When did fragmentation begin in Rus'? State fragmentation in Rus'. Rus' and neighboring peoples

25.09.2019

Prerequisites and reasons for the transition to feudal fragmentation. At the turn of the XI-XII centuries. in Rus' there came a period characteristic of the European Middle Ages period of feudal fragmentation . On the positive side This process was the development of the feudal mode of production. The strengthening of feudal land ownership and the increase in quitrents - all this created the conditions for further development the country's economy. At the same time, fragmentation has caused negative phenomena in the region political life. Princely strife began, endless internal strife among feudal lords began, which worsened the foreign policy situation of Rus' and weakened its strength in the fight against foreign invaders.

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality came out from under the rule of Kyiv in the 30s. XII century, when the son of Monomakh, Yuri Vladimirovich, reigned, nicknamed Dolgoruky for his attempts to occupy and hold cities as distant from Suzdal as Kyiv and Novgorod. As a feudal lord, he did not hesitate to expand his land holdings.

In the 12th century. The Vladimir-Suzdal land experienced significant economic growth. New cities were built here: Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Pereyaslavl, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov, etc. Yuri’s successors, princes Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, then his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, managed to strengthen personal power, subjugate Novgorod and Ryazan, and create a strong squad. All of them waged a long struggle with the Galician-Volyn princes for the Kyiv land. This struggle weakened Rus'.

The Galicia-Volyn land with its center in Przemysl occupied a territory stretching along the Black Sea coast to the Danube. It had rich salt mines and salt was exported to neighboring Russian principalities. Crafts reached a high level, which led to the growth of cities, of which there were over 80. Located at the intersection of numerous water and land routes, the Galicia-Volyn land played a prominent role in European trade. For a long time, there were feuds between local boyars and princes. The boyars sought help from Hungary and Poland, which for a long time prevented political consolidation.

Novgorod, one of the largest Russian cities, was located on the main trade route connecting the Baltic, Black and Caspian seas. The power of Novgorod extended to vast territories that were previously part of the Old Russian state, to the Eastern Baltic to the Dvina, to the lands of the Karelians, Finns and Sami all the way to Norway, far to the north along the shores of the White Sea, to the Ural Range. Agriculture was developed in the Novgorod land, but the main role in the economy was played by trades: hunting fur and sea animals, mining of salt and iron. Novgorod itself was not only a trading center, but also a highly developed craft center. In the Novgorod lands, a political system different from other Russian regions developed - a boyar republic. Formally, the supreme power was held by the veche, a meeting of all townspeople. However, in fact, it was in the hands of the boyars, from among whom were elected: mayor - the head of the entire administration; Tysyatsky - assistant mayor, head of military forces, tax collection; archbishop - head of the Novgorod church. The Novgorod boyars had to reckon with the opinion of the veche, especially when speeches by city “black” people took place at veche meetings. Gradually, with the development of domestic and foreign trade in Novgorod, the role of the merchants increased.

Culture of Russian lands. Despite the dismemberment of Rus', close economic ties developed between the principalities, especially in the field of trade, this had a positive effect on all Russian lands. A developed economy became the material basis for the flourishing of culture. Russian culture of the era of feudal fragmentation amazes with its diversity. During this period, literacy spread, covering new regions of the country and various classes, construction technology was improved (the production of bricks, durable lime mixture, etc. was mastered). Many monuments of wall painting, stone carving, fine silver coinage and monumental architecture were created, which gained worldwide fame. The Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir are decorated with stone carved reliefs; Church of the Intercession on the Nerl - decorative sculpture. In all major cities, historical chronicles were kept, which became not only historical sources, but also literary monuments. Church preaching literature developed. Individual components also belong to the literary monuments chronicle vaults, which are stories of secular content. All authors made extensive use of folklore treasures. The greatest monument Russian and world culture is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The bearers of progressive ideas of that time strongly condemned the feudal strife of the princes and called on them to unite, which was so necessary to fight the external enemy.

Feudal fragmentation is most often understood as the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of one state of practically independent state entities that formally had a common supreme ruler (in Rus', the period of the 12th - 15th centuries).

Already in the word “fragmentation” the political processes of this period are recorded. By the middle of the 12th century, approximately 15 principalities had emerged. By the beginning of the 13th century - about 50. By the 14th century - approximately 250.

How to evaluate this process? But are there any problems here? The unified state disintegrated and was relatively easily conquered by the Mongol-Tatars. And before that there were bloody strife between the princes, from which the common people, peasants and artisans suffered.

Indeed, approximately this stereotype emerged recently when reading scientific and journalistic literature, and even some scientific works. True, these works also spoke about the pattern of fragmentation of Russian lands, the growth of cities, the development of trade and crafts. All this is true, however, the smoke of the fires in which Russian cities disappeared during the years of Batu’s invasion still obscures the eyes of many today. But can the significance of one event be measured by the tragic consequences of another? "If not for the invasion, Rus' would have survived."

But the Mongol-Tatars also conquered huge empires, such as China. The battle with Batu’s countless armies was a much more complex undertaking than the victorious campaign against Constantinople, the defeat of Khazaria, or the successful military operations of the Russian princes in the Polovtsian steppes. For example, the forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the person of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a clash with a qualitatively different enemy. So if we pose the question in the subjunctive mood, we can ask another way: could the Russian early feudal state have been able to resist the Tatars? Who dares to answer in the affirmative? And the most important thing. The success of the invasion cannot in any way be attributed to fragmentation.

There is no direct cause-and-effect relationship between them. Fragmentation is the result of progressive internal development Ancient Rus'. An invasion is an external influence with tragic consequences. Therefore, to say: “Fragmentation is bad because the Mongols conquered Rus'” does not make sense.

It is also wrong to exaggerate the role of feudal strife. In the joint work of N. I. Pavlenko, V. B. Kobrin and V. A. Fedorov, “History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861,” they write: “You cannot imagine feudal fragmentation as a kind of feudal anarchy. Moreover, princely strife in one state, when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand princely throne or certain rich principalities and cities, were sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. There was not a collapse of the ancient Russian state, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities headed by the great. the prince of Kyiv, although his power was weakening all the time and was rather nominal... The goal of the strife during the period of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not the seizure of power in the entire country, but the strengthening of one’s own principality, the expansion of its borders at the expense of its neighbors.”

Thus, fragmentation differs from the times of state unity not by the presence of strife, but by the fundamentally different goals of the warring parties.

Main dates of the period of feudal fragmentation in Rus':

1097 year - Lyubechsky Congress of Princes.

1132 year - Death of Mstislav I the Great and the political collapse of Kievan Rus.

1169 year - The capture of Kyiv by Andrei Bogolyubsky and the plunder of the city by his troops, which testified to the socio-political and ethnocultural isolation of individual lands of Kievan Rus.

1212 year - Death of Vsevolod "Big Nest" - the last autocrat of Kievan Rus.

1240 year - Defeat of Kyiv by the Mongol-Tatars.

1252 year - Presentation of the label for the great reign to Alexander Nevsky.

1328 year - Presentation of the label for the great reign to Moscow Prince Ivan Kalita.

1389 year - Battle of Kulikovo.

1471 year - Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod the Great.

1478 year - Inclusion of Novgorod into the Moscow state.

1485 year - Incorporation of the Tver Principality into the Moscow State.

1510 year - Inclusion of the Pskov land into the Moscow state.

1521 year - Inclusion of the Ryazan principality into the Moscow state.

Causes of feudal fragmentation.

Formation of feudal land ownership: the old tribal nobility, once pushed into the shadow of the capital's military service nobility, turned into zemstvo boyars and, together with other categories of feudal lords, formed a corporation of land owners (boyar land ownership emerged). Gradually, tables turned into hereditary ones in princely families (princely land ownership). “Settling” on the ground, the ability to do without the help of Kyiv led to the desire to “settle” on the ground.

Development of agriculture: 40 types of rural agricultural and fishing equipment. Steam (two- and three-field) crop rotation system. The practice of fertilizing the land with manure. The peasant population often moves to "free" (free lands). The bulk of the peasants are personally free and farm on the lands of the princes. Decisive role The direct violence of the feudal lords played a role in the enslavement of the peasants. Along with this, economic enslavement was also used: mainly food rent, and to a lesser extent, labor.

Development of crafts and cities. In the middle of the 13th century, according to chronicles, there were over 300 cities in Kievan Rus, in which there were almost 60 craft specialties. The degree of specialization in the field of metal processing technology was especially high. In Kievan Rus, the internal market is being formed, but priority still remains with external market. “Detintsi” are trade and craft settlements made up of runaway slaves. The bulk of the urban population are lesser people, bonded "hiremen" and declassed "poor people", servants who lived in the yards of feudal lords. Urban feudal nobility also live in cities and a trade and craft elite is formed. XII - XIII centuries in Rus' this is the era of the heyday of veche meetings.

The main reason for feudal fragmentation is the change in the nature of the relationship between the Grand Duke and his warriors as a result of the latter settling on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other exactions. As the warriors received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that income from military spoils was less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the 11th century, the process of the squad’s “settling” to the ground intensified. And from the first half XII century in Kievan Rus, the predominant form of property became the patrimony, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although ownership of the estate imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to bear military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke weakened significantly. The incomes of the former feudal warriors no longer depended on the mercy of the prince. They provided for their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Rus' was played by the developing institution of feudal immunity, which provided for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his estate. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered justice. As a result, a state apparatus, squads, courts, prisons, etc. are formed in independent principalities-patrimonial lands, appanage princes begin to manage communal lands, transferring them in their own name to the power of boyars and monasteries. In this way, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. The introduction of the institution of heredity to the land and the people inhabiting it played a huge role in this process. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between local principalities and Kiev changed. Service dependence is replaced by relationships of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This collapse, as was the case in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality (North-Eastern Rus'), the Galician-Volyn Principality (South-Western Rus') and the Novgorod Land (North-Western Rus'). Both within these principalities and between them , for a long time there were fierce clashes, destructive wars that weakened the power of Rus' and led to the destruction of cities and villages.

The main dividing force was the boyars. Relying on his power, local princes were able to establish their power in each land. However, subsequently, contradictions and a struggle for power arose between the growing boyars and the local princes. Causes of feudal fragmentation

Internal political. A single Russian state no longer existed under the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, and unity was supported rather by family ties and common interests in defense from the steppe nomads. The movement of princes through cities along the “Yaroslav Row” created instability. The decision of the Lyubech Congress eliminated this established rule, finally fragmenting the state. Yaroslav's descendants were more interested not in the struggle for seniority, but in increasing their own possessions at the expense of their neighbors. Foreign policy. Polovtsian raids on Rus' largely contributed to the consolidation of Russian princes to repel external danger. The weakening of the onslaught from the south broke the alliance of the Russian princes, who themselves more than once brought Polovtsian troops to Rus' in civil strife. Economic. Marxist historiography brought economic reasons to the fore. The period of feudal fragmentation was considered as a natural stage in the development of feudalism. The dominance of subsistence farming did not contribute to the establishment of strong economic ties between regions and led to isolation. The emergence of a feudal fiefdom with the exploitation of the dependent population required strong power locally, and not in the center. The growth of cities, colonization and the development of new lands led to the emergence of new large centers of Rus', loosely connected with Kiev.

Conclusion.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, Rus', remaining large European country, did not have a single state power, which would pursue a common foreign policy for the entire country. In the middle of the 12th century. Russian princes entered into allied relations with states that were part of mutually hostile coalitions.

Nevertheless, the largest Russian principalities had a significant influence on the fate of neighboring countries. Back in 1091, when Byzantium was looking everywhere for help against the Seljuk Turks and Pechenegs, it received military support from Prince Vasilko of Galicia. In general, the Russian princes occupied a much more independent position in relation to the church center of Orthodoxy, Byzantium, than other European states did in relation to the center of Catholicism, Rome.

The papal curia sought to draw Rus' into the orbit of its policy, but the most far-sighted papal emissaries even then saw the unrealizability of these hopes. Thus, in response to a request from one of the ideologists of militant Catholicism, Bernard of Clairvaux, about the possibility of introducing Catholicism in Rus', Bishop Matthew of Krakow in the middle of the 12th century. wrote that “the Russian people, like the stars in their numbers, do not want to conform to either the Latin or the Greek Church.”

Russian princes actively intervened in the international relations of their time. The Vladimir-Suzdal and allied Galician princes maintained diplomatic relations with Byzantium, and their opponents, the Volyn princes, maintained diplomatic relations with Hungary. The army of the Galician princes contributed to the strengthening of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom and helped at the beginning of the 13th century. return the throne to Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Asen II. The Russian princes helped strengthen the position of the Mazovian princes in Poland. Later, the Mazovian princes were for some time in vassal dependence on Rus'.

Individual principalities of Rus' had significant armed forces, who managed to repel and partially subjugate the Polovtsians. The rulers of Byzantium, Hungary, Poland, Germany and other countries sought dynastic ties with the Russian princes, especially with the strongest of them - the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn princes. Rumors about the treasures of Rus' captured the imagination of medieval chroniclers in France, Germany and England.

Russian travelers visited different countries. Thus, the Novgorod boyar Dobrynya Yadreikovich visited at the beginning of the 13th century. Byzantium. He left an interesting description of the country's attractions. The Chernigov abbot Daniel visited Palestine and also described his journey, which took place shortly after the first crusade. Chronicles and other monuments show good knowledge of Russian people about a number of countries in Europe and Asia.

Nevertheless, the international position of Rus' during the period of feudal fragmentation deteriorated significantly. This was noted by contemporaries and publicists. The “Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land,” created in the first half of the 13th century, describes the beauty and wealth of Rus' and at the same time speaks with alarm about the weakening of its international significance. Gone are the days when the rulers of neighboring countries trembled at the mere name of Rus', when the Byzantine emperor, fearing the Kiev Grand Duke, “sent great gifts to him,” when the German knights rejoiced that they were far “across the blue sea.”

The weakening of the foreign policy position of Rus' and the reduction of its territory were facilitated by the feudal feuds of the princes, which did not stop even when enemies invaded the country. The nomadic Cumans, having occupied the Northern Black Sea region, carried out devastating raids on the southern Russian lands, taking the Russian population captive and selling them into slavery. They undermined the trade and political ties of Rus' with the Black Sea region and the countries of the East. This led to the loss of Russia's possessions in the North Caucasus, as well as the loss of the Taman Peninsula and part of the Crimea, captured by Byzantium. In the west, Hungarian feudal lords captured Carpathian Rus'. In the Baltics, the lands of Latvians and Estonians came under the attack of German and Danish feudal lords, and the lands of Finns and Karelians came under the attack of the Swedish ones. In the 13th century. The Mongol invasion led to the conquest, devastation and dismemberment of Rus' itself.

Bibliography:

1) V.K. Gubarev,

2) Saracheva T.G.

3) Gumilyov L.N. From Rus' to Russia L.N. / Gumilev. : Mysl, 1992. - 589 p.

4) History of public administration in Russia: textbook / edited by. ed. R. G. Pihoi. – M.: Publishing house RAGS, 2006. – 414 p.

5) Kobrin V.B. "History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861." , M., 1989

6) Alexandrov I.N. , Kropotkina Yu.L. History of the Russian state M.: ESKMO, 2007

7) "History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions.",

vol. 1-2. M., 1991

8) Karamzin N. M. “History of the Russian State.”, M., 1991.

9) Syrov S.N. "Pages of history.", M.: Russian language, 1977

Strengthening of individual principalities, whose rulers no longer want to obey the Kyiv prince. Constant strife.

Unlike Medieval Europe, in Rus' there was no generally recognized political center (capital). The Kyiv throne quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the 13th century, the princes of Vladimir began to be called Great.

When the process of unification of Russian lands begins, these features will lead to intense struggle between individual principalities for the status of the capital of a single state. In most others European states there was no question of choosing the capital (France - Paris, England - London, etc.).

First of all, this is the ancient land of the Krivichi and Vyatichi, located in the northeast of Rus'. Due to the low fertility of the lands, the colonization of these areas began only at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, when the population from the south moved here, escaping from the raids of nomads and the oppression of patrimonial boyars. Late colonization also led to later boyarization (in the middle of the 12th century), so a strong boyar opposition did not have time to form in North-Eastern Rus' before fragmentation began. In this region, the Vladimir-Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal) state arose with strong princely power.

1132 – 1157 gg. - reign of Vladimir Monomakh's son Yuri Dolgoruky. Remaining a prince of the old school, he continued the fight for the grand ducal throne, clearly overestimating its importance. He managed to conquer Kyiv twice in 1153 and 1155. Poisoned by the Kyiv boyars. In connection with his name, Tula (1146) and Moscow ( 1147 G.)

1157 – 1174 gg. - reign of Yuri's son Andrei Bogolyubsky. He abandoned the fight for the Kiev throne and led active internecine wars. 1164 - campaign in Bulgaria. In honor of the victory and in memory of his son, he built the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Nerl ( 1165g

1176 – 1212 gg. - the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky’s brother Vsevolod Yuryevich Big Nest. The common ancestor of almost all future princes - hence the nickname. Under him, the state reached its greatest prosperity, but collapsed soon after his death. It was under Vsevolod that the Vladimir throne acquired the status of a grand duke (1212); later the metropolitan headquarters was moved to Vladimir. Known for his enormous authority among his contemporaries. Author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" ( 1187

The southwestern, Galician-Volyn Rus was in completely different conditions. The mild climate and fertile lands have always attracted a large agricultural population here. At the same time, this flourishing region was constantly subject to raids by its neighbors - Poles, Hungarians, and steppe nomads. In addition, due to the early debauchery, a strong boyar opposition arose early here.

Initially, the Galician and Volyn principalities existed as independent states. In an effort to stop boyar strife, the rulers of these lands, especially Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia, repeatedly tried to unite them. This problem was solved only in 1199 Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavich. After his death in 1205, power in the principality was seized by the boyars, turning it for a long time into a series of small fiefs at war with each other. Only in 1238 did Roman’s son and heir Daniel ( Daniil Galitsky

To the north of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was the huge Novgorod land. The climate and soils here were even less suitable for agriculture than in the northeast. But the ancient center of these lands - Novgorod - was located at the beginning of one of the most important trade routes of that time - “from the Varangians to the Greeks” (i.e. from Scandinavia to Byzantium). The ancient trade route went like this: from the Baltic to the Neva, then to Ladoga lake, then along the Volkhov River (via Novgorod) to Lake Ilmen, from there to the Lovat River, then by portage to the Dnieper, and from there to the Black Sea. The proximity of the trade route turned Novgorod into one of the most important trading centers of Medieval Europe.

. The date of the beginning of the republican period of its history is considered to be 1136 g. – uprising of the Novgorodians against the grandson of Monomakh Vsevolod Mstislavich. The main role in this state was played by the layer of Novgorod boyars. Unlike the boyars in other lands, the Novgorod boyars had no relation to the squad, but were descendants of the tribal nobility of the Ilmen Slavs.

mayor Tysyatsky lords archimandrite- the head of the black clergy. The prince was called to Novgorod. The functions of the prince were limited: the city needed him as the commander of the squad and the formal recipient of tribute from the Novgorod lands. Any attempt by the prince to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod inevitably ended in his expulsion.

Old Russian culture was the result of a complex synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic spiritual traditions. Slavic culture has its roots in the ancient pagan era. Paganism - a complex of primitive beliefs and rituals - had its own history. At first, the Slavs, obviously, animated various elements, worshiped the spirits of forests, water sources, the sun, thunderstorms, etc. Gradually, Rod - an agricultural deity, the god of fertility in general and the goddesses of fertility closely associated with him - women in labor - acquired enormous importance. As state relations developed, the cult of Perun, the princely warrior god of war (initially revered as the god of thunder and rain), came to the fore. Veles, the god of cattle breeding, and Svarog, the god of the sun and light, were also revered.

In the X-XI centuries. folds up epic epic

chronicle: In addition to weather records about major events, the chronicles included poetic legends and traditions: about the calling of the Varangians, Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople, etc. The most significant monument is the “Tale of Bygone Years” compiled around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. As Rus' fragmented, chronicles lost their all-Russian character, splitting into chronicles of Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, etc.

"A Word on Law and Grace"(1049) of the future Metropolitan Hilarion. In 1073, by order of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, the first Izbornik was compiled - a collection of texts with religious and secular content, intended for reading. Big role in ancient literature the lives of saints were played; Princes Boris and Gleb, the sons of Vladimir, who were killed by their half-brother Svyatopolk, were especially revered in Rus'. Their lives were written by Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years. A brilliant example of secular literature was the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh (late 11th - beginning of XII c.) - a story about his life as a wise statesman who fought for the unity of Rus'. The idea of uniting the forces of Rus' to fight the Steppe permeates "A word to Igor's campaign". (1187 G.). Interesting "Prayer"

miniatures

plinth- a type of brick. It was borrowed from Byzantium as a model cross-domed type of temple (four vaults grouped in the center of the temple, the plan gave a cruciform structure), but in Rus' it received a unique development. Thus, the most grandiose architectural monument of Kievan Rus - the 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1037) had a pronounced step-pyramid composition, which, like multi-domes, was unusual for Byzantine churches. Based on a somewhat simplified model of the Kyiv Sofia, St. Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk (11th century). Gradually, Russian architecture is gaining an increasing variety of forms. In Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. Many churches are being created - Boris and Gleb in Detinets, Spas-Nereditsy, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, etc., which, despite their small size and maximum simplicity of decoration, have amazing beauty and majesty. In the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, a unique type of architecture was developing, distinguished by graceful proportions and elegant decor, in particular white stone carvings: the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the Nerl.

mosaic and fresco. In Sofia in Kyiv, mosaics covered the dome (Christ Pantocrator) and the altar (Our Lady Oranta); the rest of the temple was covered with frescoes - scenes from the life of Christ, saints, images of preachers, as well as secular subjects: group portraits of Yaroslav the Wise with his family, episodes of court life. From later samples monumental painting The most famous are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa and St. Demetrius Cathedral. Original Russian icon paintings have been known only since the 12th century. The Novgorod school (Savior Not Made by Hands, Dormition, Angel of Golden Hair) gained great popularity at this time.

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Historical portraits

Rurik - Varangian king, leader of the Rus tribe, Novgorod prince (862-879), supporters of the Norman theory call him the founder of the state of Rus'. Possibly Rorik of Denmark, mentioned in Western chronicles in connection with raids on European cities.

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The period of specific fragmentation in Rus': causes and consequences.

Following the era of prosperity under Yaroslav the Wise, the gradual decline of the Old Russian state begins. The era of fragmentation in Rus' is traditionally dated from the middle of the 12th century to mid-16th century c, when the Moscow centralized state had already been formed.

The main reason for the fragmentation was the confused succession to the throne ( Ladder law- the order of succession to the throne in medieval Rus', when power is transferred to the senior representative of the dynasty). The inconvenience of the staircase system was that the princes constantly had to be on the wing, together with his yard and squad. This system led to the fact that all the princes began to constantly fight for the grand-ducal throne; they wanted to ensure themselves at least some kind of stability.

As a result, already in the 12th century another system emerged - Specific- a system of transfer of power, within the framework of which the prince, during his lifetime, divided his estate into several possessions, each of which went to a specific son. The unity of the city began to decrease, at first it was divided into 9 principalities, then this number increased until it reached several.

dozens. The process of the collapse of Kievan Rus began back in 1054, when the Grand Duke died Yaroslav the Wise. (978 – 1054). In 1132, the Kiev prince Mstislav Vladimirovich the Great (1076-1132), whose power was recognized by everyone, died.

His successor Yaropolk did not have diplomatic qualities or any specific talents for ruling and therefore power began to change hands.

In the hundred years after the death of Mstislav, more than 30 princes changed on the Kiev throne. Exactly 1132 officially considered the date of the beginning of feudal fragmentation. The main problem was that few people were interested in preserving the political unity of Mr.

It was more profitable for each prince to receive his own inheritance and build cities there and develop the economy. In addition, economic development also did not depend in any way on the unity of individual principalities, because they did not trade anything with each other.

The main reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Rus':

1. Convoluted system of succession to the throne.

2. The existence of a large number of large cities, each of which had its own political interests and could influence the princes who ruled this city.

3. Lack of economic unity in Russian lands.

But in the feudal era.

razd. There are both positive and negative. sides - Feud. razd. significantly influenced Rus' culturally, as they got the opportunity develop individual small towns far from Kyiv.

Many new cities are also emerging, some of them. subsequently they become centers of large principalities (Tver, Moscow). The territories became much more manageable, as the appanage princes reacted to events much faster, due to the relatively small territory of the principality.

But the lack of political unity affected decline in the country's defense capability and already in the 13th century.

Rus' faced numerous Tatar-Mongol hordes. Confront them in the absence of politics. units Rus' failed successfully.

Forms of dependence and the influence of the rule of the Golden Horde on the development of Russian principalities.

In the XII – XIII centuries, the Unified Old Russian State fell into several principalities, which weakened it in the face of external dangers. Meanwhile, in the east, in the steppes north of China, a new powerful state of the Mongols was being formed, led by Khan Timuchin (Genghis Khan).

In 1223

on the river In Kalka, a battle took place between the Mongols and detachments of Russians and Polovtsians, as a result of which Russian army and 3 princes Mstislav were defeated. However, having won a victory on Kalka, the Mongols did not continue their march north to Kyiv, but turned east against Volga Bulgaria.

In the meantime, the Mongolian state was divided into several uluses, the western ulus went to the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu Khan, it was he who would gather an army to march to the west.

In 1235 this campaign will begin. The first city to take the blow of the Tatar-Mongol army was the city of Ryazan, the city was burned. Next, the Mongol-Tatars begin to move towards the territories of the possessions of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

March 4, 1237 on the river. City– Yuri Vsevolodovich died. Then Rostov, Suzdal, Moscow, Kolomna fell.

1238 - a series of raids on the Chernigov principality. 1239 g- a large army under the leadership of Batu moves to the South, in 1240 g Batu's troops took and plundered Kyiv. Rus' was defeated, many cities were destroyed, trade and craft froze. A number of types of crafts simply disappeared; thousands of icons and books were destroyed in fires. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted.

Ruined by the Mongols, the Russian lands were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde.

Control over Russian lands was exercised Basque governors- leaders of punitive detachments of the Mongol-Tatars.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a population census in order to facilitate the collection of tribute. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars (“Tsar’s tribute” = 1300 kg of silver per year).

Government positions were distributed in the Horde. Russian princes and the metropolitan were confirmed by special khan's charters-labels.

Golden Horde yoke:

Formal independence of the Russian principalities from the Horde

Vassalage relations (a system of relations of personal dependence of some feudal lords on others)

Reign under the Horde label (powers)

Management of terror methods

Participation of Russian princes in the military campaigns of the Mongols

Reasons for the defeat of Rus':

Fragmentation and strife of the Russian princes

Numerical superiority of nomads

Mobility of the Mongol army (cavalry)

Consequences of the defeat of Rus':

Urban decline

Decline of many crafts and trade (external and internal)

Decline of culture (Russian lands fell under the rule of the Horde, which increased the isolation of Rus' from Western Europe)

Change social composition squads and their relationship with the prince.

The warriors are no longer comrades-in-arms, but subjects of the princes → The death of most princes and professional warriors, warriors; strengthening of princely power

Formation of the Russian centralized state.

The role of Ivan III.

The struggle to overthrow the Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV - XV centuries. was the main national task of the Russian people. At the same time, the core of the political life of this period becomes the unification process of Russian lands and the formation of a centralized state. The main territory of the Russian state, which emerged in the 15th century, consisted of the Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod-Pskov, Smolensk, Murom-Ryazan lands and part of the Chernigov principality.

Territorial core the formation of the Russian nationality and the Russian state becomes Vladimir-Suzdal land, in which it gradually rises Moscow, turning into the center of the political unification of Russian lands.

The first mention of Moscow (1147) contained in the chronicle, which tells about the meeting of Yuri Dolgoruky with the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow:

Profitable geographical position.

According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Moscow was in “Russian Mesopotamia” - i.e. between the Volga and Oka rivers.

This geographical position guaranteed her safety: from the north-west of Lithuania it was covered by the Tver Principality, and from the east and south-east of the Golden Horde - by other Russian lands, which contributed to the influx of residents here and an increase in population density. Located at the junction of trade routes, Moscow is becoming a center of economic relations.

Church support

The Russian Church was the bearer of Orthodox ideology, which played an important role in the unification of Rus'. Moscow in 1326 under Ivan Kalita became the seat of the metropolitan, i.e. turns into the ecclesiastical capital.

3. Active policy of the Moscow princes

The main rival of the Moscow principality in the struggle for leadership was Tver Principality, the strongest in Rus'. Therefore, the outcome of the confrontation largely depended on the smart and flexible policy of the representatives of the Moscow dynasty.

The founder of this dynasty is considered to be the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel (1276 - 1303).

Under him, the rapid growth of the Moscow principality began. In three years, his principality almost doubled in size and became one of the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Rus'.

In 1303, the reign passed to Daniil's eldest son Yuri, who for a long time fought with the Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich.

Prince Yuri Danilovich, thanks to his flexible policy with the Golden Horde, achieved significant political success: he enlisted the support of Khan Uzbek, having married his sister Konchak (Agafya), received a label for the great reign in 1319. But already in 1325, Yuri was killed by the son of the Tver prince , and the label passed into the hands of the Tver princes.

In the reign Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325 - 1340) The Moscow principality finally strengthened as the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Rus'.

Ivan Danilovich was an intelligent, consistent, albeit cruel politician. In his relations with the Horde, he continued the line begun by Alexander Nevsky of external observance of vassal obedience to the khans, regular payment of tribute, so as not to give them reasons for new invasions of Rus', which almost completely ceased during his reign.

From the second half of the 14th century. The second stage of the unification process begins, the main content of which was the defeat of Moscow in the 60s and 70s. their main political rivals and the transition from Moscow’s assertion of its political supremacy in Rus'.

By the time of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich (1359 - 1389) Golden Horde entered a period of weakening and protracted strife between the feudal nobility. Relations between the Horde and the Russian principalities became increasingly tense.

At the end of the 70s. Mamai came to power in the Horde, who, having stopped the beginning of the disintegration of the Horde, began preparations for the campaign against Rus'. The struggle to overthrow the yoke and ensure security from external aggression became the most important condition for the completion of the state-political unification of Rus', begun by Moscow.

The Battle of Kulikovo took place - one of the largest battles of the Middle Ages, which decided the fate of states and peoples. Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo there was reduced tribute size. The Horde finally recognized the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands.

For personal bravery in battle and military leadership merits Dmitriy got a nickname Donskoy.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily I (1389 - 1425), no longer asking for the right to a label in the Horde.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

At the end of the 14th century.

In the Moscow principality, several appanage estates were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. After the death of Vasily I in 1425, the struggle for the grand-ducal throne began with his son Vasily II and Yuri (the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy), and after the death of Yuri, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka began. It was a real medieval struggle for the throne, when blinding, poisoning, conspiracies and deceptions were used (blinded by his opponents, Vasily II was nicknamed the Dark).

In fact, this was the largest clash between supporters and opponents of centralization. Completion of the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow in centralized state falls during the reign

Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533).

For 150 years before Ivan III, the collection of Russian lands and the concentration of power in the hands of the Moscow princes took place.

Under Ivan III, the Grand Duke rises above the other princes not only in the amount of strength and possessions, but also in the amount of power. Not by chance a new title “sovereign” also appears. The double-headed eagle becomes a symbol of the state, when in 1472 Ivan III marries the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus. After annexing Tver, Ivan III received the honorary title “By the grace of God, Sovereign of All Rus', Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugorsk, and Perm, and Bulgaria, and other lands.”

✔Since 1485

The Prince of Moscow began to be called the Sovereign of All Rus'.

Ivan III faces new tasks - the formalization of legal relations in the expanded Moscow City and the return of lands occupied by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland during the period of the Horde yoke.

The princes in the annexed lands became boyars of the Moscow sovereign.

These principalities were now called counties and were governed by governors from Moscow. Localism is the right to occupy a particular position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their services to the Moscow Grand Duke.

A centralized control apparatus began to take shape.

The Boyar Duma consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichy (boyars and okolnichy - the two highest ranks in the state). The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on “the affairs of the land.” In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the entire state, with Ivan III in 1497

Code of Laws was drawn up.

The right of peasants to transfer from one landowner to another was also secured a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26) with the payment of the elderly.

In 1480 The Tatar-Mongol yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after a clash between Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on Ugra River.

Formation of the Russian centralized state

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.

became part of the Russian state Chernigov-Seversky lands. In 1510 was included in the state and Pskov land. In 1514 the ancient Russian city became part of the Moscow Grand Duchy Smolensk. And finally, in In 1521, the Ryazan principality also ceased to exist. It was during this period that the unification of the Russian lands was largely completed.

A huge power was formed - one of the largest states in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian people were united. This is a natural process of historical development.

From the end of the 15th century.

Feudal fragmentation

The term “Russia” began to be used.

The beginning of feudal fragmentation in Rus'

The separation of the Russian principalities, which began in the second half of the 11th century, ended after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich. From the second third of the 12th century. Rus' entered the stage of feudal fragmentation. Its culmination occurred in the 12th-13th centuries. In the 14th century, with the strengthening of the Moscow principality, the political decentralization of Rus' gradually weakened and by the second half of the 15th century.

The history of homeland. Authors: Yuferova S.V., Trigub G.Ya., editor: Ilyin A.A.

is finally becoming obsolete.

“And the whole Russian Land became angry,” reports “The Tale of Bygone Years” under the entry of 1132. “Human eyelids shrank” and “the life of Dazhbog’s grandson perished,” exclaims the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”

“The destruction of the Russian Land” is what contemporaries call the “non-identity” of Russian princes.

Feudal fragmentation was not feudal anarchy.

Statehood in Rus' did not cease, it changed its forms. The painfulness of this turning point was reflected in the literary consciousness of the era. Rus' actually turned into a confederation of principalities, the political head of which was first the great princes of Kyiv, and later the great princes of Vladimir. The purpose of the internecine struggle also changed. Now she was pursuing not the seizure of power throughout the country, but the expansion of the borders of her own principality at the expense of her neighbors.

The breadwinner prince, striving to grab a piece of someone else's land, and, if successful, to occupy the all-Russian table, is a typical figure of his time. It is not for nothing that a saying arose among the princes: “the place does not go to the head, but the head to the place.” And yet, the contractual principle in inter-princely relations, although violated, formed the basis political system Rus' in the era of fragmentation.

The allocation of principalities on the territory of the Kyiv state occurred everywhere.

This was an all-Russian process. It cannot be considered as a consequence of the desolation of the Dnieper region, which began later and was caused by special conditions. The fragmentation of Kievan Rus was due to the formation of stable local associations of the military-service nobility, which fed on income from state taxes. It was also caused by the growth of patrimonial property: princely, boyar, church and monastic land holdings.

The process of gradual settling of the squad on the ground forced the prince to be less mobile, developing in him a desire to strengthen his possessions, and not to move to new tables. The political decentralization of Rus' was determined by the flourishing of cities and the economic rise of individual lands.

By that time, small handicraft production had already developed in the cities and local trade had arisen. The orientation of more or less significant feudal estates towards regional markets made them extremely independent political formations, and the larger they were, the more self-sufficient.

Thus, the political reasons for the decentralization of the Kyiv state were rooted in the conditions of its socio-economic development.

Large independent principalities formed during the political fragmentation of Kievan Rus began to be called lands.

The principalities that were part of them were called volosts. Thus, the structure of the Kyiv state was reproduced at the regional level. In the lands, the processes of economic isolation and political fragmentation were repeated with the same pattern as on the all-Russian scale.

Each land gradually turned into a system of small semi-independent principalities with its own ruling dynasty, its senior and junior lines, with a main capital and secondary residences. The number of principalities was not stable. During the course of family divisions, new ones were formed. Only in rare cases did neighboring principalities unite. The rule was the smaller size of the principalities; it was not for nothing that the saying arose: “Seven princes have one warrior.”

There were 12 large lands assigned to the branches of the Rurik family: Kiev, Pereyaslav, Chernigovo-Seversk, Galician and Volyn (united into Galician-Volyn), Smolensk, Polotsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal), Murom, Ryazan, Novgorod and the Pskov land that separated from it.

The strongest and most stable formations were the Novgorod land, the Rostov-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn principalities. Until the invasion of Batu, Kyiv continued to be considered the all-Russian table. But the Kiev prince was not always the eldest not only in his clan, but even in his branch. The nominal nature of all-Russian rule necessitated a special title to reinforce political supremacy. Thus the title was revived Grand Duke, which ceased to be used in Rus' from the 11th century.

The consistent use of the title is associated with the name Vsevolod the Big Nest.

In the era of fragmentation, Russian lands became subjects of international relations.

They independently entered into alliances with foreign states. The practice of military alliances between principalities and foreigners was widespread. In the struggle for the Kiev table (40-70s.

XII century) and the Principality of Galicia (first half of the XIII century) participated Hungarians, Poles and Cumans. In the middle of the 12th century. Polovtsian raids again became frequent, but starting in the 90s of the 12th century. their intensity began to subside due to the transition of the Cumans to sedentary life. However, until their complete defeat by the Mongol-Tatars, they continued to participate in the internecine wars of the Russian princes, without, however, committing independent actions. Russian-Byzantine ties developed mainly through the church, since in 1204

The Byzantine Empire temporarily ceased to exist after the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders.

Russian lands also faced the aggression of the Crusaders in the first half of the 13th century.

The Baltic states became the prey of the German Order of the Sword, whose expansion was accompanied by the distribution of lands to German feudal lords and the forced conversion of the population to Catholicism. Russian colonization of this region was fundamentally different from the actions of the Crusaders. The Russian princes were content with receiving tribute. The unification of the Swordsmen with the Teutonic Order in 1237 confronted the peoples of this region with the task of resisting the Order’s aggression, which was most successfully solved by Lithuania, Novgorod and Pskov.

The military successes of Russian city-republics were determined by the nature of their political system. They were not deeply woven into princely civil strife, since they had the right to invite princes from Russian lands at their discretion. They valued the most militarily talented: the Novgorodians - Mstislav the Brave, his son Mstislav the Udal, Alexander Nevsky, the Pskovites - the Lithuanian prince Dovmont.

Other Russian lands became hostages of the political “diversity” of their princes, whom the new powerful enemy, the Mongol-Tatars, defeated one by one, first on the Kalka River, and later during Batu’s invasion of Rus'.

Among the new forms feudal relations there were local land ownership, the institution of mortgages and palace estates, feudal immunities in the form of letters of grant. The dominant form of land ownership remained patrimonial, which was formed, as in the Kiev period, through the seizure of communal lands by boyars and princes (the process of boyarization), the expropriation of the free agricultural population and its subsequent enslavement.

Despite the fact that the estates of spiritual and secular feudal lords in the XII-XIII centuries.

became stronger and more independent, the first estates appeared. Princes, boyars and monasteries most often invited people to military service, i.e. large fiefdoms. These, as a rule, were younger princely or boyar children, as well as bankrupt feudal lords. They constituted the court of a prince or boyar, so they began to be called nobles, and their plots were estates (hence the word “landowner” would later come from).

However, the landowner could not arbitrarily dispose of the land, although he acquired the rights of a feudal lord over the population living on this land.

The immunities of feudal lords, formalized in Rus' as letters of grant, were closely connected with the institution of mortgages. The privileges of the boyars, granted to them by the princes, helped attract rural residents to the patrimonial lands.

Benefits reflected such feudal farms from the arbitrariness of volost-feeders, princely tiuns and other administrative officials of the principalities. The nature of the acquisition of estates determined their name: princely, patrimonial, purchased, granted.

Palace agriculture, like patrimonial agriculture, expanded through purchases, seizure, transfer by will, donation, barter, etc.

The palace economy was under the control of the butlers, who were in charge of the lands and people, and the palace routes: falconers, stables, stewards, bedkeepers, etc.

Section 2. Feudal fragmentation in Rus'

Reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus':

The dominance of subsistence farming and, as a consequence, weak economic ties between regions of the state.
Strengthening of individual principalities, whose rulers no longer want to obey the Kyiv prince.
Constant strife.
Strengthening feudal estates and the growth of boyar separatism.
Strengthening trading cities that did not want to pay tribute to a single ruler.
The absence of strong external enemies, to fight which would require a united army led by a single ruler.
The motley ethnic composition of Kievan Rus.

The meaning of feudal fragmentation:

Conditions have been created for the original socio-economic and political development of individual regions of the country.
There is a flourishing of cities, confirming the name given to Rus' in Western Europe - Gardarika - the country of cities.
The formation of three great East Slavic peoples begins - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Old Russian language has existed since the 13th century.
The defense capability of Russian lands has sharply weakened.
Princely strife is intensifying.

Features of feudal fragmentation:

Unlike Medieval Europe, in Rus' there was no generally recognized political center (capital).
The Kyiv throne quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the 13th century, the princes of Vladimir began to be called Great.
The rulers in all the lands of Rus' belonged to the same dynasty.

When the process of unification of Russian lands begins, these features will lead to intense struggle between individual principalities for the status of the capital of a single state.

In most other European countries, the question of choosing a capital was not raised (France - Paris, England - London, etc.).

During the period of feudal fragmentation, against the backdrop of numerous, constantly smaller estates, several lands acquired a very special significance.

Late colonization also led to later boyarization (in the middle of the 12th century), so a strong boyar opposition did not have time to form in North-Eastern Rus' before fragmentation began. In this region, the Vladimir-Suzdal (Rostov-Suzdal) state arose with strong princely power.

1132 – 1157 gg.

- reign of Vladimir Monomakh's son Yuri Dolgoruky. Remaining a prince of the old school, he continued the fight for the grand ducal throne, clearly overestimating its importance. He managed to conquer Kyiv twice in 1153 and 1155. Poisoned by the Kyiv boyars. In connection with his name, Tula (1146) and Moscow ( 1147 G.)

1157 – 1174 gg.

- reign of Yuri's son Andrei Bogolyubsky. He abandoned the fight for the Kiev throne and waged active internecine wars. 1164 - campaign in Bulgaria. In honor of the victory and in memory of his son, he built the Cathedral of the Intercession on the Nerl ( 1165g.). In 1169 he took Kyiv, but did not rule there, but subjected it to demonstrative destruction. Moved the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir. He was distinguished by suspicion and cruelty, for which he was killed by servants.

From 1174 to 1176 - reign of Mikhail Yuryevich.

1176 – 1212 gg.

- the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky’s brother Vsevolod Yuryevich Big Nest.

Feudal fragmentation in Rus' - causes and consequences

The common ancestor of almost all future princes - hence the nickname. Under him, the state reached its greatest prosperity, but collapsed soon after his death. It was under Vsevolod that the Vladimir throne acquired the status of a grand duke (1212); later the metropolitan headquarters was moved to Vladimir. Known for his enormous authority among his contemporaries. Author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" ( 1187 g.) wrote about Vsevolod that his squad could “scoop up the Don with helmets and splash the Volga with oars.”

The southwestern, Galician-Volyn Rus was in completely different conditions.

The mild climate and fertile lands have always attracted a large agricultural population here. At the same time, this flourishing region was constantly subject to raids by its neighbors - Poles, Hungarians, and steppe nomads. In addition, due to the early debauchery, a strong boyar opposition arose early here.

Initially, the Galician and Volyn principalities existed as independent states.

In an effort to stop boyar strife, the rulers of these lands, especially Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia, repeatedly tried to unite them. This problem was solved only in 1199 Volyn Prince Roman Mstislavich. After his death in 1205

The boyars seized power in the principality, turning it for a long time into a series of small fiefs at war with each other. Only in 1238 did Roman’s son and heir Daniel ( Daniil Galitsky) regained power and became one of the most powerful Russian princes - Daniel became the only prince in Rus' to whom the Pope sent a royal crown.

To the north of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was the huge Novgorod land.

The climate and soils here were even less suitable for agriculture than in the northeast. But the ancient center of these lands - Novgorod - was located at the beginning of one of the most important trade routes of that time - “from the Varangians to the Greeks” (i.e.

from Scandinavia to Byzantium). The ancient trade route went like this: from the Baltic - to the Neva, then - to Lake Ladoga, then - along the Volkhov River (via Novgorod), - to Lake Ilmen, from there - to the Lovat River, then - by portage, to the Dnieper, and from there - to the Black Sea. The proximity of the trade route turned Novgorod into one of the most important trading centers of Medieval Europe.

Successful trade and the absence of strong external enemies (and therefore the absence of the need for its own princely dynasty) led to the formation of a special state system in Novgorod - feudal (aristocratic) republic.

The date of the beginning of the republican period of its history is considered to be 1136 g. – uprising of the Novgorodians against the grandson of Monomakh Vsevolod Mstislavich.

The main role in this state was played by the layer of Novgorod boyars. Unlike the boyars in other lands, the Novgorod boyars had no relation to the squad, but were descendants of the tribal nobility of the Ilmen Slavs.

The highest authority in Novgorod was the veche - a meeting of the richest boyars (“three hundred golden belts”), which decided on the most important issues and elected senior officials: mayor, who held court and ruled Novgorod, Tysyatsky, who headed the tax system and the militia; lords y - bishop (later - archbishop) - who led the white clergy, was in charge of the treasury and foreign policy, and archimandrite- the head of the black clergy.

The prince was called to Novgorod. The functions of the prince were limited: the city needed him as the commander of the squad and the formal recipient of tribute from the Novgorod lands. Any attempt by the prince to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod inevitably ended in his expulsion.

Culture of the Old Russian state (IX - 3O-ies of the 12th century)

Old Russian culture was the result of a complex synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic spiritual traditions. Slavic culture has its roots in the ancient pagan era.

Paganism - a complex of primitive beliefs and rituals - had its own history. At first, the Slavs, obviously, animated various elements, worshiped the spirits of forests, water sources, the sun, thunderstorms, etc. Gradually, Rod - an agricultural deity, the god of fertility in general and the goddesses of fertility closely associated with him - women in labor - acquired enormous importance.

As state relations developed, the cult of Perun, the princely warrior god of war (initially revered as the god of thunder and rain), came to the fore.

Veles, the god of cattle breeding, and Svarog, the god of the sun and light, were also revered.

In the X-XI centuries. folds up epic epic, associated with the formation of the Kyiv state, its protection from enemies. In the 10th century writing penetrates into Rus' - the Cyrillic alphabet, created by the Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius.

The most important role in Russian literature was played by chronicle: in addition to weather records about the most important events, the chronicles included poetic legends and traditions: about the calling of the Varangians, the campaign of Prince Oleg to Constantinople, etc.

The most significant monument is the “Tale of Bygone Years” compiled around 1113 by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor.

As Rus' fragmented, chronicles lost their all-Russian character, splitting into chronicles of Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, etc.

The adoption of Christianity gave a powerful impetus to the development of culture. The 11th century is the time of the birth of ancient Russian literature. The oldest work known to us "A Word on Law and Grace"(1049) of the future Metropolitan Hilarion. In 1073, by order of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, the first Izbornik was compiled - a collection of texts with religious and secular content, intended for reading.

The lives of saints played a major role in ancient literature; Princes Boris and Gleb, the sons of Vladimir, who were killed by their half-brother Svyatopolk, were especially revered in Rus'. Their lives were written by Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years. A brilliant example of secular literature was the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh (late 11th - early 12th centuries) - a story about his life as a wise statesman who fought for the unity of Rus'.

The idea of uniting the forces of Rus' to fight the Steppe permeates "A word to Igor's campaign". (1187 G.). Interesting "Prayer" Daniil Zatochnik (beginning of the 12th century), an impoverished petty feudal lord who complains to the prince about the boyars' tyranny and asks him for mercy.

No matter what genre it belongs to literary work his text was always accompanied by colorful miniatures– illustrations in handwritten books.

Jewelry technologies reach their peak in Kievan Rus:

Filigree (enamel) - finishing a product with a pattern of twisted wire, wire lace.
Grain - the finest pattern is formed by soldering thousands of tiny balls.
Chern - creating a pattern on jewelry by etching.
Enamel (cloisonne enamel) - obtaining a pattern by applying a glassy mass to metal.
Engraving is a carved image on metal.

With the adoption of Christianity, stone, primarily church, architecture developed. The main material for construction was plinth- a type of brick.

It was borrowed from Byzantium as a model cross-domed type of temple (four vaults grouped in the center of the temple, the plan gave a cruciform structure), but in Rus' it received a unique development. Thus, the most grandiose architectural monument of Kievan Rus - the 13-domed St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1037) had a pronounced step-pyramid composition, which, like multi-domes, was unusual for Byzantine churches. Based on a somewhat simplified model of the Kyiv Sofia, St. Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk (11th century).

Gradually, Russian architecture is gaining an increasing variety of forms. In Novgorod in the XII-XIII centuries. Many churches are being created - Boris and Gleb in Detinets, Spas-Nereditsy, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, etc., which, despite their small size and maximum simplicity of decoration, have amazing beauty and majesty.

In the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, a unique type of architecture was developing, distinguished by graceful proportions and elegant decor, in particular white stone carvings: the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary on the Nerl.

During the heyday of Kievan Rus, the first place belonged to monumental painting - mosaic and fresco.

In Sofia in Kyiv, mosaics covered the dome (Christ Pantocrator) and the altar (Our Lady Oranta); the rest of the temple was covered with frescoes - scenes from the life of Christ, saints, images of preachers, as well as secular subjects: group portraits of Yaroslav the Wise with his family, episodes of court life.

Of the later examples of monumental painting, the most famous are the frescoes of the Church of the Savior-Nereditsa and St. Demetrius Cathedral. Original Russian icon paintings have been known only since the 12th century. The Novgorod school (Savior Not Made by Hands, Dormition, Angel of Golden Hair) gained great popularity at this time.

The Christianization of Rus' gradually led to the decline of sculpture, the works of which were associated with pagan idols.

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Lecture on the topic

"The main stages of the political fragmentation of the ancient Russian state."

Stage I 1054-1097

– after death Yaroslav the Wise when the separation of individual principalities began. During this period, there was a struggle for the Kiev throne between the sons of Yaroslav - Izyaslav, Svyatoslav, Vsevolod. As a result of this struggle, Vsevolod came to power ( 1078 – 1093) – “house of Vsevolod” owned all of Russia. Having taken possession of Kyiv, Vsevolod gave it to his son Vladimir Monomakh the city of Chernigov, despite the son of Svyatoslav Oleg, which was the cause of new strife between the now grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise.

After the death of Vsevolod in 1093, he became the prince of Kyiv Svyatopolk(son of Izyaslav), as the eldest in the family. However, he enjoyed great authority Vladimir Monomakh- flexible, strong-willed, resorting either to force or to negotiations, managed to restore the unity of Ancient Rus'.

After the death of Svyatopolk in 1113, the people of Kiev demanded him to the Kiev throne. Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh became already 60 years old and the years of his reign 1113-112 fall on the second stage of feudal fragmentation.

Stage II 1097-1132- V 1097 in the city Lyubeche, A congress of princes gathered in the ancestral castle of Monomakh.

Main question –association to fight the Cumans(as a result - campaigns in the steppe in 1103, 1109, 1111 - “crusades”). Rus''s campaign in 1111 g. reached the town of Sharukan near the Don, the so-called heart of the Polovtsian land. At the Lyubech Congress there was a call for peace and an end to civil strife from the lips of Vladimir Monomakh- “Yes, everyone rules his own patrimony.” It turned out to be prophetic, since it essentially marked the beginning of a change in the political structure of Rus'.

A country divided into 3 princely estates:

The estate of the Izyaslavichs - Svyatopolk
Patrimony of the Svyatoslavichs - Oleg (Olgovichi, Olegovichi)
The patrimony of the Vsevolodovichs - Vladimir Monomakh (monomashichi)

Thus,Lyubech Congress The princes approved an agreement on securing the princely thrones locally to individual branches of the house of Rurikovich, and from that moment the real process of the collapse of Kievan Rus began.

In 1125, after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, his son came to power Mstislav the Great (1125 – 1132), who continued his father’s policies and was also loved by the people.

III stage 1132– after death Mstislav the Great began the period when “The whole Russian land was irritated.” A period of strife began between the three branches of the Rurikovich-Yaroslavich clan, which led to the final fragmentation of the state into separate lands.

In total, on the territory of Rus' in the 12th century. 15 lands were formed, which continued to be fragmented further. Among all the newly formed lands during this period, three stood out:

Ø Vladimir - Suzdal land(strong princely power)

Ø Novgorod Republic(the power of the prince, limited to the veche)

Ø Galicia – Volyn land(power was shared by the prince and the boyars).

Thus,has become a reality territorial and political fragmentation, a new form of state-political organization in comparison with the ancient Russian state, based on the transfer of ownership of any territory by inheritance from father to son.

The legal justification for the new principle of inheritance was secured by a congress of princes in the city of Lyubech in 1097. The new principle of the organization of power transformed the Russian land from the possession of the Rurik family into a set of independent “fatherlands”, hereditary possessions of individual branches of the princely house.

The nature of new state formations.

§ Despite the fragmentation of Russian lands, integrity Rus' was preserved to a certain extent: Firstly united by a common faith, language, and the operation of common laws (Extensive truth), Secondly The idea of unity, especially manifested in times of strife and other disasters, did not disappear in the popular consciousness.

§ A dual identity was formed, in which the Russian people considered their Fatherland and the Russian land as a whole, and at the same time the destiny where they lived - the Ryazan volost, Polotsk, Smolensk, Pskov, etc.

§ The desire of appanage princes to strengthen regional centers and secure certain volosts for themselves and their descendants was accompanied by a struggle for tables that were not the property of any branch - this is how the struggle for the Kiev throne went on.

Kyiv, as the all-Russian capital, became the object of a kind of collective ownership. Despite the fact that power Prince of Kyiv was nominal in nature, the possession of Kiev provided certain political and moral advantages. Therefore, in the 12th century. A fierce struggle unfolded for the capital of the ancient Russian state.

1169– Kyiv was subjected to a terrible defeat by the united princes, under the leadership of Andrei Bogolyubsky (son of Yuri Dolgoruky).

Before 1199 – duumvirate system in Kyiv - a system of co-government between representatives of 2 different dynasties: the Monomakhovichs and the Olegovichs.

WITH 1199

to 1205 in Kyiv "power of Roman"(Roman is the son of Mstislav the Great). Under Roman, the rise of Kyiv was the last, after him Kyiv land fell apart.

Thus, the struggle for the Kiev throne led to the devastation of the Kyiv land and its loss of its former significance.

Feudal fragmentation

After some time, the table of the Grand Duke of Kyiv lost its attractiveness for local princes, who focused on the expansion and development of their own possessions - estates.

In the 14th century. The Kyiv land was absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Conclusions.

v Fragmentation represented natural a stage of political development in the Middle Ages, characteristic not only of Rus', but also of other states.

v State-political fragmentation weakened military potential of Rus', But Also contributed to the improvement management systems, created favorable conditions for the development of economics and culture in regional centers.

v Fragmentation intensified princely feuds, which led to the weakening of Russian lands and became one of the factors in the national catastrophe caused by the Horde invasion.

1. In 1054 - 1097 (from the death of Yaroslav the Wise to the Lyubech Congress of Princes) in Rus', the process of increasing feudal fragmentation began, which resulted in the complete collapse of Kievan Rus into more than ten independent appanage principalities in 1132.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the reign of the Yaroslavichs began in Rus' - three princes - the sons of Yaroslav:

Izyaslav;
Svyatoslav;
Vsevolod.

Dying, Yaroslav the Wise bequeathed to his sons to rule amicably and avoid civil strife. Therefore, all three sons of Yaroslav ruled in turn, although Izyaslav was considered the eldest. After the death of the last of the Yaroslavich brothers, Vsevolod, in 1093, civil strife began again in Rus'.

2. To further decide the fate of Rus', after the death of all the Yaroslavichs in 1097, an all-Russian congress of princes was held in Lyubech (Lubech Congress of 1097). At the congress, a historic decision was made - “everyone has his own destiny.” The appanage princes did not want to revive the power of the “strong” prince.

3. The last attempt to preserve the unity of Kievan Rus was the calling of the people to the throne of Vladimir Monomakh in 1113. 16 years after the Lyubech Congress, in 1113, a massive popular uprising took place in Kyiv, which demanded to restore order and revive strong princely power. Vladimir Monomakh, the son of the last of the Yaroslavich brothers, Vsevolod, was called to the throne (after whose death civil strife began in 1093).

Vladimir Monomakh (grandson of Yaroslav the Wise on his father's side, and grandson of the Emperor of Byzantium Constantine Monomakh on his mother's side) had the gift of a statesman and during the 12 years of his reign (1113 - 1125) he revived the unity and international authority of Kievan Rus.

His policy was successfully continued by his son Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132). However, after the death of Mstislav in 1132, the appanage princes resolutely refused to continue to be under the rule of the Grand Duke.

4. 1132 is considered the year of the collapse of Kievan Rus into several appanage principalities:

Kyiv;
Vladimir-Suzdal;
Galicia-Volynskoe;
Ryazanskoe;
Chernigovskoe;
Smolensk;
Novgorod feudal republic;
other principalities.

Each principality became an independent state. All power in the principalities was given to the appanage prince and the local boyars - the largest feudal lords of the principalities, who no longer needed the great all-Russian prince. The principalities had their own economy and squad; pursued independent domestic and foreign policies.

5. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, the center of political life moved to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, which became in the 12th century. the strongest of the principalities. The Vladimir-Suzdal princes became successors of the state traditions of the Kyiv princes and tried to revive the unity of Rus':

the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky, tried to unite Rus'. In 1157 he captured Kyiv, but soon died;

his work was continued by Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174), the son of Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson of Vladimir Monomakh, who proclaimed Vladimir the center of Rus' - the legal successor of Kyiv, carried out unification work among the princes, but was killed in 1174 during a conspiracy;

another son of Yuri Dolgoruky and brother of the murdered Andrei, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1216), who inherited the Vladimir-Suzdal throne, made a last attempt to unite the Russian lands, but in 1216 he was defeated by a united army of appanage princes;

grandson of Vsevolod the Big Nest - Alexander Nevsky, son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, became the founder of the dynastic branch of the Rurikovichs, who in the future became Moscow kings. In general, according to the generally accepted historical version, the main branch (without side branches) of the Rurik dynasty looked as follows (each subsequent one was the son of the previous one): Rurik - Igor - Svyatoslav - Vladimir the Red Sun (Saint) - Yaroslav the Wise - Vsevolod Yaroslavovich - Vladimir Monomakh - Yuri Dolgoruky - Vsevolod the Big Nest - Yaroslav Vsevolodovich - Alexander Nevsky - Danila Alexandrovich - Ivan Kalita - Ivan the Red - Dmitry Donskoy - Vasily Dmitrievich - Vasily the Dark - Ivan III- Vasily III- Ivan the Terrible - Tsarevich Dmitry. Thus, the Rurik dynasty (first the Kyiv princes, then the Vladimir princes, then the Novgorod princes, the Moscow princes - the Moscow kings), which ruled in Rus' for 738 years, always transferred the throne in a straight line male line. All of the above princes (kings) were direct descendants of each other for 20 generations (for example, Ivan the Terrible was the direct grandson of Rurik after 20 generations, Yaroslav the Wise - after 16, Alexander Nevsky - after 10, etc.).

After the departure from the political arena of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes - the heirs of Monomakh (Yuri Dolgoruky and his two sons - Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest), attempts to unite Rus' virtually ceased. The formerly united country finally broke up into more than 10 independent principalities competing with each other. In 1237 - 1240 The principalities will be captured one by one by hordes of Mongol-Tatars.

№5

Feudal fragmentation in Rus'. Characteristics of the main centers.

Among the reasons for feudal fragmentation in general we can highlight:1) internal political; 2) foreign policy; 3) economic.

Historians designate the time of transition to fragmentation with a conventional date 1132 the year of the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Mstislav Vladimirovich. Although researchers who support a formal approach to history thereby allow a number of inaccuracies when analyzing feudal fragmentation taking into account the personality of one or another Grand Duke.

In the XI-XII centuries. Several dozen independent states (lands, principalities, volosts) arose in Rus', about a dozen of them were large. Until the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the process of their further fragmentation did not weaken.

At the same time, feudal fragmentation in Rus' was not an extraordinary process; all countries of Western Europe and Asia went through it.

Feudal fragmentationcalled an inevitable state, a stage of universal historical process, which has local specifics.

Economic reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus: 1) dominance of subsistence farming; 2) economic independence of the princes’ estates; 3) isolation of individual economic units; 4) strengthening and growth of Russian cities, improving the technology of manufacturing goods.

During the times of feudal fragmentation, representatives of the princely families made every conceivable effort to ensure that their estate would become more developed than the possessions of their enemy relatives.

Political reasons feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus:1) the growth of boyar land ownership and the strengthening of the power of feudal lords in their estates; 2) territorial conflicts between representatives of the Rurik family.

It must also be taken into account thatThe throne of Kiev was losing its former leadership status, and its political significance was declining. The center of gravity gradually shifted to the princely appanages. If once the princes sought to seize the grand-ducal throne, then during the times of feudal fragmentation everyone began to think about strengthening and strengthening their own patrimony. As a result, the reign of Kiev becomes an honorable, although it really does not give anything, it is not a significant occupation.

Over time, the princely family grew, the appanages were subject to fragmentation, which led to the actual weakening of Kievan Rus. Moreover, if in the middle of the 12th century. There were 15 appanage principalities, then at the beginning of the 13th century. there were already about 50 of them.

Foreign policy reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus:1) comparative calm on the borders of the Principality of Kyiv; 2) conflict resolution took place through diplomatic methods, not force.

The important authorities in the fragmented feudal lands were prince , as well as intensified in the 12th century. veche (people's assembly of the city). In particular, in Novgorod the veche played the role of supreme power, which turned it into a special medieval republic.

The absence of external danger, which could unite the princes, allowed them to engage in internal problems destinies, as well as wage internecine fratricidal wars.

Even taking into account the high degree of conflict, on the territory of Kievan Rus the population did not cease to consider themselves a single whole. The sense of unity was maintained thanks to common spiritual roots, culture and the great influence of the Orthodox Church.

A common faith helped the Russians act unitedly during times of difficult trials during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

RUSSIAN LANDS IN THE XII-XIV centuries

In the middle of the 12th century. The ancient Russian state is a shapeless formation without a single center. It split into several independent principalities, which began to be called lands, volosts (smaller principalities that formed within the lands).

Over time, three centers emerge:

1) North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir-Suzdal land);

2) Southwestern Rus' (Galician-Volyn Principality);

3) Northwestern Rus' (Novgorod Republic).

The relations between these centers were reminiscent of the XII-XIV centuries. interstate rather than intrastate. At the same time, military clashes with the participation of allies (for example, the nomadic tribe of the Cumans) became frequent.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

During the times of feudal fragmentation, the formation of the Russian state continued to a greater extent on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality than in all other lands. North-Eastern Rus' was separated from the rest of the ancient Russian state by dense, impenetrable forests. For this reason, during the early feudal monarchy, people fled here to ensure their safety. Agriculture here was possible only in some areas, so gardening, beekeeping, and hunting developed.

The principality was owneddescendants of Yuri Dolgoruky, who was the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh.The name of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest is associated with the political and economic rise of North-Eastern Rus'. This principality included old Russian cities: Rostov, Suzdal, Murom. The descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky were faced with the problem of the boyar freemen; his son Andrei Bogolyubsky fell victim to a conspiracy. But Prince Andrei’s brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest, corrected the situation in his favor with the help of diplomacy.

North-Eastern Rus' differed in social structure from South-Western Russia in that the princely power here was much stronger.

Galicia-Volyn Principality

In the extreme southwest of Ancient Rus' there was the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, which bordered on Poland and the Czech Republic. Here was a fertile agricultural region, which more than once became the cause of civil strife. This land achieved its highest political influence under Prince Daniil Romanovich (1221–1264). This ruler used a variety of diplomatic tricks in order to maintain the independence of his fiefdom from the Mongol-Tatars, even resorting to the help of the Polish king. But, ultimately, he had to admit vassalage to them. The strife led to the almost complete fragmentation of the principality into small fiefs. The Horde yoke interrupted the economic and political development of this land.

Novgorod Republic

Northwestern Rus' this region did not have a warm climate. Harsh climatic conditions, on the contrary, made farming impossible here. As a result, crafts and trade in furs, wax, and honey received great development. Novgorodians also engaged in gardening and fishing. In the markets of Novgorod there were a lot of trading people from various countries, you could hear different speech and see representatives of world religions. Northwestern Rus' was also distinguished by its special political structure: Novgorod was a feudal republic. The city was governed by the mayor, who was assisted by the military leader, the thousand. The archbishop was in charge of the religious affairs of the republic.

During the war, the prince was invited from among the most powerful secular rulers. Often this was a prince from the Vladimir land, who, under the Mongol-Tatar conquerors, had a label for a great reign.