Feudal fragmentation appeared in Rus' by the 12th century and continued until the end of the 15th century. This form of state existence was typical for most European states, characterized by the weakening of centralized power and its redistribution among local princes.

The emergence of a period of feudal fragmentation is associated with a will after his death, according to which all Russian land was distributed among his sons. The number of principalities during feudal fragmentation was constantly changing, initially there were only 12, however, over time their number increased to 50, and at the end of this period there were more than 200.

Positive points

Just as any action has positive and negative consequences, feudal fragmentation became a source of conflicting results. Positive aspects include the qualitative development of many peripheral cities besides Kyiv. Thus, cities such as Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov and others.

The standard of living in the appanage principalities increased significantly, as did their military power. Peasant farming began to develop farming and industry, an increasing amount of arable land was developed. Trade relations were also actively developing at this time both between the principalities and with neighboring states. During this period the role increased Orthodox Church V public life countries. The first ruling dynasties began to take shape, where legitimate power passed from father to son.

Negative consequences

Negative consequences include a decrease in the country's defense capability against an external enemy. Not all principalities formed during this period had a good relationship. Many of them conflicted with each other over disputed territories, often turning into military confrontations.

This was often taken advantage of by neighboring countries, which carried out periodic raids in order to seize territories and gain wealth. The principalities could not assemble a joint army capable of giving a worthy rebuff to external invaders, so the principalities that were located on the border of the state suffered from the lack of ability to fight back.

Opposing principalities caused damage to each other; in addition to human casualties, the economy of the principalities suffered, and their development also slowed down. Feudal fragmentation had a negative impact on Kyiv; it lost its former power, local princes could no longer influence the appanage rulers of other principalities. Despite this, many princes tried to take the local throne of the Grand Duke. Power in the city very often changed hands, rulers changed regularly, who often pursued personal interests, forgetting about ordinary people. During the redistribution of power, the princes, who were blood relatives, killed each other.

The consequences of feudal fragmentation also include, which established the dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde khans. Most of the princes of the Russian lands paid tribute to the Horde, impoverishing their own people. The power of the Horde over Russia lasted for several centuries.

Despite the division of the principalities, the final disintegration of the country did not occur; the Russian people have always felt the unity of views, religion, language and family ties. This helped save the country and unite it later.

Feudal fragmentation is a natural period in the history of any state. All early medieval countries in Europe and Asia passed through it, including Ancient Rus'. Today the focus is on the causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation in Rus'.

Chronology

The period when the unified ancient Russian state broke up into separate Russian principalities is called appanage or the period of feudal fragmentation in Rus'. Historians have no disagreement regarding the terms. However, there is controversy over the starting point of the country's disintegration process. On the issue chronological framework There are five different opinions:

• Beginning of period specific Rus' associated with the death and will of Yaroslav the Wise (A. Kuzmin, N. Karamzin);
• The convening of the Lyubechsky Congress in 1097, when the descendants of Yaroslav the Wise agreed on the maintenance of their own patrimony, is the starting point of the process of the collapse of a single state (V. Kobrin, K. Bazilevich);
• The death of the Kyiv prince Mstislav the Great in 1132 led to the beginning of the division of the state (O. Rapov, B. Rybakov);
• The Mongol invasion of Ancient Rus' (1237-1241) launched the process of decomposition of the state (V. Kozhinov);
• The very fact of the existence of a single Old Russian state before the Tatar-Mongol yoke is questioned (I. Froyanov).

Rice. 1. Kyiv Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise

Causes

Indeed, the first symptoms of decay appeared immediately after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. The princely family grew and each of the descendants of the Grand Duke, using the support of local boyars, strove for independence. Thus, a whole system of isolated princely possessions arises, which in 1097 was consolidated by the Lyubechsky Congress. But princes Vladimir Monomakh, and then his son Mstislav the Great, managed to stop the process of collapse, which helped get rid of the external enemy - the Polovtsians. The common enemy and the ability of the prince in Kyiv to maintain control over other lands and relative princes are the main components of the “unity” of the country.

When the “enemy” was defeated, and the heir to the Kyiv “table” did not have strong character, it turned out to be impossible to avoid disintegration. Violation of the unity of the territory Ancient Rus' was natural and necessary. Despite its productivity and some saving power, it was outdated by that time. In addition, there were other objective and subjective prerequisites for feudal fragmentation:

• Violation of the principles of succession to the grand ducal throne : the Rurik family was divided into several dynasties, each of which claimed a leading role, which led to civil strife after the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Each prince had his own patrimony, within which his own apparatus of power was formed, his own squad, which was not inferior to the Kyiv one and was capable of keeping dependent slave people in check. Over time, the patrimony was considered not as a gift from the Kyiv prince, but as one’s own principality, which could be passed on by inheritance;
• Domination subsistence farming : this type of economy, when production is carried out primarily “for oneself” and not for further sale, allows one not to depend on the center;
• Growth of cities, urban populations and development of crafts : this trend led to the emergence of new political centers whose economic ties were limited to the immediate area;
• “Settling” of the princely squad on the earth : this process contributed to the emergence of large landowners - patrimonial boyars, on whom the landowning population legally and economically depended. Possible conflicts between the top and bottom were resolved on the spot and did not require the intervention of the center. Therefore, the boyars did not want to share income with the Kyiv prince and in every possible way contributed to the appanage princes in the fight against central government.

Rice. 2. Novgorod Republic in the 12th century

Advantages and disadvantages

Every phenomenon has its positive and negative sides. The feudal fragmentation of Russian lands, which continued until the end of the 15th century, is not an exception. The positive consequences in the development of the country include economic growth, the development of feudal land ownership, crafts, trade, and an increase in the number of cities.

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Along with progress, there was also regression - decline, stagnation. He expressed himself in the fact that the relationship between the princes is an endless struggle for military-economic power, which resulted in internecine wars. In addition, with increasing isolation, the country's vulnerability to external danger increases. And it was not long in coming: the Mongol invasion enslaved the Russian lands for a long time.

In the first half of the 12th century, after the death of Mstislav the Great, Rus', with a single center in Kyiv, broke up into 12 specific principalities. The largest on the map were Novgorod land, Galicia-Volyn principality and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', each of which had its own form of government.

Feudal fragmentation is an objective process of development of society, a progressive phenomenon for a certain era, since during this period the following happened. phenomena:

●Mature feudal relations

● The social division of labor deepened

● Agriculture, cities and crafts developed

● Development national identity peoples

● Beginning of registration of a single national idea

● A necessary aspect for the transition from an early feudal organization to a powerful centralized state

It was during the period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' that in other countries the formation of small isolated state formations took place, on the basis of which centralized states were formed, created on a different socio-economic foundation than that of the early feudal organization.

Reasons for fragmentation.

1. Division of ancient Russian lands

The division of lands took place between the heirs of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise, who died in 1054. After his death, an internecine struggle between the princes followed.
BUT!

● The first division of Kyiv lands began under Vladimir the Red Sun (feuds between his sons at the beginning of the 11th century).

● Civil strife was common in Rus', but they did not lead to the complete collapse of the early feudal empire (which was Kievan Rus).

2. Natural character of the ancient Russian economy

The natural economy is a set of very closed economic units, little included in trade and other economic relations, because they:

■ Self-sufficient

■ Self-sustaining

■ Virtually exclusive external factors development

By the 12th century Kievan Rus there were few genuine economic ties between the individual principalities.

● The Russian economy had a natural character even during the formation of a unified centralized state in the 14th – 15th centuries

● Subsistence farming did not prevent the unification of lands around Moscow

3. The growth of boyar estates.

By the 12th century, the fiefs had become strong and independent, which allowed the boyars to continue their policy of increasing their power:

■ Attack on communal lands  enslavement of free communal smerds

■ Increase in quitrents and duties (performed by dependent servants in favor of the feudal lord)

■ Getting more power  the right to take a fine from dependent smerds  increasing the amount (fines)

■ Demand from the Grand Dukes of Kyiv to confirm “feudal immunity” - partial granting of independence to the boyars and non-interference of the Grand Duke in the affairs of the estate

● The princes did not agree to confirm the status of “feudal immunity”, although it was spelled out in “Russian Pravda”  continued to interfere in the internal affairs of the boyar estates

● The princes forced the boyars to come to Kyiv with their warriors and participate in military campaigns

● The interests of the boyars and princes sometimes did not coincide  refusal to serve the prince

4. Growth and strengthening of cities

Cities began to demand economic and political independence; they became centers of various principalities with their own strong princes

In addition, there is an increase in the role of city meetings - veche, which expressed the ideas of decentralization and independence from Kyiv.

5. The absence of a truly unified state - central or feudal.

Although religion and language became common for all Slavic tribes (the cultural-religious aspect), politically Kievan Rus was a fragile state formation.

6. Loss of the importance of the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks”

In the 11th – 12th centuries, the main trade and transport routes moved to the Mediterranean Sea, and main role Venice and Genoa began to play the role of trade intermediary between Europe and Asia.
Thus, Kyiv lost its status as a major international trade center, which led to:

■ Decrease in income from foreign trade, on which the economic well-being of the mountains largely rested. population

■ Reducing funds to maintain strong centralized power, administrative apparatus and a unified army

7. Raids of nomads from the south and east

Raids on Kievan Rus are both the cause and consequence of the decline of the state.

Cause of decline: nomadic raids  increasing discord  accelerating state collapse

Consequence: Kiev troops weakened by civil strife  the ability to raid

The consequences of feudal fragmentation.

As a result of all the above reasons (that is, centrifugal forces) in the middle of the 12th century Old Russian state broke up into 14 principalities, in each of which the boyars sought to become sovereign masters:

● Novgorod – republican form of government

● Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

● Murom-Ryazan Principality

● Galicia-Volyn Principality

● Chernigov-Seversky Principality

● Pinsk-Turov Principality

● Principality of Polotsk 1

● And other principalities...

Later, these principalities began to unite around 3 main centers

■ Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

■ Galicia-Volyn Principality

■ Novgorod feudal republic

Rus' under Mongol-Tatar rule

Endless civil strife, which continued after the collapse of Kievan Rus, led to the fact that in the 1230-1240s the ancient Russian lands were captured by Mongol-Tatar conquerors.

Great Mongol Power

● Formed at the beginning of the 13th century in the steppes of Central Asia

● Mongols – the dominant group of the state

● Tatars are the largest group in the state

● 1206 – state unification of tribes led by Khan Temujin (Genghis Khan)

The main occupation of the population is nomadic cattle breeding. Therefore, the feudal nobility demanded the expansion of pastures and the conquest of new lands.

Conquests:

■ 1220s – Siberian territories, most of China, Central Asia, Iran, Transcaucasia, Volga region

■ 1237 – Batu’s invasion of Rus'. Pali: Ryazan, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Moscow, Tver principalities; Ural, Urals, Black Sea steppes.

■ 1242 – unsuccessful campaigns against Hungary, Poland, Silesia and Moravia.

■ 1243 – Batu Khan founded the state of the Golden Horde with its capital Sarai-Batu on the Lower Volga

It is worth noting that the Horde initially recognized the power of the “Great Khan” in Mongolia, but as the Great Mongol Power collapsed, the Golden Horde khans became independent.

As a result of the invasion of the Golden Horde, the economy of Rus' was thrown back centuries:

● Cities, villages, cultural monuments, craft centers were destroyed

● Of the 74 cities, 14 were completely destroyed, and 15 were rebuilt as small villages.

● Thousands of people died and many were enslaved

Economic dependence of Rus'

1. Yasak is a heavy annual tribute that was imposed on the entire population. For this purpose, the population was initially rewritten.

2. The collection of tribute was carried out by Mongolian tax collectors - Baskaks, or “Besermensky” (Basurmansky) merchants.

Basurman merchants are merchants who, having paid in favor of the Horde from a certain territory a known amount, received the right to collect it from the population in a much larger amount.

3. A number of duties have been introduced

a. Military, Yamskaya, underwater, etc.

b. Supply of Russian soldiers to the Horde, horses and carts for the Baskaks

c. Paying high trade duties

4. 1st floor 14th century - collection of tribute passes to Russian princes

a. The princes were obliged to bring expensive gifts to the khans

b. Placed a heavy burden on the population

Political dependence of Rus'

1. Receipt of letters by Russian princes from the khans of the Horde - the right to reign.

a. The struggle between the princes for the right to become the Grand Duke of all Rus'

b. Increasing fragmentation of principalities

2. Separation of Rus' from Western Europe

Expansion into Rus' in the middle. 13th century

1. From the East ( Golden Horde)

The stubborn resistance of the Russian people allowed them to maintain their statehood and forced the Horde to refuse to create its own permanent administration in Rus'.
The forces are unequal, but the struggle is constant.

2. From the West - attacks by the Swedes and Teutonic Knights (a real threat to statehood)

Goals: renunciation of Orthodoxy and adoption of Catholicism; expansion of territories
To repel the invasion, military squads gathered throughout Rus' to jointly defend the country. Novgorod Prince Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky resisted the German-Swedish troops 2 times:

“Relaxations” on the part of the Golden Horde

1. Golden Horde laws did not apply on the territory of the Russian principalities

2. The Russian princes, who continued to rule in their principalities, using their own legal norms, were not eliminated

3. The Mongol dynasty was not established in the occupied territories

4. Benefits of the Russian Orthodox Church and a tolerant attitude towards the Christian religion:

a. The church is exempt from paying tribute and performing various duties

b. The Russian clergy received special charters - labels providing greater rights and privileges, as well as the inviolability of church property

Yarlyk is a preferential charter that was issued by the Golden Horde khans to Russian princes, as well as secular and spiritual feudal lords.

Thanks to these relaxations (and especially religious ones) Russian Orthodoxy turned out to be among those forces that preserved not only the religious, but also the national unity of the Russian state. The church acted as a powerful core in the national liberation movement against the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Domestic history: Cheat sheet Author unknown

9. CONCEPT, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF FEPUDAL FRONTATION

Under feudal fragmentation understand the form of organization of society, characterized by the economic strengthening of patrimonial holdings and the political decentralization of the state.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' covers the time from the second half XII before the beginning XIV century This process began after the death of Grand Duke Mstislav (1125–1132), when the principalities and lands of Rus' began to break away from the obedience of the central government. For the coming new era were characterized by long bloody civil strife between princes and wars for the expansion of land holdings.

The most important reasons for fragmentation

1. Division of the unified territory of the state between heirs in the absence of a legally justified right of succession to the throne. Formally, the beginning of the “appanage period” dates back to the will of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, according to which he appointed his sons to rule the country in various Russian regions. The divisions of princely lands between the heirs, which became especially noticeable by the 13th century, aggravated the fragmentation of the principality-states.

2. Dominance of subsistence farming. The feudal economy at this time was mainly of a subsistence nature and closed. Economic ties with the center were weak, and military-political power local authorities steadily intensified, so the cities gradually turned primarily into craft and trade centers for the surrounding lands.

3. Strengthening feudal lords' ownership of land. Many cities were feudal estates, fortresses of princes. Local government apparatuses were created in cities; their main task was to maintain the authority of the local prince.

4. Weakening external threat– Polovtsian raids, the intensity of which dropped sharply as a result of the active military actions of Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav.

5. The decline in the prestige of Kyiv, due to the fact that it lost its previous value shopping center Rus'. The Crusaders established new trade routes from Europe to the East through the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, Kyiv was practically destroyed in 1240 during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Consequences of feudal fragmentation. It is impossible to clearly judge the time of fragmentation as a period of decline. At this time, old cities are growing, new ones are appearing (Moscow, Tver, Dmitrov, etc.). Local government apparatuses are being formed that help in administration, perform police functions, and raise funds to carry out the independent policies of individual principalities. Local legislation is being developed on the basis of “Russian Truth”. Thus, we can talk about the general rise of the Russian principalities in the XII - early. XIII century On the other hand, the decline in Rus''s military potential led to the fact that the process of internal socio-economic and political development was interrupted by external intervention. It came in three streams: from the east - the Mongol-Tatar invasion, from the northwest - Swedish-Danish-German aggression, from the southwest - military attacks by Poles and Hungarians.

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Feudal fragmentation - period in Russian history, when the state was fragmented into many principalities. The period of weakening of the power of the center was typical not only for Russia, but also for the whole medieval Europe. As many historians note, fragmentation - natural process during the period of formation and development of the state. The pros and cons of feudal fragmentation are also noted, because, like any other historical process, the weakening of centralization has positive and negative consequences for the state and citizens.

Features of feudal fragmentation in Rus'

The beginning of feudal fragmentation is considered to be the death of Prince Mstislav, the son of the famous ruler of Kievan Rus Vladimir Monomakh. The conventional date for the decentralization of lands is considered to be 1132. However, fragmentation is a complex evolutionary historical process, the prerequisites for which took decades to develop.

Feudal fragmentation in Rus' was different from that in Europe. In the West, there was a principle of succession to the throne, when power passed directly from father to son. In Russia, the law of the ladder was in force, which assumed that power passed to the eldest in the family. This feature gave rise to constant civil strife between the brothers and sons of the deceased prince. The first clashes between Kyiv princes in the struggle for the throne occurred after the death of Svyatoslav in 972. However, then the civil strife was overcome.

Reasons for fragmentation in Rus'

Reasons for decentralization Russian state can be divided into several categories.

1. Economic.

• The lack of economic ties between the regions of the country allowed the principalities to conduct independent economic activities. Kyiv has ceased to be the economic center of the country.
• Cities grew, new points of trade with other states appeared.

2. Socio-political.

• Constants led to the weakening of central power.
• The weak center contributed to the strengthening of the role of local princes, and a dualism of power developed.
• Active growth of boyar estates in individual principalities.

3. External reasons

• In the 12th century, during the period of the beginning of feudal fragmentation, there was no serious external enemy. This contributed to the decentralization of power.

Territorial division during the period of fragmentation

During the period of feudal fragmentation, the territories of the former Kievan Rus were divided into separate independent principalities, each of them was headed by its own prince. The quantitative composition of the principalities changed due to ongoing civil strife. By the middle of the 12th century, about 15 specific territories were recorded. At the beginning of the period Mongol invasion On the territory of Rus' there were about 50 independent principalities, and in the period 250.

Principalities as independent territories

Principalities during the period of feudal fragmentation were separate quasi-states with their own economy, culture and social life. Based on this independence, historians highlight various pros and cons of feudal fragmentation as a process of decentralization of the state. By the beginning of the process of disunity, the largest principalities were the Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod Republics.

Pros and cons of feudal fragmentation

Like any major historical process, the period in Russia has a number of its advantages and disadvantages. To demonstrate these characteristics most clearly, it is necessary to consider comparison table about feudal fragmentation.

pros	Minuses
Simplified governance system: managing one principality is much easier than managing the entire state.	Weakening of external defenses.
Rapid development of cultural and economic features each individual principality.	Constant civil strife between the princes contributed to the ruin of the lands.
The growth of new cities and the development of new lands.
Active creation of cultural monuments and heritage.	The Kyiv throne lost its primacy and significance.
	Uneven development of lands due to the geographical inaccessibility of individual principalities to trade routes.

Thus, using comparative analysis pros and cons of feudal fragmentation, we can conclude that the period of appanage principalities had more negative consequences for the development of the state.

The Vladimir-Suzdal Principality as a center for collecting lands

Due to geographical and resource unevenness, there was inequality in the development of specific lands. Historians call the Vladimir-Suzdal principality the most successful, which would later become the initiator of the process of centralization of Russia.

He is the main supporter of the strengthening of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. The appanage land achieved its greatest successes under his son Andrei Bogolyubsky. The territory did not have strong resource and climatic potential, and it was necessary to use an instrument of force to strengthen power. In accordance with this principle, Andrei Bogolyubsky began to implement his policy. He executed the local nobility who refused to obey the prince. Subsequently, Bogolyubsky suffered from his actions and was killed in a boyar conspiracy.

The Vladimir-Suzdal land had a convenient geopolitical position. It was located far from the territories of the nomads who escaped to Rus' and ravaged it. In this regard, there was a constant influx of population into these lands. As a result, the labor force and economy of the principality grew.