For a long time, the main method of distinguishing between different ethnic groups of human civilization was the comparison of languages, dialects and dialects used by certain populations. Genetic genealogy demonstrates a fundamentally different approach to determining the kinship of certain peoples. It uses information hidden in the Y chromosome, which is passed from father to son almost unchanged.
Thanks to this feature of the male chromosome, a team of Russian scientists from the Medical Genetic Research Center of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, in collaboration with Estonian and British geneticists, managed to identify the significant heterogeneity of the original Russian population of our country and trace the patterns of development in the history of the formation of Rus' from prehistoric times to the era of rule.
In addition, scientists were able to show that differences in the genetic structure of the Y chromosome between northerners and southerners cannot be explained only by gradual genetic drift due to the isolation of small populations due to geographical conditions. A comparison of the variability of the male chromosome of Russians with data from neighboring peoples revealed great similarities between northerners and Finnish-speaking ethnic groups, while the inhabitants of the center and south of Russia turned out to be genetically closer to other peoples speaking Slavic dialects. If the former often have the “Varangian” haplogroup N3, widespread in Finland and northern Sweden (as well as throughout Siberia), then the latter are characterized by haplogroup R1a, characteristic of the Slavs of Central Europe.
Thus, another factor that, according to scientists, determines the differences between Russian northerners and ours southern population, is the assimilation of tribes that lived on this land long before our ancestors came to it. The option of their cultural and linguistic “Russification” without significant genetic mixing cannot be ruled out. This theory is also confirmed by linguistic research data describing the Finno-Ugric component of the northern Russian dialect, which is practically not found among southerners.
Genetically, assimilation was expressed in the presence of the N-haplogroup family in the Y-chromosome of the population of the northern regions. These same haplogroups are also common to most peoples of Asia, but Russian northerners, in addition to this haplogroup, almost never exhibit other genetic markers that are widespread among Asians, for example C and Q.
This suggests that there was no significant migration of people from Asian areas in the prehistoric times of the existence of Proto-Slavic peoples in the territory of Eastern Europe did not have.
Another fact was not surprising to scientists: the genetic variations of the Y chromosome of the inhabitants of the central and southern regions of Ancient Rus' turned out to be not only almost identical to those of the “Slavic brothers” - Ukrainians and Belarusians, but also very close in structure to the variations of the Poles.
Scientists believe this observation can be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, such closeness of the genetic structure may mean that the process of Russian advancement to the east was not accompanied by the assimilation of local peoples - at least those that had strong differences in the structure of the male genetic line. Secondly, this may mean that the Slavic tribes had already developed these lands long before the mass resettlement of the main part of the ancient Russians (more precisely, the East Slavic people, who had not yet divided into Russians and other peoples) to them in the 7th-9th centuries. This point of view is in good agreement with the fact that the Eastern and Western Slavs demonstrate great similarity and smooth, regular changes in the structure of the male genetic line.
“Map” of the genetic proximity of the peoples of Europe and individual populations within ethnic groups // ajhg.org/“Gazeta.Ru”
It is worth noting that in all cases, genetically identified subpopulations do not go beyond the boundaries of ethnic groups defined from a linguistic point of view. However, there is one very curious exception to this rule: the four large groups of Slavic peoples - Ukrainians, Poles and Russians, as well as the Belarusians not shown in the diagram - show great similarity both in the genetic structure of the male ancestral line and in language. At the same time, Russian northerners find themselves significantly removed from this group on the multidimensional scaling diagram.
It would seem that this situation should contradict the thesis that geographical factors have a greater influence on Y-chromosome variations than linguistic ones, since the territory occupied by Poland, Ukraine and the central regions of Russia extends almost from the center of Europe to its eastern border . Authors of the work, commenting this fact, note that genetic variations appear to have much in common even among geographically distant ethnic groups provided that their languages are similar.
Summarizing the article, the authors conclude that, despite popular opinions about the strong Tatar and Mongol admixture in the blood of Russians, which their ancestors inherited during the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the haplogroup Turkic peoples and other Asian ethnic groups left virtually no trace on the population of the modern northwestern, central and southern regions.
Instead, the genetic structure of the paternal line of the population of the European part of Russia shows a smooth change when moving from north to south, which indicates two centers of formation of Ancient Rus'. At the same time, the movement of the ancient Slavs to the northern regions was accompanied by the assimilation of local Finno-Ugric tribes, while in the southern territories individual Slavic tribes and nationalities could exist long before the Slavic “great migration”.
P.S. This article aroused many responses from readers, many of which we did not publish due to the unacceptably harsh position of their authors. To avoid inaccuracies in wording, which could at least partially cause misinterpretation of the scientists’ conclusions, we talked with the lead author of the work on the genetic structure of the Russian ethnic group, Oleg Balanovsky, and, if possible, corrected the wording that could cause double interpretation. In particular, we excluded the mention of Russians as a “monolithic” ethnic group, added a more precise description of the interaction between Mongoloids and Caucasians in Eastern Europe, and clarified the reasons for genetic drift in populations. In addition, the unsuccessful comparison of mtDNA with DNA of nuclear chromosomes has been excluded from the text.
It is also important to note that the “ancient Russians” who moved to the east in the 7th-13th centuries were not yet divided into three East Slavic peoples, so calling them Russians may not seem entirely appropriate. You can read the entire interview with Oleg Balanovsky.
Scientists have recently come close to deciphering the human genetic code. This in many ways allowed us to take a fresh look at the history of the Russian ethnic group, which turned out to be more ancient and not as homogeneous than previously thought.
In the depths of centuries
The human genome is a changeable thing. During the evolution of humanity, its haplogroups have undergone mutations more than once. Today, scientists have already learned to determine the approximate time when this or that mutation occurred. Thus, American geneticists found that one of these mutations occurred about 4,500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain. A boy was born with a different set of nucleotides from his father - he was assigned the genetic classification R1a1, which arose instead of his father's R1a.
This mutation, unlike many others, turned out to be viable. The R1a1 genus not only survived, but also spread over a large part of the Eurasian continent. Currently, approximately 70% of the male population of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine are carriers of haplogroup R1a1, and in old Russian cities this number reaches 80%. Thus, R1a1 serves as a kind of marker of the Russian ethnic group. It turns out that in the veins of most men modern Russia the blood of an ancient boy who lived in the late Neolithic era flows.
Approximately 500 years after the birth of haplogroup R1a1, migration flows of its representatives spread to the east – beyond the Urals, to the south – to Hindustan and to the west – to the territory of modern European countries. Archaeologists also confirm that the inhabitants of the Central Russian Plain went far beyond the boundaries of their ancestral range. Analysis of bone remains of burials in Altai of the 1st millennium BC. e. showed that in addition to the Mongoloids, pronounced Caucasians also lived there.
There is no Tatar
One of the issues of the popular science publication The American Journal of Human Genetics published an article about research by a Russian-Estonian team of scientists into the gene pool of the Russian people. The researchers' findings were quite unexpected. First: the Russian ethnic group is heterogeneous in its genetic nature. One part of the Russians, living in the central and southern regions of the country, is close to the neighboring Slavic peoples, the other part - in the north of Russia - is genetically closely related to the Finno-Ugric peoples.
The next conclusion is more interesting. Scientists have not been able to detect the notorious Asian element in the Russian genome. The Tatar-Mongol set of genes is not present in any noticeable quantity in any of the Russian populations. It turns out that the established expression “Scratch a Russian and you will find a Tatar” is wrong.
The head of the laboratory of genomic geography at the Institute of General Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor Oleg Balanovsky, considers the Russian gene pool to be “almost entirely European,” and calls its differences from the Central Asian one “really great,” as if they were two different worlds.
Academician Konstantin Scriabin, head of the genomic direction at the National Research Center Kurchatov Institute, agrees with Balanovsky. He says the following: “We did not find any noticeable Tatar additions in the Russian genome, which refutes theories about the destructive influence Mongol yoke" In addition, Siberians, according to the scientist, are genetically identical to the Old Believers - they have the same “Russian genome.”
Researchers also pay attention to the slight difference in genotype between Russians on the one hand and neighboring Slavic peoples - Ukrainians, Belarusians and Poles - on the other. The difference between the southern and western Slavs and the inhabitants of the Russian north is more pronounced.
Special markers
According to anthropologist Vasily Deryabin, the Russian genotype also has its own clear physiological markers. One of them is the predominance of light shades of eyes among Russians: gray, blue, gray-blue, blue. We have 45 percent of them, in Western Europe there are fewer – about 35 percent. There are many Russians and fair-haired people. According to anthropologists, there are no more than 5 percent of Russians with natural black hair. In Western Europe, the chance of meeting a black-haired person is 45%.
Contrary to popular belief, there are not many snub noses among Russians - about 7%, in about 75% of cases the nose is straight. Also, among Russians there is no epicanthus - a fold typical of representatives of Mongoloid peoples at the inner corner of the eye.
The Russian ethnic group is characterized by a predominance of blood groups I and II; among Jews, for example, group IV is more common. Biochemical studies have also shown that in the blood of Russians, as well as others, European peoples, there is a special gene RN-c, but it is absent in Mongoloids.
Northerners are closer
Research Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Anthropology named after. D.N. Anuchin Moscow State University conducted an in-depth study of the gene pool of the Russian people, during which a difference in genotype was established between the Russians and our northern neighbors the Finns - it amounted to thirty conventional units. But the genetic differences between the Russian ethnic group and the Finno-Ugric peoples (Mordovians, Mari, Vepsians, Karelians, Komi-Zyrians, Izhorians), who traditionally lived in the north of our country, correspond to only three units.
Scientists talk not just about the genetic unity of Russians with the Finno-Ugrians, but about their common origin. Moreover, the specific structure of the Y chromosomes of these ethnic groups is in many ways identical to the peoples of Hindustan. But this is not surprising, given the direction of settlement of the genetic ancestors of the Russian people.
Recently, the “Russian theme” has become very relevant, actively used in the political sphere. The press and television are full of speeches on this topic, usually muddy and contradictory. Some say that the Russian people do not exist at all, who consider only Orthodox Christians to be Russians, who include in this concept everyone who speaks Russian, etc. Meanwhile, science has already given a completely definite answer to this question.
The scientific data below is a terrible secret. Formally, this data is not classified, since it was obtained by American scientists outside the field of defense research, and was even published in some places, but the conspiracy of silence organized around it is unprecedented. The atomic project at its initial stage cannot even be compared, then some things still leaked into the press, and in in this case- nothing at all. What is this terrible secret, the mention of which is a worldwide taboo? This is the secret of the origin and historical path of the Russian people.
Why information is hidden, more on that later. First, briefly about the essence of the discovery of American geneticists. There are 46 chromosomes in human DNA, half of which are inherited from the father and half from the mother. Of the 23 chromosomes received from the father, only one - the male Y chromosome - contains a set of nucleotides that is passed on from generation to generation without any changes for thousands of years. Geneticists call this set a haplogroup. Every man alive today has in his DNA exactly the same haplogroup as his father, grandfather, great-grandfather, great-great-grandfather, and so on for many generations.
The haplogroup, due to its hereditary immutability, is the same for all people of the same biological origin, that is, for men of the same nation. Each biologically distinctive people has its own haplogroup, different from similar sets of nucleotides in other peoples, which is its genetic marker, a kind of ethnic mark. In the biblical system of concepts, one can imagine the matter in such a way that the Lord God, when He divided humanity into different peoples, each marked with a unique set of nucleotides in the Y chromosome of DNA. (Women also have such marks, only in a different coordinate system - in the mitochondrial DNA rings).
Of course, there is nothing absolutely unchangeable in nature, for movement is a form of existence of matter. Haplogroups also change - in biology such changes are called mutations - but very rarely, at intervals of millennia, and geneticists have learned to very accurately determine their time and place. Thus, American scientists found that one such mutation occurred four and a half thousand years ago on the Central Russian plain. A boy was born with a slightly different haplogroup than his father, to which they assigned the genetic classification R1a1. The paternal R1a mutated and a new R1a1 emerged.
The mutation turned out to be very viable. The R1a1 genus, which was started by this same boy, survived, unlike millions of other genera that disappeared when their genealogical lines were cut off, and multiplied over a vast area. Currently, holders of haplogroup R1a1 make up 70% of the total male population of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, and in ancient Russian cities and villages - up to 80%. R1a1 is a biological marker of the Russian ethnic group. This set of nucleotides is “Russianness” from a genetic point of view.
Thus, the Russian people are genetically modern form was born in the European part of present-day Russia about 4,500 years ago. A boy with the R1a1 mutation became the direct ancestor of all men now living on earth whose DNA contains this haplogroup. All of them are his biological or, as they used to say, blood descendants and blood relatives among themselves, together making up a single people - the Russians.
Biology is an exact science. It does not allow for double interpretation, and genetic conclusions to establish kinship are accepted even by the court. Therefore, a genetic-statistical analysis of the population structure, based on the determination of haplogroups in DNA, allows us to trace much more reliably historical paths peoples than ethnography, archeology, linguistics and other scientific disciplines dealing with these issues.
Indeed, the haplogroup in the Y-chromosome DNA, unlike language, culture, religion and other creations of human hands, is not modified or assimilated. She's either one or the other. And if a statistically significant number of indigenous inhabitants of a certain territory have a certain haplogroup, we can say with one hundred percent certainty that these people descend from the original carriers of this haplogroup, who were once present in this territory.
From an investigative point of view, the inscription on the clay pot “Vasya was here” is, of course, evidence indicating Vasya’s presence in this place, but only indirectly - someone could have joked and signed Vasya’s name, the pot could have been brought from another area, etc. d. But if local men have Vasya’s haplogroup in their DNA, then this is direct and irrefutable evidence that Vasya or his blood relatives male line they really visited here and left a legacy - the hereditary biological sign is not washed away. That's why genetic history is the main one, and everything else can only complement or clarify it, but not refute it in any way.
Realizing this, American geneticists, with the enthusiasm for questions of origin inherent in all emigrants, began to wander around the world, take tests from people and look for biological “roots”, their own and others. What they accomplished is of great interest to us, since it sheds true light on the historical paths of our Russian people and destroys many established myths.
So, having emerged 4500 years ago on the Central Russian Plain (the place of maximum concentration of R1a1 is an ethnic focus), the Russian people quickly multiplied and began to expand their habitat. 4000 years ago, our ancestors went to the Urals and created Arkaim and a “civilization of cities” there with many copper mines and international connections all the way to Crete (chemical analysis of some of the products found there shows that the copper is Ural). They looked then exactly the same as we do now; the ancient Rus did not have any Mongoloid or other non-Russian features. Scientists have recreated the appearance of a young woman from the “civilization of cities” from bone remains - the result is a typical Russian beauty, millions of the same live in our time in the Russian outback.
Another 500 years later, three and a half thousand years ago, haplogroup R1a1 appeared in India. The history of the Russians’ arrival in India is known better than other vicissitudes of the territorial expansion of our ancestors thanks to the ancient Indian epic, in which its circumstances are described in sufficient detail. But there is other evidence of this epic, including archaeological and linguistic.
It is known that the ancient Rus were called Aryans at that time - this is how they are recorded in Indian texts. It is also known that it was not the local Hindus who gave them this name, but that it was a self-name. Convincing evidence of this has been preserved in hydronymy and toponymy - the Ariyka River, the villages of Upper Ariy and Lower Ariy in Perm region, in the very heart of the Ural civilization of cities, etc.
It is also known that the appearance on the territory of India of the Russian haplogroup R1a1 three and a half millennia ago (the time of birth of the first Indo-Aryan calculated by geneticists) was accompanied by the death of a developed local civilization, which archaeologists called Harappan based on the site of the first excavations. Before their disappearance, this people, who had populous cities at that time in the Indus and Ganges valleys, began to build defensive fortifications, which they had never done before. However, the fortifications apparently did not help, and the Harappan period of Indian history gave way to the Aryan.
The first monument of the Indian epic, which speaks of the appearance of the Aryans, was formalized in writing four hundred years later, in the 11th century BC, and in the 3rd century BC, the ancient Indian literary language Sanskrit, surprisingly similar to modern Russian.
Now men of the Russian genus R1a1 make up 16% of the total male population of India, and in upper castes ah, almost half of them - 47%, which indicates the active participation of the Aryans in the formation of the Indian aristocracy (the second half of the men of the upper castes are represented by local tribes, mainly Dravidian).
Unfortunately, information on the ethnogenetics of the Iranian population is not yet available, but the scientific community is unanimous in its opinion about the Aryan (that is, Russian) roots of ancient Iranian civilization. The ancient name of Iran is Arian, and the Persian kings loved to emphasize their Aryan origin, as eloquently evidenced, in particular, by the popular name Darius. This means that there were Russians there in ancient times.
Our ancestors migrated from the ethnic home not only to the east, to the Urals, and to the south, to India and Iran, but also to the west, to where European countries are now located. In the western direction, geneticists have complete statistics: in Poland, holders of the Russian (Aryan) haplogroup R1a1 make up 57% of the male population, in Latvia, Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia - 40%, in Germany, Norway and Sweden - 18%, in Bulgaria - 12 %, and in England the least is 3%.
Unfortunately, there is no ethnogenetic information yet on the European patrimonial aristocracy, and therefore it is impossible to determine whether the share of ethnic Russians is evenly distributed across all social strata population or, as in India and, presumably, Iran, the Aryans constituted the nobility in the lands where they came. The only reliable evidence in favor latest version was a by-product of a genetic examination to establish the authenticity of the remains of the family of Nicholas II. The Y chromosomes of the king and heir Alexei turned out to be identical to samples taken from their relatives from the English royal family. This means that at least one royal house of Europe, namely the house of the German Hohenzollerns, of which the English Windsors are a branch, has Aryan roots.
However, Western Europeans (haplogroup R1b) are in any case our closest relatives, oddly enough, much closer than the Northern Slavs (haplogroup N) and the Southern Slavs (haplogroup I1b). Our common ancestor with Western Europeans lived about 13 thousand years ago, at the end of the Ice Age, five thousand years before gathering began to develop into crop farming, and hunting into cattle breeding. That is, in the very gray Stone Age antiquity. And the Slavs are even further from us in blood.
The settlement of Russian-Aryans to the east, south and west (there was simply nowhere to go further to the north, and so, according to the Indian Vedas, before coming to India they lived near the Arctic Circle) became a biological prerequisite for the formation of a special language group, Indo-European. That's almost all European languages, some languages of modern Iran and India and, of course, the Russian language and ancient Sanskrit, which are closest to each other for the obvious reason - in time (Sanskrit) and in space (Russian language) they stand next to the original source, the Aryan proto-language, from which they grew all other Indo-European languages.
The above are irrefutable natural scientific facts, moreover, obtained by independent American scientists. Disputing them is the same as disagreeing with the results of a blood test in a clinic. They are not disputed. They are simply kept silent. They are hushed up unanimously and stubbornly, they are hushed up, one might say, completely. And there are reasons for this.
The first such reason is quite trivial and boils down to scientific false solidarity. Too many theories, concepts and scientific reputations will have to be refuted if they are revised in the light of the latest discoveries of ethnogenetics.
For example, we will have to rethink everything that is known about Tatar-Mongol invasion to Rus'. The armed conquest of peoples and lands was always and everywhere accompanied at that time by the mass rape of local women. Traces in the form of Mongolian and Turkic haplogroups should have remained in the blood of the male part of the Russian population. But they are not there! Solid R1a1 and nothing more, the purity of the blood is amazing. This means that the Horde that came to Rus' was not at all what is commonly thought of it; if the Mongols were present there, it was in statistically insignificant numbers, and who was called “Tatars” is generally unclear. Well, which scientist will refute scientific foundations, supported by mountains of literature and great authorities?!
No one wants to spoil relationships with colleagues and be branded an extremist by destroying established myths. In an academic environment, this happens all the time - if the facts do not correspond to the theory, so much the worse for the facts.
The second reason, incomparably more significant, relates to the sphere of geopolitics. The history of human civilization appears in a new and completely unexpected light, and this cannot but have serious political consequences.
Throughout modern history, the pillars of European scientific and political thought proceeded from the idea of Russians as barbarians who had recently climbed down from the trees, backward by nature and incapable of creative work. And suddenly it turns out that the Russians are the same Aryans who had a decisive influence on the formation of great civilizations in India, Iran and Europe itself. That Europeans owe a lot to Russians for their prosperous lives, starting with the languages they speak. It is no coincidence that in recent history, a third of the most important discoveries and inventions belong to ethnic Russians in Russia itself and abroad. It is no coincidence that the Russian people were able to repel the invasions of the united forces of continental Europe led by Napoleon and then Hitler. And so on.
It is no coincidence that behind all this there is a great historical tradition, thoroughly forgotten over many centuries, but remaining in the collective subconscious of the Russian people and manifesting itself whenever the nation faces new challenges. Manifesting itself with iron inevitability due to the fact that it grew on a material, biological basis in the form of Russian blood, which remains unchanged for four and a half millennia.
Western politicians and ideologists have something to think about in order to make policy towards Russia more adequate in the light of discovered by geneticists historical circumstances. But they don’t want to think or change anything, hence the conspiracy of silence around the Russian-Aryan topic.
However, the Lord is with them and with their ostrich politics. What is much more important for us is that ethnogenetics brings something new to the Russian situation itself. In this regard, the main thing lies in the very statement of the existence of the Russian people as a biologically integral and genetically homogeneous entity. The main thesis of the Russophobic propaganda of the Bolsheviks and current liberals is precisely the denial of this fact. The scientific community is dominated by the idea formulated by Lev Gumilyov in his theory of ethnogenesis: “from a mixture of Alans, Ugrians, Slavs and Turks, the Great Russian people developed.” The “national leader” repeats the common saying “scratch a Russian and you will find a Tatar.” And so on.
Why do the enemies of the Russian nation need this? The answer is obvious. If the Russian people as such do not exist, but some kind of amorphous “mixture” exists, then anyone can control this “mixture” - be it Germans, be it African pygmies, or even Martians. The denial of the biological existence of the Russian people is the ideological justification for the dominance of the non-Russian “elite” in Russia, formerly Soviet, now liberal.
But then the Americans with their genetics intervene, and it turns out that there is no “mixture”, that the Russian people have existed unchanged for four and a half thousand years, that Alans and Turks and many others also live in Russia, but these are separate, distinctive peoples and etc. And the question immediately arises: why then have Russia not been ruled by Russians for almost a century? Illogical and wrong, Russians should be controlled by Russians.
In a similar way, six hundred years ago, the Czech Jan Hus, a professor at the University of Prague, reasoned: “... Czechs in the Kingdom of Bohemia, by law and by the dictates of nature, should be first in positions, just like the French in France and the Germans in their lands.” This statement of his was considered politically incorrect, intolerant, inciting ethnic hatred, and the professor was burned at the stake.
Now morals have softened, professors are not being burned, but so that people are not tempted to succumb to Hussite logic, in Russia the non-Russian government simply “cancelled” the Russian people - a mixture, they say. And everything would have been fine, but the Americans jumped out from somewhere with their analyzes and ruined the whole thing. There is nothing to cover them with, all that remains is to hush up the scientific results, which is done to the hoarse sounds of an old and hackneyed Russophobic propaganda record.
The collapse of the myth about the Russian people as an ethnic “mixture” automatically destroys another myth - the myth about the “multinationality” of Russia. Until now, they have tried to present the ethno-demographic structure of our country as a vinaigrette from a Russian “mixture” of who knows what, and many indigenous peoples and newcomer diasporas. With such a structure, all its components are approximately equal in size, so Russia is supposedly “multinational.”
But genetic research give a completely different picture. If you believe the Americans (and there is no reason not to believe them, they are authoritative scientists, their reputation trembles, and they have no reason to lie in such a pro-Russian way), then it turns out that 70% of the entire male population of Russia are purebred Russians. According to the data of the penultimate census (the results of the latter are not yet known), 80% of respondents consider themselves Russian, that is, 10% more are Russified representatives of other nations (it is these 10%, if you “scrub”, that you will find non-Russian roots). And 20% falls on the remaining 170-odd peoples, nationalities and tribes living in the territory Russian Federation. In summary, Russia is a mono-national country, albeit multi-ethnic, with an overwhelming demographic majority of natural Russians. This is where Jan Hus' logic comes into play.
Next, about backwardness. The clergy thoroughly contributed to this myth - they say that before the baptism of Rus', people lived in complete savagery. Wow, wild! They mastered half the world, built great civilizations, taught the aborigines their language, and all this long before the birth of Christ... Real history does not fit in, does not fit in with its church version. There is something primordial, natural in the Russian people that cannot be reduced to religious life.
Of course, between biology and social sphere You can't put an equal sign. There are undoubtedly points of contact between them, but how one passes into the other, how the material becomes ideal, science does not know. In any case, it is obvious that under the same conditions different peoples have different patterns of life activity. In the north-east of Europe, in addition to the Russians, many peoples lived and now live. But none of them created anything even remotely similar to the great Russian civilization. The same applies to other places of civilizational activity of the Russian-Aryans in ancient times. Natural conditions they are different everywhere, and the ethnic environment is different, therefore the civilizations built by our ancestors are not the same, but there is something common to all of them - they are great on the historical scale of values and far exceed the achievements of their neighbors.
Father of dialectics ancient Greek Heraclitus is known as the author of the saying “everything flows, everything changes.” Less known is the continuation of this phrase of his: “except for the human soul.” While a person is alive, his soul remains unchanged (what happens to it in the afterlife is not for us to judge). The same is true for a more complex form of organization of living matter than a person - for a people. The people's soul is unchanged as long as the people's body is alive. The Russian folk body is marked by nature with a special sequence of nucleotides in the DNA that controls this body. This means that as long as there are people on earth with haplogroup R1a1 on the Y chromosome, their people retain their soul unchanged.
The language evolves, culture develops, religious beliefs change, but the Russian soul remains the same as it has been for all four and a half millennia of the existence of the people in its current genetic form. And together, the body and soul, constituting a single biosocial entity under the name “Russian people,” have a natural ability for great achievements on a civilizational scale. The Russian people have demonstrated this many times in the past; this potential remains in the present and will always exist as long as the people live.
It is very important to know this and, through the prism of knowledge, to evaluate current events, words and actions of people, to determine one’s own place in the history of the great biosocial phenomenon called the “Russian nation.” Knowledge of the history of a people obliges a person to try to be at the level of the great achievements of his ancestors, and this is the most terrible thing for the enemies of the Russian nation. That's why they try to hide this knowledge. And we are trying to make it publicly available.
Alexander Nikitin. Secretary of TsPS MANPADS "RUS"
The formation of chromosomes occurs at the time of meiosis, when, in the process of crossing over, each randomly takes approximately half from the maternal chromosome and half from the paternal chromosome; which specific genes will be inherited from the mother and which from the father is not known, everything is decided by chance.
Only one male chromosome, Y, does not participate in this lottery; it is entirely passed from father to son like a relay baton. Let me clarify that women do not have this Y chromosome at all.
In each subsequent generation, mutations occur in certain areas of the Y chromosome, called loci, which will be transmitted to all subsequent generations through the male gender.
It was thanks to these mutations that it became possible to reconstruct the genera. There are only about 400 loci on the Y chromosome, but only about a hundred are used for comparative haplotype analysis and genera reconstruction.
In the so-called loci, or they are also called STR markers, there are from 7 to 42 tandem repeats, big picture which is unique for each person. After a certain number of generations, mutations occur and the number of tandem repeats changes up or down, and thus on the general tree it will be seen that the more mutations, the older the common ancestor for a group of haplotypes.
The haplogroups themselves do not carry genetic information, because Genetic information is located in autosomes - the first 22 pairs of chromosomes. You can see the distribution of genetic components in Europe. Haplogroups are just markers of days gone by, at the dawn of the formation of modern peoples.
What haplogroups are most common among Russians?
Peoples |
Human |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs. |
|||||||||
| Russians(north) | 395 | 34 | 6 | 10 | 8 | 35 | 2 | 1 | |
| Russians(center) | 388 | 52 | 8 | 5 | 10 | 16 | 4 | 1 | |
| Russians(south) | 424 | 50 | 4 | 4 | 16 | 10 | 5 | 3 | |
| Russians (All Great Russians) | 1207 | 47 | 7 | 5 | 12 | 20 | 4 | 3 | 2 |
| Belarusians | 574 | 52 | 10 | 3 | 16 | 10 | 3 | Russians, Slavs, Indo-Europeans and haplogroups R1a, R1b, N1c, I1 and I2In ancient times, about 8-9 thousand years ago, there was a linguistic group that laid the foundation for the Indo-European family of languages (at the initial stage, most likely these were haplogroups R1a and R1b). The Indo-European family includes such linguistic groups as the Indo-Iranians (South Asia), the Slavs and Balts (Eastern Europe), the Celts (Western Europe), and the Germans (Central, Northern Europe).Perhaps they also had common genetic ancestors, which about 7 thousand years ago, due to migrations, ended up in different parts of Eurasia, some went to the south and east (R1a-Z93), laying the foundation for the Indo-Iranian peoples and languages (largely taking part in the ethnogenesis of the Turkic peoples), and some remained on the territory of Europe and marked the beginning of the formation of many European peoples (R1b-L51), including the Slavs and Russians in particular (R1a-Z283, R1b-L51). At different stages of formation, already in ancient times there were intersections of migration flows, which was the reason for the presence of a large number of haplogroups among all European ethnic groups. Slavic languages emerged from the once unified group of Balto-Slavic languages (presumably the archaeological culture of the Late Corded Ware). According to the calculations of linguist Starostin, this happened approximately 3.3 thousand years ago. Period from the 5th century BC to IV-V century AD can be considered conditionally Proto-Slavic, because The Balts and Slavs had already separated, but the Slavs themselves did not yet exist; they would appear a little later, in the 4th-6th centuries AD. At the initial stage of the formation of the Slavs, probably about 80% were haplogroups R1a-Z280 and I2a-M423. At the initial stage of the formation of the Balts, probably about 80% were haplogroups N1c-L1025 and R1a-Z92. The influence and intersection of migrations of the Balts and Slavs was present from the very beginning, therefore in many ways this division is arbitrary, and in general reflects only the main trend, without details. Iranian languages belong to the Indo-European languages, and their dating is as follows - the most ancient, from the 2nd millennium BC. to the 4th century BC, middle - from the 4th century BC. to the 9th century AD, and the new one - from the 9th century AD. Until now. That is, the most ancient Iranian languages appeared after the departure of some of the tribes who spoke Indo-European languages from Central Asia to India and Iran. Their main haplogroups were probably R1a-Z93, J2a, G2a3. The Western Iranian group of languages appeared later, around the 5th century BC. Thus, the Indo-Aryans, Celts, Germans and Slavs in academic science became Indo-Europeans, this term is the most adequate for such a vast and diverse group. This is completely correct. In the genetic aspect, the heterogeneity of Indo-Europeans both in Y-haplogroups and autosomes is striking. It is typical for Indo-Iranians to to a greater extent Central Asian genetic influence of BMAC. According to the Indian Vedas, it was the Indo-Aryans who came to India (in South Asia) from the north (from Central Asia), and it was their hymns and legends that formed the basis of the Indian Vedas. And, continuing further, let’s touch on linguistics, because the Russian language (and related Baltic languages, for example, Lithuanian as part of the once existing Balto-Slavic linguistic community) is relatively close to Sanskrit along with the Celtic, Germanic and other languages of the large Indo-European family . But genetically, the Indo-Aryans were already largely Western Asians; as they approached India, the Veddoid influence also intensified. So it became clear that haplogroup R1a in DNA genealogy - this is a common haplogroup for part of the Slavs, part of the Turks and part of the Indo-Aryans (since naturally there were representatives of other haplogroups among them), part haplogroup R1a1 during migrations along the Russian Plain they became part of the Finno-Ugric peoples, for example the Mordovians (Erzya and Moksha). Part of the tribes (for haplogroup R1a1 this is subclade Z93) during migrations they brought this Indo-European language to India and Iran approximately 3500 years ago, that is, in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. In India, through the works of the great Panini, it was transformed into Sanskrit in the middle of the 1st millennium BC, and in Persia-Iran, the Aryan languages became the basis of a group of Iranian languages, the oldest of which date back to the 2nd millennium BC. These data are confirmed: DNA genealogy and linguistics correlate here. Extensive part haplogroups R1a1-Z93 in ancient times they merged with the Turkic ethnic groups and today largely mark the migrations of the Turks, which is not surprising in view of the antiquity haplogroup R1a1, while representatives haplogroup R1a1-Z280 belonged to the Finno-Ugric tribes, but when the Slavic colonists settled, many of them were assimilated by the Slavs, but even now, among many peoples, such as the Erzya, the dominant haplogroup is still R1a1-Z280. Was able to provide us with all this new data DNA genealogy, in particular, approximate dates of migrations of haplogroup carriers in the territory of the modern Russian Plain and Central Asia in prehistoric times. So scientists to all Slavs, Celts, Germans, etc. gave the name Indo-Europeans, which is true from a linguistic point of view. Where did these Indo-Europeans come from? In fact, there were Indo-European languages long before the migrations to India and Iran, throughout the Russian Plain and as far as the Balkans in the south, and as far as the Pyrenees in the west. Subsequently, the language was spread to South Asia - both to Iran and India. But in genetic terms there are much fewer correlations. “The only justified and currently accepted in science is the use of the term “Aryans” only in relation to tribes and peoples who spoke Indo-Iranian languages.” So in which direction did the Indo-European flow go - to the west, to Europe, or vice versa, to the east? According to some estimates, the Indo-European language family is about 8,500 years old. The ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans has not yet been determined, but according to one version it could be the Black Sea region - southern or northern. In India, as we already know, the Indo-Aryan language was brought about 3500 years ago, presumably from the territory of Central Asia, and the Aryans themselves were a group with different genetic Y-lines, such as R1a1-L657, G2a, J2a, J2b, H, etc. Haplogroup R1a1 in Western and Southern EuropeAnalysis of 67 marker haplotypes haplogroup R1a1 from all European countries made it possible to determine the approximate route of migration of the ancestors of R1a1 in the direction Western Europe. And calculations showed that throughout almost all of Europe, from Iceland in the north to Greece in the south, haplogroup R1a1 had one common ancestor approximately 7,000 years ago!In other words, the descendants, like a baton, passed on their haplotypes to their own descendants from generation to generation, diverging in the process of migrations from the same historical place - which presumably turned out to be the Urals or the Black Sea lowland. On the modern map these are countries mainly of Eastern and Central Europe - Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia. But the range of more ancient haplotypes of the haplogroup R1a1 leads east - to Siberia. And the lifetime of the first ancestor, which is indicated by the most ancient, most mutated haplotypes, is 7.5 thousand years ago. In those days there were no Slavs, no Germans, no Celts. Central and Eastern EuropePoland, the common ancestor of R1a1 lived about 5000 years ago (mainly the subclade R1a1-M458 and Z280). For Russian-Ukrainian - 4500 years ago, which practically coincides within the accuracy of calculations.And even if four generations are not a difference for such periods. In modern Poland haplogroup R1a1 on average 56%, and in some areas up to 62%. The rest are mainly Western European haplogroup R1b(12%), Scandinavian haplogroup I1(17%) and Baltic haplogroup N1c1 (8%). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, a common Proto-Slavic ancestor lived 4,200 years ago. The total is not much less than that of the Russians and Ukrainians. That is, we are talking about settlement in territories modern Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belarus, Russia - all within literally a few generations, but more than four thousand years ago. In archaeology, such dating accuracy is completely unthinkable. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia descendants haplogroup R1a1 about 40%. The rest have mostly Western European R1b(22-28%), Scandinavian I1 and Balkan haplogroup I2a(18% in total) In the territory of modern Hungary, the common ancestor of R1a1 lived 5000 years ago. There are now up to a quarter of the descendants of haplogroup R1a1. The rest have mainly the Western European haplogroup R1b (20%) and the combined Scandinavian I1 and Balkan I2 (total 26%) haplogroups. Considering that Hungarians speak the language of the Finno-Ugric group of languages, the most common haplogroup of which is N1c1 in the ancient Hungarian rich burials of the Magyars, the remains of men with the haplogroup are mainly found N1c1, who were the first leaders of the tribes who participated in the formation of the empire. In Lithuania and Latvia, the common ancestor is reconstructed to a depth of 4800 years. Today there are mainly subclade Z92, Z280 and M458. The most common among Lithuanians is the Baltic haplogroup N1c1, reaching 47%. In general, Lithuania and Latvia are characterized by the South Baltic subclade L1025 of haplogroup N1c1. In general, the situation is clear. I'll just add that European countries- Iceland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, Belgium, Lithuania, France, Italy, Romania, Albania, Montenegro, Slovenia, Croatia, Spain, Greece, Bulgaria, Moldova - the common ancestor lived 5000-5500 years ago, it is impossible to establish more precisely. This is a common ancestor haplogroup R1a for all listed countries. The pan-European ancestor, so to speak, not counting the Balkan region shown above, the possible ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans about 7500 years ago. Share of carriers haplogroup R1a1 in the following countries varies, from 4% in Holland and Italy, 9% in Albania, 8-11% in Greece (up to 14% in Thessaloniki), 12-15% in Bulgaria and Herzegovina, 14-17% in Denmark and Serbia, 15-25% in Bosnia and Macedonia, 3% in Switzerland, 20% in Romania and Hungary, 23% in Iceland, 22-39% in Moldova, 29-34% in Croatia, 30-37% in Slovenia (16% in in the Balkans as a whole), and at the same time - 32-37% in Estonia, 34-38% in Lithuania, 41% in Latvia, 40% in Belarus, 45-54% in Ukraine. In Russia, Eastern European haplogroup R1a, as I already mentioned, on average 47%, due to the high share of the Baltic haplogroup N1c1 in the north and north-west of Russia, but in the south and center of Russia, the share of different subclades of haplogroup R1a reaches 55%. Turks and haplogroup R1a1The haplotypes of ancestors are different everywhere, and different regions have their own subclades. The peoples of Altai and other Turks also have high percentages of haplogroup R1a1; among the Bashkirs, subclade Z2123 reaches 40%. This is a daughter line from Z93 and can be called typically Turkic and not related to the migrations of Indo-Iranians.Today a large number haplogroup R1a1 located in the Sayan-Altai region, among the Turkic population of Central Asia. Among the Kyrgyz, reaching 63%. You can’t call them either Russians or Iranians. It turns out to name all haplogroup R1a1 a single name - gross exaggeration, at least, and at most - ignorance. Haplogroups are not ethnic groups; the linguistic and ethnic affiliation of the carrier is not recorded on them. Haplogroups also have no direct relationship to genes. The Turks are mainly characterized by various subclades Z93, but in the Volga region there are also R1a1-Z280, possibly passed on to the Volga Turks from the Volga Finns. Haplogroup R1a1-Z93 is also characteristic of Arabs in moderate frequency, and for Levites - a subgroup of Ashkenazi Jews (the CTS6 subclade was confirmed in the latter). This line already at the very early stages took part in the ethnogenesis of these peoples. Territory of initial distribution haplogroup R1a1 in Europe, this is probably the territory of Eastern Europe and possibly the Black Sea lowland. Before this, probably in Asia, possibly in South Asia or Northern China. Caucasian R1a1 haplotypesArmenia. Age of the common ancestor of the haplogroup R1a1- 6500 years ago. Mainly also the subclade R1a1-Z93, although there is also R1a1-Z282.Asia Minor, Anatolian Peninsula. A historic crossroads between the Middle East, Europe and Asia. It was the first or second candidate for an "Indo-European ancestral home." However, the common ancestor of haplogroup R1a1 lived there about 6,500 years ago. It is clear that, judging by the haplotypes, this ancestral home could practically be in Anatolia, or the original Indo-Europeans were carriers haplogroup R1b. But there is a high probability of low representation of individuals from Turkey in the general database of haplotypes. So, both Armenians and Anatolians - all have either the same ancestor, or ancestors very close in time, within several generations - this is the subclade Z93 and Z282 *. It should be noted that 4500 years before the common ancestor of the R1a1-Z93 haplogroup in Anatolia is in good agreement with the time of the appearance of the Hittites in Asia Minor in the last quarter of the 3rd millennium BC, although many R1a1-Z93 lineages could have appeared there after the migrations of Turkic peoples to the peninsula already in our era. Alexey Zorrin *** | |
Before the advent of scientific methods for studying human racial variability, the degree of proximity of peoples to each other was judged “by ear” and “by eye.” The similarity of languages and appearance (usual height, hair and eye color, nose shape, etc.) could indicate a common origin of peoples, but not always.
And about distant degrees of relationship, for example, all Indo-European peoples, science came up with it only in early XIX century, with the creation of scientific linguistics. Moreover, again, the language could be acquired by one or another people, in the process, for example, of migrations.
Physical anthropology, especially such a branch as craniology, which studied the morphological variability of skulls, arose in the second half of the 19th century and made the first breakthrough in the study of family ties of peoples. Craniology proceeds from the fact that a complex of relationships between several dimensions of cranial indicators is hereditarily determined and indicates the closeness or distance between human populations.
What anthropologists have discovered
For more than a century, from the 1860s to the 1980s, anthropology reigned supreme in identifying the relationships between human populations and their earliest migrations. Science has achieved good results along this path.
In 1939, just before World War II, the English anthropologist Stephen Kuhn published the work “The Races of Europe” (completely published in Russian only in 2010, when most of the material was outdated). He attempted to systematize and classify anthropological types based on the materials of numerous studies - his own and his predecessors - throughout Europe, as well as North Africa and Western Asia. He managed to cover a huge amount of factual material.
In particular, Stephen Kuhn came to the conclusion that the integral anthropological indicators of Russians, Belarusians and Poles are closest to each other. At the same time, for each of these peoples they are more different from any other neighboring peoples, including from Ukrainians. Here we are talking about averages. Of course, in every nation there is a wide range of individual variants, and within the limits of variability, almost all anthropological types of peoples overlap each other. Nevertheless, every nation has a general anthropological type, into which most of its representatives fit.
The conclusion made by Kuhn was partly confirmed by the outstanding Russian anthropologist V.P. Alekseev in his basic research"The Origin of the Peoples of Eastern Europe" (1969). Having noted the influence of the Finnish ethnic substratum on the appearance of the northern Russians, and the Lithuanian-Latvian (Baltic) on the Belarusians, he nevertheless noted two new facts. First, the influence of this substrate in medieval Russian populations can be traced much more strongly than in modern ones. The second one is worth quoting:
“Modern East Slavic peoples (especially Russians) are more closely related to the West Slavic medieval population than to the East Slavic one.”
What did gene comparison give?
Until the end of the twentieth century, a certain contribution to identifying the origin and family ties of peoples was made by the study of the prevalence of blood groups and the Rh factor, dermatoglyphics (the study of the pattern at the ends of the fingers), and statistical studies of eye and hair color. However, a real breakthrough began only with the advent of the ability to compare Y-chromosome and mtDNA types in the 80s of the last century.
In relation to Russians, these studies revealed the following. The Y-chromosomal haplogroup R1a is most widespread among Russians. On average, 47% of Russians belong to it. Its frequency naturally decreases from south to north: from 55% among southern Russians to 34% among northern ones. Among other Slavic peoples, the highest prevalence of haplogroup R1a is among Poles - 56%, followed by Ukrainians - 54%, Belarusians - 50%, Slovaks - 47%, Czechs - 38%, Slovenes - 37%, and all others are noticeably lower. Among non-Slavic peoples, the highest frequency of haplogroup R1a is among Latvians (39%) and Lithuanians (34%). It can be conditionally called the “Slavic” Y chromosome.
Male haplogroup R1b, widespread in Central Europe, is found in 7% of Russians. Haplogroup N1c is more common - 20%, reaching up to 35% among northern Russians. In eastern Finland, 71% are carriers of this Y chromosome. There are many of them among Latvians (44%) and Lithuanians (42%). It is obvious that the carriers of haplogroup N1c on the Russian Plain were of Finnish origin.
Another widespread haplogroup among Russians is I2 (12%). Its carriers are most numerous among Croats - 39%, and its occurrence decreases along the Russian Plain from south to north. It most likely spread from the Balkans.
Data on mt-DNA highlight one widespread cluster H, to which up to half of Russians belong to various clades (mainly H7 and H1). Haplogroup H is also widespread throughout Europe. In general, according to mt-DNA, as researchers now classify, Russians are included in the so-called “Slavic cluster” of the pan-European population. It includes all nations Slavic group, and also, surprisingly, Hungarians and Estonians.
So who are we closer to?
If, according to “female” haplogroups, Russians show both greater homogeneity and kinship with all Slavs, then “male” haplogroups show different ways of forming the Russian nationality. Predominant kinship is found among Russians in general with Poles, Ukrainians and Belarusians. But in different regions the degrees of this relationship are different. Thus, southern Russians are especially close to both Ukrainians and Poles. But the northern Russians are as close to them as they are to the Finns.
The results obtained from the study of haplogroups were generally confirmed when identifying elements of different geographical origins in the integral genotype of peoples according to the MDLP World-22 project. Their ratio among Russians is almost identical to that among Poles, followed by Belarusians, Ukrainians, and Lithuanians in terms of degree of remoteness. However, again, there are noticeable differences across regions. Thus, the picture of the relationship of genetic components according to their geographical origin among the South Russian Cossacks almost exactly repeats that of the Ukrainians.
In general, generalizing and simplifying a little, we can say that Ukrainians and Poles are closest to the Russians of the South of Russia, and Belarusians and Poles are closest to the Russians of the Center and North of the European part of Russia. At the same time, northern Russians have another line of genetic kinship that brings them closer to the Finns, but not to the same extent as with the aforementioned Slavic peoples. At the same time, of course, different regional groups of Russians are closer to each other than to any other nationality. Of course, we are talking about averages, since the diversity of genotypes among any modern nation is very large.