underwater canyons. For example, the canyon of the Gigantic Cauldron. There are many legends that ancient Atlantis was located here. In the Atlantic Ocean near the equator, the South Trade Wind Current approaches the shores of South America. At Cape San Roqui it is divided into two branches, one of which, called the Guiana Current, heads northwest along the coast of the mainland, to the Antilles, and the other, the Brazilian Current, goes southwest to the mouth. The cold Falkland Current runs off the southeastern coast of the mainland. The meeting of the Brazilian and Falkland Currents occurs between 40 and 35°S. in the La Plata area. Now let's move to the Pacific coast. What can we say about this? First of all, I would like to note that the continental one in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of South America is quite narrow, and in some places it is completely absent.
In the immediate vicinity of the mainland there is a strip of deep-sea oceanic depressions. This depth in some places can reach up to 7500m. The Pacific coast is rugged in different ways in different places. For example, high ruggedness coastline observed in the southwest, where many large and small islands are scattered, which can form archipelagos. For example, the archipelago and Chilean. The bays located here are quite narrow and winding. The largest bays of this place include Penas and Corcovado. There are also . The most famous is the Strait of Magellan, which separates the Tierra del Fuego archipelago from the mainland. The northwestern coast of South America is also less rugged up to 5°S. If there are convenient bays along the coast of the mainland, then the most convenient bay in this territory is the Gulf of Guayaquil. This is a fairly wide and comfortable bay.
All along the Pacific coast of South America, the influence of the powerful cold Peruvian Current is felt, which carries its waters from the south to the equator. There is also a warm current flowing off the extreme northwestern coasts, but its influence is not great. Directly to the north, South America is washed by waters. The Caribbean coast is quite rugged. There are a number of convenient bays that separate significant peninsulas from the mainland. In the east of this sea the bay and the peninsula of Paria are separated. The Gulf of Venezuela is found here, which is the largest here in size. The Gulf of Venezuela forms two peninsulas: Paraguana in the east and Guajira in the northwest. The Gulf of Darien, which is located at the base of the Isthmus of Panama, is also found here. There are not many islands around the mainland of South America.
Countries of South America: features of the continent
The countries of South America attract many tourists with their pristine nature and special flavor. From childhood, anyone knows about the wilds of the Amazon, colorful carnivals, fiery dances, exotic. Of course, civilization has significantly changed the map of South America, and there are practically no unexplored places on it. But the legendary attitude towards the exoticism of this distant land remains, and people strive to visit there. Those wishing to visit these countries need to know at least a little about them. Wikipedia about South America provides the necessary minimum set of information.
Continent Information
The geographical position of South America can be imagined: the mainland is located mostly in the Southern Hemisphere of the globe, and only a small part of it is in the Northern Hemisphere. The location of the continent on the planet is fixed by the following extreme points of South America and their coordinates: north - Cape Gallinas (12°27'N, 71°39'W);
continental south - Cape Froward (53°54'S, 71°18'W); island south – Diego Ramirez (56°30′ S, 68°43’ W); west - Cape Parinhas (4°40' S, 81°20' W); east - Cape Cabo Branco (7°10' S, 34°47' W). South America has a territory of 17.9 million square meters. km, and the total population is about 387.5 million people.
The history of the development of the continent is divided into 3 characteristic periods:
- Autochthonous civilizations: the stage of formation, flourishing and complete collapse of local civilizations (Indian ethnic groups, incl. the Incas).
- Colonization (XVI-XVIII centuries): almost the entire continent had the status of Spanish and Portuguese colonies. The period of the birth of statehood.
- Independent stage. Characterized by extremely unstable political and economic development, but the final formation of state borders.
Geological and climatic features
If you look at the extreme points of South America, you can see that the continent stretches for a long distance from north to south, which causes a variety of geological forms and climatic zones. IN in general terms The geological structure can be assessed as the existence of a mountainous western part and a flat east. The average height of mainland South America is about 580 m above sea level, but mountain ranges with fairly high peaks predominate in the west. Almost along the entire western coast of the ocean stretches a mountain range - the Andes.
In the northern part there is the elevated Guiana Highlands, and in the eastern part there is the Brazilian Plateau. Between these two hills, a large area is occupied by the Amazon Lowland, formed by the river of the same name. The mountain system is a young geological formation and is characterized by volcanic activity, as well as fairly frequent earthquakes.
A significant area in the southwest of the continent was captured by the lifeless Atacama Desert. In addition to the Amazon, the lowland plains are formed by 2 more large rivers - the Orinoco (Orinoco Lowland) and the Parana (La Plata Lowland).
The natural zones of South America change with distance from the equator - from the very hot equatorial zone in the north of the continent to the cold polar zone in the extreme south (in areas approaching Antarctica). The main climatic zones are the equatorial zone, the subequatorial zone (on both sides of the equator), tropical, subtropical and temperate zones.
The tropical and subequatorial zones cover most of South America, causing a characteristic alternation of very wet and extremely dry periods. The Amazonian lowland is dominated by an equatorial climate with constant humid heat, and closer to the south of the continent, first a subtropical and then a temperate climate appears. In flat areas, i.e. over a large area of the northern part of the continent, the air warms up to 21-27°C all year round, but in the south, temperatures of 11-12°C can be observed even in summer.
Taking into account geographical location The winter season in South America is June-August, and the summer season is December-February. Seasonality clearly manifests itself only with distance from the tropics. In winter in the south of the continent, temperatures often drop to frost. The high humidity of South America should be highlighted - it is considered the wettest continent. At the same time, the Atacama Desert is one of the places where any precipitation is very rare.
Natural features of the continent
The diversity of climatic zones also leads to a diversity of natural manifestations. Peculiar business card are the Amazonian jungle, which occupies a vast territory. In many places of impenetrable forests no human has yet set foot. Given the area they occupy, these jungles are called “the lungs of the planet.”
The Amazon forest and other plains of the equatorial and tropical zones amaze with the abundance of flora species. The vegetation is so dense that it is almost impossible to pass. Everything grows upward, towards the sun - as a result, the height of vegetation exceeds 100 m, and tiered life occurs at different heights. Vegetation can be distributed at 11-12 levels. The most characteristic jungle plant is the ceiba. There are a large number of different types of palm trees, melon tree and many other varieties of flora.
The most famous animals of South America live in the Amazon region. Here you can see the rarest representative of the fauna - the sloth. Selva becomes a haven for the smallest bird in the world - the hummingbird, large number amphibians (including poisonous frog). Huge anacondas are amazing, the record holder among rodents is calibara, tapirs, freshwater dolphins, jaguars. Only here there is a wild cat - the ocelot. Crocodiles live in large numbers in the Amazon itself and its tributaries. The predator, the piranha fish, has become legendary.
After the Amazonian jungle, it’s the savannahs’ turn. Only here can you find the quebracho tree with very hard wood. Small savannah forests give way to steppe. The fauna of savannahs is also capable of striking with its inhabitants. South Americans are especially proud of their armadillos. In the savannas there are anteaters, rheas (ostriches), pumas, kinkajou, and spectacled bears. Llamas and deer graze in the steppe areas. In mountainous areas you can find mountain llamas and alpacas.
Natural attractions
The natural attractions of South America can safely include entire areas that amaze with their originality and pristine nature. Unique in all respects is the southern tip of the continent - the island of Tierra del Fuego, blown by Antarctic winds and storms. The entire mountain range (Andes) with its frozen and active volcanoes and pointed tops. The highest peak is very beautiful - Aconcagua Peak (6960 m).
The continent's river system is represented by large rivers. It is in South America that there is the highest waterfall - Angel, as well as the most powerful waterfall - Iguazu. The South American lakes are very beautiful - Titicaca, Maracaibo, Patus.
Statehood on the continent
As they liberated themselves from the colonialists, states formed on the continent. TO XXI century The list of countries in South America that have independence includes 12 states. This list also includes 3 territories administered by other countries.
The list of countries is as follows:
- Brazil. The largest state - with an area of more than 8.5 million square meters. km and with a population of 192 million people. The capital is the city of Brasilia, and the most Big City- Rio de Janeiro. The official language is Portuguese. The most spectacular and tourist-attracting event is the carnival. This is where the main beauties of the Amazon, Iguazu Falls, and beautiful Atlantic beaches are located.
- Argentina. The second largest country in terms of size and population (area - more than 2.7 million sq. km, population - about 40.7 million people). The official language is Spanish. The capital is Buenos Aires. The main tourist attractions are the Museum of the End of the World in Ushuaia (in the very south of the continent), silver mines, Patagonia with Indian exoticism, and a nature reserve with waterfalls.
- Bolivia. A state in the central part of the continent without access to the ocean. The area is almost 1.1 million square meters. km, and the population is 8.9 million people. The official capital is Sucre, but in fact its role is played by La Paz. Main attractions: Lake Titicaca, eastern slopes of the Andes, Indian national events.
- Venezuela. The northern part of the continent with access to the Caribbean Sea. Area – slightly more than 0.9 million square meters. km, population – 26.4 million people. The capital is Caracas. Here is Angel Falls, national park Avila, the longest cable car.
- Guyana. Located in the northeast and washed by the ocean. Area – 0.2 million square meters. km, population - 770 thousand people. The capital is Georgetown. Almost everything is covered with jungle, which attracts eco-tourists. Sights: waterfalls, National parks, savannah.
- Colombia. Country in the northwest, with an area of 1.1 million square meters. km and a population of 45 million people. The capital is Bogota. It has a visa-free regime with Russia. Famous for its historical museums, beaches, national parks.
- Paraguay. It occupies almost the center of South America, but has no access to the ocean. Territory – 0.4 million square meters. km, population – 6.4 million people. The capital is Asuncion. Monuments from the Jesuit period are well preserved.
- Peru. Located in the west of the mainland, on the Pacific coast. Area – slightly less than 1.3 million square meters. km, and the population is 28 million people. The capital is Lima. The main monuments of the Inca state are located here - Machu Picchu, the mystical Nazca Lines, and more than 150 museums.
- Suriname. The northeastern part of the continent, with a territory of about 160 thousand square meters. km and a population of 440 thousand people. The capital is Paramaribo. Routes to the Atabru, Kau, Uanotobo waterfalls, the Galibi Nature Reserve, and Indian settlements are open for tourists.
- Uruguay. A country in the southeastern part of the mainland with its capital in Montevideo. Area – 176 thousand square meters. km, population – 3.5 million people. Famous for its colorful carnival. Tourists are attracted by the beautiful beaches and architectural attractions.
- Chile. The state stretches along the Pacific coast and is limited by the high ridge of the Andes. Area – 757 thousand square meters. km, population – 16.5 million people. The capital is Santiago. The country has developed balneological health and ski centers. There are beautiful beaches and national parks.
- Ecuador. A country in the northeastern part with a territory of slightly more than 280 thousand square meters. km and a population of almost 14 million people, with the capital Quito. The most attractive places are the Galapagos Islands, national park, lakes, Ingapirku monuments, museums.
In addition to independent states, South America contains territories governed by other states: Guiana (an overseas territory of France); The South Sandwich Islands and South Georgia (administered by Great Britain), as well as the Falkland or Malvinas Islands, which have been long disputed between Great Britain and Argentina.
The countries of South America are considered quite attractive for tourists from around the world. Here you can enjoy pristine nature, historical monuments, relax on the beautiful beaches.
The continent of South America in size (18.3 million km 2) occupies a middle position between North America and Antarctica.
The outlines of its coastline are typical of the continents of the Southern (Gondwanan) group: it does not have large protrusions and bays protruding deeply into the land.
Most of the continent (5/6 of the area) is located in the Southern Hemisphere. It is widest in equatorial and tropical latitudes.
Compared to Africa and Australia, South America extends far to the south into temperate latitudes and is closer to Antarctica. This has a great influence on the formation of the natural conditions of the continent: it stands out from all the Southern continents with a wide variety of natural conditions.
In the north, the continent is connected by a narrow mountainous isthmus with Central America. The northern part of the continent has a number of features common to both American continents.
Continental South America represents the western part of Gondwana, where the South American continental plate interacts with the oceanic plates of the Pacific Ocean. At the base of most of the continent are ancient platform structures; only in the south the plate foundation is Hercynian in age. The entire western margin is occupied by the folded belt of the Andes, which formed from the end of the Paleozoic to our time. Mountain-building processes in the Andes are not completed. The Andean system has no equal in length (more than 9 thousand km) and consists of many ridges belonging to orotectonic zones of different geological ages and structures.
They differ in origin, orographic features, and height.
Intermountain valleys and basins, including high-mountain ones, have long been inhabited and developed. The bulk of the population of Chile, Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador live in the mountains, despite the fact that the Andes are one of the most seismic areas with a large number of active ones.
The east of the continent is a combination of lowlands in tectonic depressions and plateaus and blocky highlands on the platform shields. There are denudation and lava plateaus.
The continent of South America is characterized by a widespread equatorial and subequatorial climate. Its orographic structure promotes deep penetration of air masses from the north and south. Due to the interaction of masses with different properties, large areas of the continent receive a lot of precipitation. The Amazon lowland with an equatorial climate and windward mountain slopes are especially well irrigated. Huge amounts of precipitation occur on the western slopes of the Andes in the temperate zone. At the same time, the Pacific coast and mountain slopes in tropical latitudes up to 5° S. w. They are characterized by extremely arid conditions, which is associated with the peculiarities of the circulation of the atmosphere and water masses off the coast. The typical climate of coastal (“wet”) deserts is formed here. Aridity features are also evident in the high plateaus of the Central Andes and in Patagonia in the south of the continent.
Due to the geographical position of the continent, climates of the temperate zone are formed within its borders, which are not found on other Southern Tropical continents.
The continent of South America has the largest runoff layer in the world (more than 500 mm) due to the predominance of humid climate types. There are several large river systems on the mainland. The Amazon river system is unique - the largest river on Earth, through which about 15% of the world's river flow passes.
In addition, in South America there are also the Orinoco and Parana systems with large tributaries.
There are few lakes on the mainland: almost all of them are drained by deeply incised rivers. The exception is oxbow lakes and mountain lakes in the Andes. The largest alpine lake in the world, Titicaca, is located in Puna, and in the north there is the large lagoon lake Maracaibo.
Large areas within the continent are occupied by moist equatorial and tropical forests and various types of woodlands and savannas. There are no continental tropical deserts, so characteristic of Africa and Australia, in South America. In the northeast of the Brazilian Highlands there is an area of arid climate with a peculiar precipitation regime. As a result of special circulation conditions, heavy rain falls here irregularly, and a special type of landscape has formed - caatinga. In the subtropical zone, steppes and forest-steppes with fertile soils (Pampa) occupy a large place. Within their boundaries, natural vegetation has been replaced by agricultural land. The Andes present different spectra of altitudinal zones.
South American plant groups differ in many ways from the types of vegetation in similar zones on other continents and belong to other plant kingdoms.
The fauna is diverse and has unique features. There are few ungulates, there are large rodents, monkeys belong to the group of broad-nosed, often prehensile-tailed. Huge variety of fish and aquatic reptiles and mammals. There are primitive non-toothed mammals (armadillos, anteaters, sloths).
Natural landscapes are well preserved in the Amazon, in the Orinoco lowlands, in the areas of the Gran Chaco plains, the Pantanal, in Patagonia, in the Guiana Highlands, and in the highlands of the Andes. However, the economic development of the countries of the continent threatens the state of nature. The matter is complicated by the fact that these newly developed areas have extreme natural properties, and disruption of the natural balance often leads to irreversible consequences. Developing countries on the mainland do not always have the necessary funds to organize nature conservation and rational use of natural resources.
South America began to be populated by people 15-20 million years ago, apparently from the north through the Isthmus and the islands of the West Indies. It is possible that settlers from the islands of Oceania also took part in the formation of the indigenous population of the mainland. South American Indians have much in common with North American Indians. By the time the continent was discovered by Europeans, there were several culturally and economically highly developed states. The process of colonization was accompanied by the extermination of the indigenous population and their displacement from convenient habitats; the number of Indians in South America is greater than in North America. Large groups of Indian tribes survive in the Andes, the Amazon and some other areas. In a number of countries, Indians make up a significant part of the population. However, the main population of the continent is the descendants of immigrants from Europe (mainly Spaniards and Portuguese) and Africans brought here to work on plantations. There are many people of mixed race on the continent.
Settlement came from the east, and near the Atlantic coast with favorable natural conditions population density is highest. The Andes are home to some of the world's highest agricultural land and settlements. The mountains contain the largest of the highland cities (La Paz, with a population of over a million people - at an altitude of 3631 meters). The countries of South America, which until recently were economically backward, are now developing rapidly and in some respects are reaching the world level.
Two large parts are clearly distinguished on the continent - the subcontinents of the Extra-Andean East and the Andean West.
Extra-Andean East
The Extra-Andean East occupies the entire eastern part of the South American continent. The physical and geographical countries that are part of it are formed on platform structures. Each of the physical-geographical countries is isolated within large tectonic structures and has specific general features endogenous relief. Less often, their boundaries are determined by climatic differences.
The physical-geographical countries of the East are either plains (Amazonia, Orinoco Plains, Inland Tropical Plains, La Plata Region, Patagonian Plateau), or plateaus and mountains of blocky and remnant nature at the outcrops of the platform foundation (Brazilian and Guiana Highlands, Precordillera).
The territory of the subcontinent stretches from north to south and is distinguished by a variety of climates - from equatorial to temperate. Humidification conditions vary significantly: annual precipitation in some places reaches 3000 mm or more (Western Amazonia, east coast in equatorial, tropical and subtropical latitudes), and in Patagonia and the west of the La Plata Lowland it is 200-250 mm.
The zonation of soil and vegetation cover corresponds to climatic conditions. Zones of moist evergreen forests of the equatorial, variably moist forests and savannas of the subequatorial and tropical, forests, forest-steppes, steppes and semi-deserts of the subtropical and temperate zones naturally replace each other. Altitudinal zonation is manifested only on some ridges of the Brazilian and Guiana highlands.
In the region there are densely populated areas, the nature of which has been greatly modified, and there are also those where there is no population, and indigenous landscapes have been preserved.
History of the settlement of South America
The population of other Southern continents is fundamentally different in origin from the population of Africa. Neither South America nor Australia have found bone remains of the first people, let alone their ancestors. The most ancient archaeological finds on the territory of the South American continent date back to the 15-17th millennium BC. Man entered here presumably from Northeast Asia through North America. The indigenous type of Indians has much in common with the North American type, although there are also unique features. For example, in the appearance of the aborigines of South America, some anthropological features of the Oceanian race can be traced ( Wavy hair, wide nose). The acquisition of these traits could be the result of human penetration into the continent and from the Pacific Ocean.
Before the colonization of South America, Indian peoples inhabited almost the entire territory of the continent. They were very diverse both in terms of language, methods of farming and social organization. Most of the population of the Extra-Andean East was at the level of the primitive communal system and was engaged in hunting, fishing and gathering. However, there were also peoples with a fairly high culture of agriculture on drained lands. In the Andes, by the period of colonization, strong Indian states had developed, where agriculture on irrigated lands, cattle breeding, crafts, applied arts. These states had a relatively complex structure, a unique religion, and the beginnings of scientific knowledge. They resisted the invasion of the colonialists and were conquered as a result of a long and fierce struggle. The Inca state is widely known. It included many small scattered peoples of the Andes, united in the first half of the 15th century. a strong Indian tribe belonging to language family Quechua. The name of the state comes from the title of its leaders, called the Incas. The inhabitants of the Inca country grew several dozen crops on the terraced mountain slopes using complex irrigation systems. They tamed llamas and received milk, meat, and wool from them. Crafts were developed in the state, including copper and gold processing, from which skilled craftsmen made jewelry. In pursuit of gold, the Spanish conquerors invaded this country. The Inca culture was destroyed, but some monuments remained, by which one can judge its high level. Currently, the descendants of the Quechua peoples are the most numerous of all the Indians in South America. They inhabit the mountainous regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. In the southern part of Chile and the Argentine Pampa live the descendants of the Araucanians, strong agricultural tribes who ceded their territories in the Chilean Andes to the colonialists only in the 18th century. In the northern Andes in Colombia, small tribes of descendants of the Chibcha remain. Before the Spanish conquest, there was a cultural state of the Chibcha-Muisca peoples.
There are still Indian peoples in South America who have largely retained their national characteristics, although many were destroyed or driven out of their lands. Until now, in some inaccessible areas (in the Amazon, in the Guiana Highlands) tribes of indigenous people live, who practically do not communicate with the outside world and have preserved their way of life and economic life since ancient times.
Ethnic composition of the population of South America
In general, there are more indigenous people - Indians - in South America than in North America. In some countries (Paraguay, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia) they make up about half or even more of the total population.
The incoming Caucasian population largely mixed with the indigenous peoples of the continent. Miscegenation began back in the days when the Spanish and Portuguese conquerors, who came here without families, took Indian women as wives. Nowadays there are almost no representatives of the European race who do not have an admixture of Indian or Negro blood. Blacks - descendants of slaves brought here by colonialists to work on plantations - are numerous in the eastern part of the continent. They partly mixed with the white and Indian populations. Their descendants (mulattoes and Sambos) make up a significant part of the inhabitants of South American countries.
In South America there are many immigrants from European and Asian countries who moved here after the states of this continent freed themselves from colonial rule. Immigrants from Italy, Germany, Russia, China, Japan, the Balkans and other countries, as a rule, live separately, preserving their customs, language, and religion.
South America Population Density
South America is inferior to Eurasia and Africa in this indicator. There are no countries here where there are on average more than 50 people per 1 km2.
Due to the fact that the continent was settled from the east and north, more people live on the Caribbean and Atlantic coasts. The highland plains and intermountain valleys of the Andes are quite densely populated, where development began even before European colonization 20% of the mainland's population live at altitudes above 1000 meters, of which more than half inhabit the highlands (over 2000 meters). In Peru and Bolivia, part of the population lives in mountain valleys above 5000 meters. The capital of Bolivia, La Paz, is located at an altitude of about 4000 meters, it is the largest city (more than 1 million people) in the world, located so high in the mountains.
Guiana Highlands and Guiana Lowlands
The region is located between the low-lying plains of the Amazon and Orinoco within the protrusion of the South American platform - the Guiana Shield. The region includes the southern regions of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. The northwestern, western and southern borders run along the foot of the Guiana Highlands, breaking off in sharp ledges to the neighboring low-lying territories. In the northeast and east the region faces the Atlantic Ocean.
Along the coast stretches a swampy lowland covered with hyleas, which is composed of alluvium from numerous rivers flowing from the slopes. A crystalline massif of the highlands rises above it in ledges. The ancient foundation within the shield is covered by a Proterozoic sandstone cover, severely destroyed by weathering processes and erosion in a hot, humid climate. The structures experienced vertical movements along numerous faults and, as a result of neotectonic uplifts, active incision of an erosion network. These processes created the modern topography of the region.
The surface of the highlands is a combination of mountain ranges, massifs, plateaus of different origins and structures, and basins in tectonic depressions developed by rivers. In the east and north of the highlands, where the sandstone cover is largely (sometimes completely) destroyed, the surface is a wavy peneplain (300-600 meters) with crystalline remnant and horst massifs and ridges 900-1300 meters high, and in the north up to 1800 meters meters. The central and western parts are dominated by flat-topped sandstone ridges and isolated plateaus (tepuis) separated from them, more than 2000 meters high.
The Roraima massif rises to 2810 meters, Auyan Tepui - to 2950 meters, and highest point highlands of La Neblino (Serra Neblino) - at 3100 meters. The highlands are characterized by a stepped profile of the slopes: going down to the Guiana Lowland, to the plains of the Orinoco and Amazon, the highlands form steep tectonic steps, and rivers fall from them in waterfalls of different heights. There are also many waterfalls on the steep slopes of table sandstone and quartzite massifs, one of which is Angel on the river. The Chu run of the Orinoco basin has a height of more than a kilometer (free fall alone - 979 meters). This is the highest known waterfall on Earth. Weathering of sandstones and quartzites of varying strength leads to the formation of bizarre relief forms, and their different colors - red, white, pink, combined with the greenery of the forests give the landscapes a unique exotic look.
The exposure and height of slopes, the position of plateaus and massifs within the highlands play a large role in shaping the climate of the region.
Thus, the coastal lowland and windward eastern slopes receive orographic precipitation from the northeast trade wind throughout the year. Their total number reaches 3000-3500 mm. Maximum - in summer. The leeward slopes and inland valleys are arid. Humidity is high in the south and southwest, where the equatorial climate prevails all year round.
Most of the highlands are in the zone of equatorial monsoons: there are wet summers and a more or less long dry winter period.
Temperatures on the plains and in the lower mountain zones are high, with small amplitudes (25-28°C throughout the year). On high plateaus and massifs it is cold (10-12°C) and windy. In many cases, fractured sandstones absorb moisture. Numerous springs feed the rivers. Cutting through sandstone strata in deep (100 meters or more) gorges, rivers reach the crystalline foundation and form rapids and waterfalls.
According to the diversity climatic conditions the vegetation cover is quite variegated. The parent rock on which soils are formed is almost universally a thick weathering crust. On the moist eastern and western slopes of mountains and massifs, hylaea grow on yellow ferralitic soils. The Guiana Lowland is also occupied by the same forests, combined with swampy areas. Monsoonal, usually deciduous tropical forests are widespread; savannas and woodlands on red ferralitic soils form on dry leeward slopes. In the upper part of the slopes of high massifs with low temperatures and strong winds, low-growing oppressed shrubs and shrubs of endemic species grow. At the tops the plateaus are rocky.
The region has great hydropower potential, which has so far been little exploited. A large cascade of hydroelectric power stations was built on the rapids river. Caroni is a tributary of the Orinoco. The depths of the Guiana Highlands contain the largest deposits of iron ore, gold, and diamonds. Huge reserves of manganese ores and bauxite are associated with the weathering crust. Forest development is carried out in the countries of the region. The Guiana Lowland has favorable conditions for growing rice and sugar cane on polders. Coffee, cocoa, and tropical fruits grow on drained lands. The rare Indian population of the highlands is engaged in hunting and primitive agriculture.
Nature is disturbed mainly along the outskirts of the region, where logging and mineral extraction are carried out, and where there is agricultural land. Due to poor exploration of the Guiana Highlands on its maps published in different time, there are even discrepancies in the heights of mountain peaks.
Inland tropical plains of Mamore, Pantanal, Gran Chaco
The plains, composed of layers of loose sedimentary rocks, are located in the platform trough between the foothills of the Central Andes and the protrusion of the Western Brazilian Shield, within the tropical climate zone. The borders run along the foothills: from the west - the Andes, from the east - the Brazilian Highlands. In the north, the landscapes of the Mamore Plain gradually turn into Amazonian, and in the south, the tropical Pantanal and Gran Chaco border on the subtropical Pampa. Paraguay, southeastern Bolivia and northern Argentina are located within the Inland Plains.
Most of the territory has an altitude of 200-700 meters, and only on the watershed of the river systems of the Amazon and Paraguay basins does the area reach an altitude of 1425 meters.
Within the Intertropical Plains, the features of a continental climate are more or less clearly manifested. These features are most pronounced in the central part of the region - on the Gran Chaco plain.
Here, the amplitude of average monthly temperatures reaches 12-14°C, while daily fluctuations in winter are the sharpest on the mainland: it can be hot during the day, but at night it can drop below 0°C, and frost forms. Intrusions of cold masses from the south sometimes cause a rapid sharp drop in temperatures during the daytime hours. On the plains of Mamore and in the Pantanal, temperature fluctuations are not so sharp, but still the features of continentality appear here, decreasing when moving north, towards the border with the Amazon, which is not clearly expressed, like all boundaries determined by climatic factors.
The precipitation regime throughout the region has a sharp summer maximum.
In the Gran Chaco, 500-1000 mm of precipitation falls mainly in 2-3 very hot months, when evaporation greatly exceeds the amount. And yet at this time the savannah turns green, and the winding rivers of the Paraguay basin overflow. In summer, the Intertropical Air Mass Convergence Zone (IATZ) is located in the area of the Tropical Plains. A stream of moist air from the Atlantic rushes here, frontal zones form, and it rains. The Pantanal basin turns into a continuous body of water with separate dry islands on which land animals escape from the flood. In winter there is little precipitation, rivers run into their banks, the surface dries out, but swamps still predominate in the Pantanal.
Vegetation within the region varies from variable-humid tropical forests along the Amazon border to dry shrubby monte formations along the dry watersheds of the Gran Chaco. Savannas, mainly palm trees, and gallery forests along river valleys are widespread. The Pantanal is occupied mainly by swamps with rich wildlife. In the Gran Chaco, large areas are under typical tropical woodlands with valuable tree species, including Quebracho, which has exceptionally hard wood.
A significant part of the population, whose density is low here, is engaged in the extraction of quebracho. Agricultural lands are concentrated along the rivers, mainly sugar cane and cotton are grown. On the territory of the Gran Chaco, the Indian tribes that survive there hunt wild animals, which are still numerous in this region. The object of the trade is armadillos, whose meat is readily purchased in cities and towns. Due to the low population density, natural complexes are relatively well preserved.
Patagonia
The region is located in the south of the mainland between the Andes and the Atlantic Ocean within the Patagonian Plateau. The territory is part of. This is the only flat physical-geographical country in South America, which is dominated by a temperate climate, which has very unique features. A major role in shaping the nature of Patagonia is played by the proximity of the Andes to the west, which stand in the way of the western transfer of air masses, and to the east - the Atlantic with the cold Falkland Current. The history of the development of the region’s nature in the Cenozoic is also important: the plateau, starting from the Pliocene, experienced upward movements and was almost completely covered by Pleistocene glaciers, which left a moraine and fluvioglacial deposits on its surface. As a result, the region has natural features that sharply distinguish it from all physiographic countries of the mainland.
In Patagonia, the folded (mostly, apparently, Paleozoic) basement is overlain by horizontally lying Meso-Cenozoic sediments and young basaltic lavas. Surface rocks are easily destroyed by physical weathering and wind action.
In the north, the foundation approaches the surface. Here a hill formed, cut by canyons. To the south, the relief of stepped plateaus predominates. They are dissected by wide trough-shaped valleys, often dry or with scanty watercourses. In the east, the plateau breaks down to a narrow coastal lowland or to the ocean with steep ledges up to 100 m in height. In the central parts, in some places flat watershed plains rise to a height of 1000-1200 meters, and in some points even more. In the west, the plateau descends like a ledge to the pre-Indian depression, filled with loose material - products of demolition from mountain slopes and in places occupied by lakes of glacial origin.
The climate of the region is temperate over most of the territory and only in the north, on the border with Pampa, has subtropical features. The region is characterized by aridity.
On the Atlantic coast they dominate with stable stratification. They form over the cold waters of the South Atlantic and produce little precipitation - only up to 150 mm per year. To the west, at the foot of the Andes, the annual precipitation increases to 300-400 mm, as through mountain valleys allow some moist Pacific air to pass through. The maximum precipitation throughout the territory is winter, associated with increased cyclonic activity on the Antarctic front.
In the northern regions, summer is hot, in the south it is cool (the average January temperature is 10°C). Average monthly temperatures in winter are generally positive, but there are frosts down to -35°C, snowfalls, strong winds, in the south - with snow storms. The western regions are characterized by winds from the Andes of the foehn type - sondas, which cause thaws, snow melting and winter floods on rivers.
The plateau is crossed by rivers flowing from the Andes, often originating from glacial lakes. They have great energy potential, which is now beginning to be used. The wide bottoms of trough-shaped valleys, composed of alluvium, protected from the winds and having water in this arid region, are used by local residents for farming. Populated areas are concentrated here.
The watershed spaces, covered by rocky moraine and fluvioglacial deposits, are occupied by xerophytic vegetation with creeping or cushion-shaped shrubs, dry grasses, and in the north with cacti, prickly pears on skeletal gray soils and brown desert soils. Only in places in the northern regions and in the Andean depression are steppes spread on chestnut and alluvial soils with the dominance of Argentine bluegrass and other grasses. Sheep farming is developed here. In the extreme south, mosses and lichens appear on the soil, and dry steppes turn into tundra.
In Patagonia, with its sparse population, the wild fauna is quite well preserved with such rare endemics as guanaco llamas, stinkhorn (zorillo), Magellanic dog, numerous rodents (tuco-tuco, mara, viscacha, etc.), including such which accumulate subcutaneous fat and hibernate during the winter. There are pumas, pampas cats, armadillos. A rare species of flightless bird has been preserved - Darwin's ostrich.
The region is rich in mineral resources. There are deposits of oil, gas, coal, iron, manganese and uranium ores. Currently, the extraction and processing of raw materials has begun, mainly in areas of the Atlantic coast and along river valleys.
In this region with harsh living conditions, the population is small, and natural landscapes relatively little changed. The greatest influence on the state of vegetation is caused by sheep grazing and steppe fires, often of anthropogenic origin. There are practically no protected areas. On the east coast, the protection of the Petrified Forest natural monument has been organized - outcrops of fossilized Jurassic araucaria up to 30 meters high and up to 2.5 meters in diameter.
Precordillera and Pampino Sierras
This is a mountainous region within the Extra-Andean East. It is located between the Andes to the west and the plains of the Gran Chaco and Pampa to the east in Argentina. Meridianally elongated blocky ridges are separated by deep depressions. The orogenic movements that engulfed the Andean system in Neogene-Anthropogen times involved the structures of the edge of the Precambrian platform and Paleozoic structures. The peneplains, which formed in this region as a result of long-term denudation, are divided into blocks raised by neotectonic movements to different heights. The Precordillera is separated from the Andes by a deep tectonic depression that arose recently and is still subject to earthquakes.
The relief of the Precordillera and Pampinsky (Pampian) Sierras consists of relatively narrow flat-topped and steeply sloped blocky ridges - horsts of different heights. They are separated either by depressions-grabens (bolsons) or narrow gorges (valles). In the east, the ridges are lower (2500-4000 meters), and closer to the Andes their height reaches 5000-6000 meters (the highest point is 6250 meters in the Cordillera de Famatina ridge). Intermountain valleys are filled with the products of the destruction of rising mountains, and their bottoms lie at an altitude of 1000 to 2500 meters. However, the differentiated movements here are so active that the bottoms of some depressions have low absolute heights (Salinas Grandes - 17 meters). The sharp contrast of the relief determines the contrast of other features of nature.
The region clearly shows signs of continental climate, which is not typical for the South American continent as a whole. The plains of the intermountain depressions are especially distinguished by the features of continentality and aridity.
The amplitudes of annual and daily temperatures are large here. In winter, when an anticyclonic regime dominates over subtropical latitudes, there are frosty nights (down to -5°C) at average temperatures of 8-12°C. At the same time, during the day the temperature can reach 20°C and above.
The amount of precipitation in the basins is negligible (100-120 mm/year), and it falls extremely unevenly. Their main number occurs in the summer, when the eastern air flow from the Atlantic Ocean intensifies. Large differences (sometimes tenfold) are observed from year to year.
The annual amount of precipitation decreases from east to west and is very dependent on the exposure of the slopes. The most humidified are the eastern slopes (up to 1000 mm/year). As moisture conditions change over short distances, landscape diversity is formed.
Low-water rivers flow from the eastern slopes. On the flat bottoms of intermountain plains they leave a mass of sediment in the form of alluvial cones. Rivers flow into salt lakes and swamps or are lost in the sand. Some of it is dismantled for irrigation. Bolsons are usually local internal drainage basins. The main flow occurs in summer. In winter, rivers become shallow or dry up. Artesian waters are used for irrigation, but they are often saline. In general, the region is characterized by a high salt content in soils and waters. This is due to both the composition of rocks and arid conditions. There are salt watercourses, salt lakes and swamps, and many salt marshes.
The region is home to xerophytic plant formations: monte-type shrubs, semi-desert and desert communities with cacti, acacias, and hard grasses. Under them, mainly gray-brown soils and gray soils are formed. Grapes are grown on irrigated lands (in the oasis of Mendoza), or sugar cane and other tropical crops (in the Tucuman region). Forests grow only on the eastern slopes of the mountains.
The region is rich in a variety of ores, including non-ferrous ores, tungsten, beryllium, uranium, and there are uranium in the depressions.
The main problem here is the lack of water. They are not uncommon in the region, sometimes catastrophic.