Yaroslav the Wise tried to prevent civil strife after his death and established between his children order of succession to the Kyiv throne by seniority: from brother to brother and from uncle to eldest nephew. But this did not help to avoid a power struggle between the brothers. IN 1097 Yaroslavichs gathered in the city of Lyubich ( Lubich Congress of Princes) And prohibited princes from moving from principality to principality. Thus the preconditions were created for feudal fragmentation. But this decision did not stop the internecine wars. Now the princes were concerned about expanding the territories of their principalities.
On a short time Yaroslav's grandson managed to restore peace Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). But after his death, wars broke out with renewed vigor. Kyiv, weakened by the constant struggle with the Polovtsians and internal strife, is gradually losing its leading value. The population seeks salvation from constant plunder and moves to calmer principalities: Galicia-Volyn (Upper Dnieper) and Rostov-Suzdal (between the Volga and Oka rivers). In many ways, the princes were pushed to seize new lands by the boyars, who were interested in expanding their patrimonial lands. Due to the fact that the princes established the Kiev order of inheritance in their principalities, processes of fragmentation began in them: if at the beginning of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, then by the end of the 13th century there were already 250 principalities.
Feudal fragmentation was a natural process in the development of statehood. It was accompanied by a revival of the economy, a rise in culture and the formation of local cultural centers. At the same time, during the period of fragmentation, the awareness of national unity was not lost.
Reasons for fragmentation: 1) the absence of strong economic ties between individual principalities - each principality produced everything it needed within itself, that is, it lived on a subsistence economy; 2) the emergence and strengthening of local princely dynasties; 3) weakening of the central power of the Kyiv prince; 4) the decline of the trade route along the Dnieper “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and the strengthening of the importance of the Volga as a trade route.
Galicia-Volyn Principality located in the foothills of the Carpathians. Trade routes from Byzantium to Europe passed through the principality. In the principality, a struggle arose between the prince and the large boyars - landowners. Poland and Hungary often intervened in the struggle.
The Principality of Galicia especially strengthened under Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1157–1182). After his death, the Galician principality was annexed to Volyn by the prince Roman Mstislavovich (1199–1205). Roman managed to capture Kyiv, declared himself the Grand Duke, and drove the Polovtsians back from the southern borders. Roman's policy was continued by his son Daniil Romanovich (1205–1264). During his time there was an invasion of the Tatar-Mongols and the prince had to recognize the power of the khan over himself. After the death of Daniel, a struggle broke out between the boyar families in the principality, as a result of which Volyn was captured by Lithuania, and Galicia by Poland.
Novgorod Principality extended throughout the Russian North from the Baltic states to the Urals. Through Novgorod there was a lively trade with Europe. Baltic Sea. The Novgorod boyars were also drawn into this trade. After uprising of 1136 Prince Vsevolod was expelled and the Novgorodians began to invite princes to their place, that is, a feudal republic was established. Princely power was significantly limited city meeting(meeting) and Council of gentlemen. The function of the prince was reduced to organizing the defense of the city and external representation. In reality, the city was governed by the one elected at the meeting mayor and the Council of Gentlemen. The veche had the right to expel the prince from the city. Delegates from city ends took part in the meeting ( Konchan veche). All free townspeople of a given end could participate in the Konchan assembly.
The republican organization of power in Novgorod was class-based. Novgorod became the center of the fight against German and Swedish aggression.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality was located between the Volga and Oka rivers and was protected from the steppe inhabitants by forests. By attracting the population to desert lands, the princes founded new cities and prevented the formation of city self-government (veche) and large boyar land ownership. At the same time, settling on the princely lands, free community members became dependent on the landowner, that is, the development of serfdom continued and intensified.
The beginning of the local dynasty was laid by the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky (1125–1157). He founded a number of cities: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Moscow. But Yuri sought to get to the great reign in Kyiv. He became the real master of the principality Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky (1157–1174). He founded the city Vladimir-on-Klyazma and moved the capital of the principality there from Rostov. Wanting to expand the borders of his principality, Andrei fought a lot with his neighbors. The boyars removed from power organized a conspiracy and killed Andrei Bogolyubsky. Andrei's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Yuryevich Big Nest (1176–1212) and son of Vsevolod Yuri (1218–1238). In 1221 Yuri Vsevolodovich founded Nizhny Novgorod . The development of Rus' was slow Tatar-Mongol invasion 1237–1241.
Under conditions of domination subsistence farming each principality had the opportunity to separate from the center and exist as an independent land or principality. By the middle of the 12th century. based Kievan Rus 15 independent principalities formed, and by the beginning of the 13th century. – 50 principalities. Feudal fragmentation became a new form of organization of Russian statehood in the conditions of the development of the feudal mode of production, which became a natural stage in the development of Ancient Rus'. Titles of the Grand Duke in the 12th century. They named not only the Kyiv princes, but also other princes. The process of fragmentation led to the fact that the principalities were divided into smaller fiefs. As a result of this process, the following became independent principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Murom, etc. Each of the lands was ruled by its own dynasty - one of the branches of the Rurikovichs. The largest principalities were: Galicia-Volyn, Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Boyar Republic. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality emerged at the beginning of the 12th century as a large feudal-boyar agriculture. There were many cities on its territory: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Rostov, Suzdal - the territory was protected from enemies by forests and rivers. Profitable trade routes contributed to the separation from the Kyiv state. This principality strengthened under Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei the Bogolyubenny, and under Vsedom the Big Nest. In the southwest of Rus', the Galician-Volyn principality played an important role. There were fertile lands, rich cities, significant reserves rock salt. Princes Yaroslav I and Roman Mstislavovich successfully fought against the Polish feudal lords, the Polovtsians. The largest political center was the Novgorod Boyar Republic. Supreme body The republic had a veche, where a mayor and a bishop were elected. The basis of the economy of power was Agriculture. Russian lands in the 12th-13th centuries. were independent had various shapes management, and the economic basis was agriculture.
Option 3
Russian lands in times of feudal fragmentation. Rus' is specific
Starting from the 30s of the 12th century, Rus' irreversibly entered into a period of feudal fragmentation, which became a natural stage in the development of all large European states during the Middle Ages. By the middle of the 12th century, Rus' split into 15 principalities, which were only formally dependent on Kyiv. One of the reasons for this state of statehood in Rus' was the constant division of land between the Rurikovichs. The local boyars were not interested in the existence of a single, strong political center. Secondly, the gradual growth of cities and the economic development of individual lands led to the emergence, along with Kiev, of new centers of craft and trade, increasingly independent of the capital of the Russian state. Yaroslav the Wise, shortly before his death (1054), divided the lands between 5 sons. But he did this in such a way that the sons' possessions mutually divided each other; it was almost impossible to manage them independently. Each of the sons received lands that were supposed to ensure his existence. And Yaroslav hoped that his children would defend all-Russian interests. At first, the children of Yaroslav managed to rule in a similar way, but from 1068, when the united squad of the Yaroslavichs was defeated by the nomadic Polovtsian tribes in the battle on the Alta River, incessant strife began between the princes. They intensified even more when Yaroslav’s grandchildren and great-grandchildren grew up. In 1097, on the initiative of Yaroslav’s grandson, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, a congress of princes met in the city of Lyubech. Having assessed the disastrous consequences of the strife, the prince was established the new kind government: “Let everyone keep his fatherland.” This decision consolidated feudal fragmentation. The princes failed to achieve unity as a result of the congress. Only later, when Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) became prince, and also under his son Mstislav (1126-1132), state unity was temporarily restored. The Polovtsians suffered a series of defeats, which forced them to stop raiding. But after the death of Mstislav, fragmentation in Rus' finally prevailed. Feudal fragmentation weakened Rus'. However, this was a natural process that also had its own positive sides– cultural and economic the development of various lands, the emergence of many new cities in them, a noticeable increase in crafts and trade.
Culture of Ancient Rus' (X-XIII centuries). The meaning of accepting Christianity. (Ticket 3)
Option 1
The culture of Ancient Rus' is a unique phenomenon. According to the researcher, “Old Russian art is the fruit of the feat of the Russian people, who defended their independence, their faith and their ideals on the edge of the European world.” Scientists note the openness and synthetic nature (from the word “synthesis” - reduction into a single whole) of Old Russian culture. Heritage Interaction Eastern Slavs with Byzantine and, therefore, ancient traditions created a distinctive spiritual world. The time of its formation and first flowering was the 10th - first half of the 13th century. (pre-Mongol period).
Let us note first of all the influence of the baptism of Rus' on the historical and cultural process. Christianity has become state religion Kievan Rus in 988, during the reign of Vladimir I the Holy (980-1015). The princely power received reliable support - spiritual and political - in the new religion and the church that professed it. The state was strengthened, and with it inter-tribal differences were overcome. A single faith gave the subjects of the state a new sense of unity and community. Gradually, an all-Russian self-awareness took shape - an important element of the unity of the ancient Russian people.
Christianity, with its monotheism and recognition of God as the source of power and order in society, made a serious contribution to consolidating the prevailing trends in Kievan Rus feudal relations.
The baptism of Rus' turned it into an equal partner of medieval Christian states and thereby strengthened the foreign policy position in the world of that time.
Finally, about spiritual and cultural significance acceptance of Christianity. It's huge. Liturgical books in the Slavic language came to Rus' from Bulgaria and Byzantium, and the number of those who owned Slavic writing and literacy. The immediate consequence of the baptism of Rus' was the development of painting, icon painting, stone and wooden architecture, church and secular literature, and the education system. Orthodoxy, having introduced Rus' to the ancient Greco-Roman and Christian traditions, at the same time became one of the factors that predetermined the features of the economic, social, political, religious, cultural, and spiritual history of our country.
Pagan antiquity was preserved primarily in oral folk art- folklore (riddles, conspiracies, spells, proverbs, fairy tales, songs). A special place in the historical memory of the people was occupied by epics - heroic tales about defenders native land from enemies. Folk storytellers glorify the exploits of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Volga, Mikula Selyaninovich and other epic heroes (in total there are more than 50 main characters in the epics). They address their appeal to them: “You stand for the faith, for the fatherland, you stand for the glorious capital city of Kyiv!” It is interesting that in epics the motive of defending the fatherland is supplemented with the motive of defending the Christian faith. The Baptism of Rus' was the most important event in the history of ancient Russian culture.
With the adoption of Christianity, the rapid development of writing began. Writing was known in Rus' in pre-Christian times (mention of “lines and cuts”, mid-1st millennium; information about treaties with Byzantium drawn up in Russian; the discovery of a clay vessel near Smolensk with an inscription in Cyrillic - the alphabet created by the Slavic enlighteners Cyril and Methodius at the turn of the X-XI centuries). Orthodoxy brought liturgical books, religious and secular translated literature to Rus'. The most ancient ones have reached us handwritten books- “Ostromir Gospel” (1057) and two “Izborniki” (collections of texts) of Prince Svyatoslav (1073 and 1076). They say that in the XI-XIII centuries. there were 130-140 thousand books of several hundred titles in circulation: the level of literacy in Ancient Rus' was very high by the standards of the Middle Ages. There is other evidence: birch bark letters (archaeologists discovered them in the middle of the 20th century in Veliky Novgorod), inscriptions on the walls of cathedrals and handicrafts, the activities of monastery schools, the richest book collections of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra and St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, etc.
There was an opinion that ancient Russian culture was “dumb” - it was believed to have no original literature. This is wrong. Old Russian literature is represented by various genres (chronicles, lives of saints, journalism, teachings and travel notes, the wonderful “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, which does not belong to any known genre), it is distinguished by a wealth of images, styles and trends.
The oldest chronicle that has reached us is the Tale of Bygone Years, created around 1113. monk of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Nestor. The famous questions with which “The Tale of Bygone Years” opens: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kyiv, and how did the Russian land begin to exist” - already speak about the scale of the personality of the creator of the chronicle, his literary abilities. After the collapse of Kievan Rus, independent chronicle schools arose in the isolated lands, but they all turned to the “Tale of Bygone Years” as a model.
Among the works of the oratorical and journalistic genre, the “Sermon on Law and Grace”, created by Hilarion, the first metropolitan of Russian origin, in the middle of the 11th century, stands out. These are reflections on power, on the place of Rus' in Europe. The “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh, written for his sons, is remarkable. The prince must be wise, merciful, fair, educated, lenient and firm in protecting the weak. Strength and valor, faithful service to the country, was demanded from the prince by Daniil Zatochnik, the author of a brilliant language and literary form"Prayers."
The unknown author of the greatest work also called for agreement and reconciliation of the princes ancient Russian literature“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (late 12th century). A real event - the defeat of the Seversk prince Igor from the Polovtsians (1185-1187) - became only the reason for the creation of the “Word”, amazing with the richness of the language, the harmony of the composition, and the power of the figurative structure. The author sees the Russian land from a great height, covers vast spaces with his mind's eye, as if “flying with his mind under the clouds,” “scouring the fields to the mountains” (D. S. Likhachev). Danger threatens Rus', and the princes must forget the strife in order to save it from destruction.
The art of Ancient Rus' is primarily architecture and painting. The Byzantine traditions of stone architecture came with Christianity. The greatest buildings of the 11th-12th centuries. (Desiatinnaya Church, which died in 1240, cathedrals dedicated to Hagia Sophia in Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk) followed Byzantine traditions. A cylindrical drum rests on four massive pillars in the center of the building, connected by arches. The hemisphere of the dome rests firmly on it. Following the four branches of the cross, the remaining parts of the temple are adjacent to them, ending with vaults, sometimes with domes. In the altar part there are semicircular projections and apses. This is the cross-dome composition of the church building developed by the Byzantines. The internal and often external walls of the temple are painted with frescoes (painting on wet plaster) or covered with mosaics. A special place is occupied by icons - picturesque images of Christ, the Mother of God, and saints. The first icons came to Rus' from Byzantium, but Russian masters quickly mastered the strict laws of icon painting. Honoring traditions and diligently learning from Byzantine teachers, Russian architects and painters showed amazing creative freedom: ancient Russian architecture and icon painting are more open to the world, cheerful, and decorative than Byzantine ones. By the middle of the 12th century. the differences became obvious art schools Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, southern Russian lands. Joyful, light, lavishly decorated Vladimir churches (the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, etc.) contrast with the squat, solid, massive churches of Novgorod (the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa on Torg, etc.). The Novgorod icons “Angel of Golden Hair”, “The Sign” differ from the icons “Dmitry of Solunsky” or “Bogolyubskaya” painted by Vladimir-Suzdal masters mother of God».
Among the greatest achievements of ancient Russian culture is artistic craft, or pattern making, as it was called in Rus'. Gold jewelry covered with enamel, silver items made using filigree, granulation or niello techniques, patterned decoration of weapons - all this testifies to the high skill and taste of ancient Russian artisans.
By the middle of the 12th century. The Old Russian state split into several principalities. Feudal fragmentation was prepared by what happened in the second half of the 11th century. the strengthening of the independence of the volosts, which were gradually assigned to certain branches of the expanding princely family of the Rurikovichs, the development of feudal land ownership, and the separatist aspirations of the boyars, who were burdened by their dependence on Kyiv. Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) and his son Mstislav (1125 - 1132) still managed to maintain the state unity of Rus', but after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich, the process of fragmentation became irreversible. Large independent principalities began to be called lands; volosts - smaller principalities formed within the lands.
The left bank of the Dnieper in the basins of the Desna and Seima rivers and the upper reaches of the Oka were occupied by Chernigov land. It developed in the former territories of the northerners, the Vyatichi, and partly the Radimichi. The descendants of the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Oleg Svyatoslavich (d. 1115), reigned in the Chernigov region. In the Upper Dnieper region the Smolensk land was formed (the former territories of part of the Krivichi, Radimichi and Vyatichi). The Rostislavichs ruled here - the descendants of the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh - Rostislav Mstislavich (d. 1167).
In the Volga-Oka interfluve (an area colonized in the 10th - 11th centuries by Slovenes, Krivichi and Vyatichi), the Rostov-Suzdal land arose, where the descendants of Monomakh’s son, Yuri Dolgoruky (d. 1157), reigned. In the Murom and Ryazan lands (former territories of the Murom and parts of the Vyatichi), two different lines of Oleg Svyatoslavich’s brother Yaroslav (d. 1129) ruled. In the upper reaches of the Western Dvina (in the former territories of part of the Krivichi and Dregovichi) lies the land of Polotsk. Here since the beginning of the 11th century. The descendants of one of the sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Izyaslav, became stronger.
Bargaining in the country of the Eastern Slavs. Painting by artist S. V. Ivanov.
To the south, in the Pripyat basin, on the former Dregovichi territory, the Turovo-Pinsk principality was located, which became in the second half of the 12th century. the possession of the descendants of the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (d. 1113). To the west of it lay the Volyn land (at the base former territory Volynians). The descendants of Monomakh's grandson, Izyaslav Mstislavich (d. 1154), reigned here. Next to Volyn, in the extreme southwest of Rus' (the former territory of the Croats), the Galician land was located, where the descendants of the eldest grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Rostislav Vladimirovich (d. 1066), ruled. After the termination of this princely branch in 1199, the Galician principality became the subject of a struggle between the Volyn, Chernigov and Smolensk princes. By the middle of the 13th century. The victory was won by representatives of the Volyn Izyaslavichs: Daniil and Vasilko Romanovich.
Three lands in the 12th century. were not assigned to any princely branch. The Principality of Kiev became the object of the collective sovereignty of the princely dynasty, all the strongest princes had the right to own part of its territory. Nominally, the Kiev table continued to be considered the oldest, and Kyiv - the capital of all Rus'. In the middle of the 12th - first third of the 13th century. it changed hands many times during the struggle between influential princely branches.
In the Novgorod land in the 12th century. There was a consolidation of the local nobility into its own special corporation, separated from the princely squad organization. As a result, the Novgorod boyars began to exert a decisive influence on the choice of princes, and not a single one of the princely branches managed to gain a foothold in Novgorod (see Novgorod feudal republic).
The Pereyaslav principality (south of Chernigov) also did not become the possession of a certain branch. Here throughout the 12th century. The descendants of Monomakh reigned, but they represented different branches.
At the beginning of the 13th century. The strongest principalities in Rus' were Chernigov, Smolensk, Suzdal (Vladimir-on-Klyazma became its capital in the second half of the 12th century) and Volyn.
In the socio-economic development of the 12th - early 13th centuries. were a time of urban growth, the development of handicraft production and the patrimonial form of land ownership (princely, boyar, church). But the leading role continued to be played by the previously established state uniform property. Separate lands from the 12th century. begin to pursue an independent foreign policy.
Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir is a wonderful architectural monument of the late 12th century.
The texts of several international treaties have been preserved - Novgorod with the Gotha coast (Gotland island in the Baltic Sea) and German cities (1191 - P92), Smolensk with Riga and the Gotha coast (1229 - 1230s). The practice of military alliances of principalities with foreigners (Cumans, Poles, Hungarians) against their rivals in Rus' was widespread.
At the beginning of the 13th century. A new dangerous enemy appeared on the northwestern borders of Rus' - the German crusaders. They captured the territories of the Estonian and Latvian tribes in the Eastern Baltic and began to disturb the borders of the Novgorod land. At the same time, the Swedes approached the Russian borders and captured southwestern Finland. The Swedish and German onslaught intensified in the early 40s. 13th century, the time immediately after the Mongol invasion of Rus'. The Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich defeated the Swedes on the Neva in 1240 (for which he later received the nickname Nevsky), and in 1242 - the German crusaders on the ice of Lake Peipsi (see The struggle of Rus' against the German and Swedish feudal lords in the 13th century). 30s of the 13th century. were a time of fierce internecine war in the southern Russian lands. The struggle was conducted mainly for the Galician and Kiev reigns. During the war, the Russian princes (especially the Olgovichs of Chernigov and the Rostislavichs of Smolensk) exhausted their strength. Along with the disunity of the princes that intensified as a result of the strife, this played a negative role in the face of the Mongol invasion.
For Russian culture of the 12th - early 13th centuries. The emergence of “polycentrism” is characteristic - the emergence of distinctive cultural centers in different regions. Chronicle writing receives further development: if in the 11th - early 12th centuries. the centers of chronicle work were Kyiv and Novgorod, then in the subsequent period chronicle writing was carried out in most centers of the land - Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Vladimir, Galich, Novgorod, probably also in Smolensk and Polotsk. At the end of the 12th century. One of the most outstanding works of world medieval literature in terms of its artistic merit was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. The main idea of this monument, which tells about the unsuccessful campaign of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185, is the need to end princely strife and unite forces in the fight against external enemies. Among the most outstanding works of Russian literature are also “The Lay” by Daniil Zatochnik and “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land.”
The architecture exhibits a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. Among the surviving architectural monuments of this era, the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa near Novgorod stands out, and in North-Eastern Rus' - the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and St. George’s Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky (see also the article “Medieval Russian culture").
Work plan.
I .Introduction.
II .Russian lands and principalities in XII-XIII centuries.
1. Reasons and essence state fragmentation. Socio-political and cultural characteristic Russian lands during the period of fragmentation.
§ 1. The feudal fragmentation of Rus' is a natural stage in the development of Russian society and the state.
§ 2. Economic and socio-political reasons for the fragmentation of Russian lands.
§ 3. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality as one of the types of feudal state formations in Rus' XII-XIII centuries
§ 4 Features of the geographical location, natural and climatic conditions of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.
§ 5. Features of the socio-political and cultural development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.
2. The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' and its consequences. Rus' and the Golden Horde.
§ 1. The originality of the historical development and way of life of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
§ 2. Batya’s invasion and the formation of the Golden Horde.
§ 3. The Mongol-Tatar yoke and its influence on ancient Russian history.
3. The struggle of Rus' against the aggression of the German and Swedish conquerors. Alexander Nevskiy.
§ 1. Expansion to the East of Western European countries and religious and political organizations in early XIII century.
§ 2. Historical meaning military victories of Prince Alexander Nevsky (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice).
III . Conclusion
I . INTRODUCTION
The XII-XIII centuries, which will be discussed in this test work, are barely visible in the fog of the past. In order to understand and understand the events of this most difficult era in the history of medieval Rus', it is necessary to get acquainted with the monuments of ancient Russian literature, study fragments of medieval chronicles and chronicles, and read the works of historians relating to this period. It is historical documents that help us see in history not a simple set of dry facts, but a complex science, the achievements of which play an important role in the further development of society, and allow us to better understand the most important events of Russian history.
Consider the reasons that determined feudal fragmentation - the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of Ancient Rus' of practically independent, independent state entities on the territory of Ancient Russia; understand why the Tatar-Mongol yoke on Russian soil became possible, and how the dominance of the conquerors was manifested for more than two centuries in the field of economic, political and cultural life, and what consequences it had for the future historical development of Rus' - this is the main task of this work.
The 13th century, rich in tragic events, still excites and attracts the attention of historians and writers. After all, this century is called the “dark period” of Russian history.
However, its beginning was bright and calm. A huge country, larger in size than any European state, was full of young creative power. The proud and strong people who inhabited it did not yet know the oppressive weight of the foreign yoke, did not know the humiliating inhumanity of serfdom.
The world in their eyes was simple and whole. They did not yet know the destructive power of gunpowder. Distance was measured by the swing of arms or the flight of an arrow, and time by the change of winter and summer. The rhythm of their life was leisurely and measured.
At the beginning of the 12th century, axes were knocking all over Rus', new cities and villages were growing. Rus' was a country of craftsmen. Here they knew how to weave the finest lace and build skyward cathedrals, forge reliable, sharp swords and paint the heavenly beauty of angels.
Rus' was a crossroads of peoples. In the squares of Russian cities one could meet Germans and Hungarians, Poles and Czechs, Italians and Greeks, Polovtsians and Swedes... Many were surprised at how quickly the “Russians” assimilated the achievements neighboring peoples, applied them to their needs, enriched their own ancient and unique culture.
At the beginning of the 13th century, Rus' was one of the most prominent states in Europe. The power and wealth of the Russian princes were known throughout Europe.
But suddenly a thunderstorm approached the Russian land - a hitherto unknown terrible enemy. The Mongol-Tatar yoke fell heavily on the shoulders of the Russian people. The exploitation of the conquered peoples by the Mongol khans was ruthless and comprehensive. Simultaneously with the invasion from the East, Rus' was faced with another terrible disaster - the expansion of the Livonian Order, its attempt to impose Catholicism on the Russian people. In this difficult historical era The heroism and love of freedom of our people manifested themselves with particular force, people whose names were forever preserved in the memory of posterity.
II . RUSSIAN LANDS AND PRINCIPALITIES IN XII-XIII BB.
1. CAUSES AND ESSENCE OF STATE Fragmentation. SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RUSSIAN LANDS
PERIOD OF FRAGRANCE.
§ 1. FEUDAL Fragmentation of Rus' – A LEGAL STAGE
DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY AND STATE
Since the 30s of the 12th century, the process of feudal fragmentation began in Rus'. Feudal fragmentation is an inevitable stage in the evolution of feudal society, the basis of which is the natural economy with its isolation and isolation.
The system of natural economy that had developed by this time contributed to the isolation from each other of all individual economic units (family, community, inheritance, land, principality), each of which became self-sufficient, consuming all the product it produced. There was practically no exchange of goods in this situation.
Within the framework of a single Russian state, over the course of three centuries, independent economic regions emerged, new cities grew, large patrimonial farms and the estates of many monasteries and churches emerged and developed. Feudal clans grew and united - the boyars with their vassals, the rich elite of the cities, church hierarchs. The nobility arose, the basis of whose life was service to the overlord in exchange for a land grant for the duration of this service. The huge Kievan Rus with its superficial political cohesion, necessary, first of all, for defense against an external enemy, for organizing long-distance campaigns of conquest, now no longer met the needs major cities with their branched feudal hierarchy, developed trade and craft layers, and the needs of patrimonial lands.
The need to unite all forces against the Polovtsian danger and the powerful will of the great princes - Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav - temporarily slowed down the inevitable process of fragmentation of Kievan Rus, but then it resumed with renewed vigor. “The whole Russian land was in disarray,” as the chronicle says.
From the point of view of general historical development, the political fragmentation of Rus' is a natural stage on the path to the future centralization of the country, future economic and political takeoff on a new civilizational basis.
Europe also did not escape the collapse of early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars. Then the process of formation of national states of a secular type, which still exist, developed here. Ancient Rus', having passed through the decay band, could have arrived at a similar result. However, the Mongol-Tatar invasion disrupted this natural development of political life in Rus' and threw it back.
§ 2. ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-POLITICAL REASONS
Fragmentation of the Russian lands
We can highlight the economic and socio-political reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus':
1.Economic reasons:
The growth and development of feudal boyar land ownership, the expansion of estates by seizing the lands of community members, purchasing land, etc. All this led to increased economic power and independence of the boyars and, ultimately, to an aggravation of contradictions between the boyars and the Grand Duke of Kyiv. The boyars were interested in such princely power that could provide them with military and legal protection, in particular in connection with the growing resistance of the townspeople, the smerds, to contribute to the seizure of their lands and increased exploitation.
The dominance of subsistence farming and the lack of economic ties contributed to the creation of relatively small boyar worlds and the separatism of local boyar unions.
In the 12th century, trade routes began to bypass Kyiv, the “path from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which once united Slavic tribes around itself, gradually lost its previous value, because European merchants, as well as Novgorodians, were increasingly attracted to Germany, Italy, and the Middle East.
2. Socio-political reasons :
Strengthening the power of individual princes;
Weakening the influence of the great Prince of Kyiv;
Princely strife; they were based on the Yaroslav appanage system itself, which could no longer satisfy the expanded Rurik family. There was no clear, precise order either in the distribution of inheritances or in their inheritance. After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, the “table”, according to existing law, went not to his son, but to the eldest prince in the family. At the same time, the principle of seniority came into conflict with the principle of “fatherland”: when the prince-brothers moved from one “table” to another, some of them did not want to change their homes, while others rushed to the Kyiv “table” over the heads of their older brothers. Thus, the continued order of inheritance of “tables” created the preconditions for internecine conflicts. In the middle of the 12th century, civil strife reached unprecedented severity, and the number of participants increased many times as a result of the fragmentation of the princely possessions. At that time in Rus' there were 15 principalities and separate lands. In the next century, on the eve of Batu’s invasion, it was already 50.
The growth and strengthening of cities as new political and cultural centers can also be considered the reason for the further fragmentation of Rus', although some historians, on the contrary, regard the development of cities as a consequence of this process.
The fight against nomads also weakened the Principality of Kiev and slowed down its progress; in Novgorod and Suzdal it was much calmer.
Formation of a system of lands - independent states. The most important lands ruled by branches of the princely family of Rurikovich: Chernigov, Smolensk, Galician, Volyn, Suzdal. Lands that had a special status: Kiev and Novgorod. Evolution social order and rights. Foreign policy Russian lands in the Eurasian context.
Formation of regional cultural centers: chronicles and literary monuments: the Kiev-Pechersk Patericon, the prayer of Daniil Zatochnik, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” White-stone churches of North-Eastern Rus': the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky.
Russian lands in the middle of the XIII - XIV centuries.
The emergence of the Mongol Empire. Conquests of Genghis Khan and his descendants. Batu's campaigns in Eastern Europe. The emergence of the Golden Horde. The fate of Russian lands after the Mongol invasion. The system of dependence of Russian lands on the Horde khans (the so-called “Horde yoke”).
Southern and Western Russian lands. The emergence of the Lithuanian state and the inclusion of part of the Russian lands into its composition. Northwestern lands: Novgorod and Pskov. Political system of Novgorod and Pskov. The role of the veche and the prince. Novgorod in the system of Baltic connections.
Orders of the Crusaders and the fight against their expansion on the western borders of Rus'. Alexander Nevsky: his relationship with the Horde. Principalities of North-Eastern Rus'. The struggle for the great reign of Vladimir. Confrontation between Tver and Moscow. Strengthening the Moscow Principality. Dmitry Donskoy. Battle of Kulikovo. Consolidating the primacy of the Moscow princes.
Transfer of the metropolitan see to Moscow. The role of the Orthodox Church in the Horde period of Russian history. Sergius of Radonezh. The flourishing of early Moscow art. Stone cathedrals of the Kremlin.
Peoples and states of the steppe zone of Eastern Europe and Siberia in the XIII-XV centuries.
Golden Horde: political system, population, economy, culture. Cities and nomadic steppes. Acceptance of Islam. Weakening of the state in the second half of the 14th century, the invasion of Timur.
Collapse of the Golden Horde, formation of the Tatar khanates. Kazan Khanate. Siberian Khanate. Astrakhan Khanate. Nogai horde. Crimean Khanate. Kasimov Khanate. Peoples North Caucasus. Italian trading posts of the Black Sea region (Caffa, Tana, Soldaya, etc.) and their role in the system of trade and political relations of Rus' with the West and East
Changes in ideas about the picture of the world in Eurasia in connection with the completion Mongol conquests. Cultural interaction of civilizations. Intercultural connections and communications (interaction and mutual influence of Russian culture and the cultures of the peoples of Eurasia). Chronicle. Monuments of the Kulikovo cycle. Lives. Epiphanius the Wise. Architecture. Art. Theophanes the Greek. Andrey Rublev.
Formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th century
The struggle for Russian lands between the Lithuanian and Moscow states. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Internecine war in the Moscow principality of the second quarter of the 15th century. Vasily the Dark. Novgorod and Pskov in the 15th century: political system, relations with Moscow, the Livonian Order, the Hansa, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The fall of Byzantium and the growth of the church-political role of Moscow in the Orthodox world. The theory “Moscow is the third Rome”. Ivan III. Annexation of Novgorod and Tver. Eliminating dependence on the Horde. Expansion of international relations of the Moscow state. Adoption of the All-Russian Law Code. Formation of the management apparatus of a unified state. Changes in the structure of the Grand Duke's court: new state symbols; royal title and regalia; palace and church construction. Moscow Kremlin.
Cultural space
Changes in perception of the world. Sacralization of grand-ducal power. Union of Florence. Establishment of autocephaly of the Russian Church. Intra-church struggle (Josephites and non-possessors, heresies). Development of the culture of a unified Russian state. Chronicles: all-Russian and regional. Hagiographic literature. “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin. Architecture. Art. Everyday life townspeople and rural residents in the Old Russian and Early Moscow periods.
Concepts and terms: Appropriating and producing economy. Slavs. Balts. Finno-Ugrians. Rus. Slash-and-burn farming system. City. Village. Tribute, polyudye, hryvnia. Prince, veche, mayor. Squad. Merchants. Patrimony. Estate. Peasants. People, stinkers, purchases, slaves. Traditional beliefs, Christianity, Orthodoxy, Islam, Judaism. Monastery. Metropolitan. Autocephaly (church). Tithe.
Graffiti. Basilica. Cross-domed church. Plintha. Fresco. Mosaic. Chronicle. Lives. Birch bark letters. Epics.
Horde. Kurultai, baskak, label. Foreman. Military monastic orders. Crusaders. Centralization. Feeding. Tsar. Coat of arms.
Personalities:
State and military figures: Alexander Nevsky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Askold and Dir, Batu (Batu), Vasily I, Vasily the Dark, Vitovt, Vladimir Monomakh, Vladimir the Holy, Vsevolod the Big Nest, Gedimin, Daniil Galitsky, Daniil Moskovsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan Kalita, Ivan III, Igor, Igor Svyatoslavich, Mamai, Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy, Oleg, Olga, Olgerd, Rurik, Svyatopolk the Accursed, Svyatoslav Igorevich, Sofia (Zoya) Paleolog, Sofya Vitovtovna, Timur, Tokhtamysh, Uzbek, Genghis Khan, Yuri Danilovich, Yuri Dolgoruky, Jagiello, Yaroslav the Wise.
Public and religious figures, cultural, scientific and educational figures: Metropolitan Alexy, Boris and Gleb, Daniel Sharpener, Dionysius, Epiphanius the Wise, Metropolitan Hilarion, Metropolitan Jonah, Cyril and Methodius, Nestor, Afanasy Nikitin, Pachomius the Serb, Metropolitan Peter, Andrei Rublev, Sergius of Radonezh, Stephen of Perm, Theophanes the Greek, Aristotle Fioravanti.
Sources: Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium. Russian truth. The Tale of Bygone Years. Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh. Novgorod first chronicle. A word about Igor's regiment. Galicia-Volyn Chronicle. Life of Alexander Nevsky. Life of Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy. Zadonshchina. Chronicle stories about the Battle of Kulikovo. Life of Sergius of Radonezh. Novgorod Psalter. Birch bark letters. Princely spiritual and contractual charters. Pskov judicial charter. Code of Law 1497
Events/dates:
860 – Russian campaign against Constantinople
862 – “calling” of Rurik
882 – capture of Kyiv by Oleg
907 – Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople
911 – agreement between Rus' and Byzantium
941, 944 – Igor’s campaigns against Constantinople, treaties between Rus' and Byzantium
964-972 – campaigns of Svyatoslav
978/980-1015 – reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in Kyiv
988 – baptism of Rus'
1016-1018 and 1019-1054 – reign of Yaroslav the Wise
XI century – Russian Truth (Short edition)
1097 – Lyubech Congress
1113-1125 – reign of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv
1125-1132 – reign of Mstislav the Great in Kyiv
Beginning of the 12th century – “The Tale of Bygone Years”
XII century – Russian Truth (Long edition)
1147 – the first mention of Moscow in chronicles
1185 – Igor Svyatoslavich’s campaign against the Polovtsians
1223 – battle on the river. Kalke
1237-1241 – conquest of Rus' by Batu Khan
1242-1243 – formation of the Ulus Jochi (Golden Horde)
1325-1340 – reign of Ivan Kalita.
1327 – anti-Horde uprising in Tver
1359-1389 – reign of Dmitry Donskoy
1382 – destruction of Moscow by Tokhtamysh
1389 – 1425 – reign of Vasily I