Features of the economic development of the Novgorod land. Novgorod land (Republic)

25.09.2019

Reasons for the strengthening of Novgorod. Novgorod land was located between lakes Ilmen and Chudskoye, along the banks of the river. Volkhov, Lovat. Cities: Pskov, Ladoga, Rusa (now Staraya Russa), Torzhok, Velikiye Luki, etc. As a result of colonization, Finno-Ugric tribes - Karelians, Zavolochskaya Chud - became part of the Novgorod land. As academician V. Yanin believes, Novgorod arose as an association-federation of three tribal settlements: Slavic and two Finno-Ugric - Meryan and Chud. Novgorod was one of the largest and richest cities in Europe. Stone fortifications were built here already in 1044. The city had a high level of improvement: wooden pavements appeared here earlier than in Paris, and a drainage system drained groundwater. Novgorod was located on trade routes connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian Seas. The city traded with Scandinavia and North German cities, which concluded agreements in the 14th century. trade and political union Gá nza. Archaeologists have found the remains of a German trading court in Novgorod. Novgorod exports included furs, honey, wax, salt, leather, fish, and walrus ivory. Novgorod's weak point: unfavorable conditions for agriculture, the need to import grain. Novgorod's main opponent, the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, often cut off its grain supplies.

Features of the Novgorod Republic . There was no monarchical princely system of power in Novgorod. Established here boyar feudal republic. The Novgorod boyars, unlike the Vladimir-Suzdal boyars, were not princely warriors by origin, but descendants of the local tribal nobility. They formed a closed group of genera. In Novgorod one could not become a boyar, one could only be born one. Boyar land ownership developed here early. Princes were sent here as governors. In addition to Novgorod, in 1348–1510. There was a Pskov Republic.

Control system. Novgorod was the first to separate from Kyiv. During the uprising 1136 the prince was expelled Vsevolod Mstislavich for “neglect” of city interests. Novgorod was considered a “stronghold of freedom.” The highest authority was veche – meeting of the male population of the city, body of state administration and self-government. The first mention in the chronicles of the veche dates back to 997. The veche consisted of 300–500 people, decided issues of war and peace, summoned and expelled princes, adopted laws, and concluded treaties with other lands. It gathered on Yaroslav's Court - a square paved with cow jaws, or on Sophia Square. The veche was public - they voted by shouting, sometimes the decision was made through a fight: the winning side was recognized by the majority.

They were elected at the meeting mayor, thousand, bishop.

-Posadnik carried out city management, diplomatic negotiations, administered court, and controlled the activities of the prince.

-Tysyatsky- the head of the people's militia, he also held court in trade matters and resolved financial issues. They obeyed him Withó tskie who collected taxes (taxes).

-Bishop(from 1165 - archbishop), “lord”, was elected for life at the assembly and then confirmed by the metropolitan. He headed the church and the church court, managed the treasury and the “sovereign” regiment, and sealed international agreements with his personal seal.

-Prince of Novgorod- military commander, head of the squad, performed military and police functions, and maintained order in the city in peacetime. Since the time of the “calling of the Varangians,” Novgorod has been characterized by an invitation from the prince (remember Rurik). There was an agreement with the prince row"(agreement), which prohibited the prince from interfering in the affairs of city government, changing officials, attending the meeting, acquiring land and real estate, and settling in the city. The prince and his retinue lived in a country residence - on the Rurik Settlement, three kilometers from Novgorod. The veche had the right to expel the prince if he violated the “order” with the words: “prince, you are yours, and we are yours.” The expulsion of princes (as well as posadniks) was common. For the XII–XIII centuries. Princes in Novgorod changed 68 times. The famous Alexander Nevsky. In 1097–1117 was the prince of Novgorod Mstislav the Great, son of Vladimir Monomakh. When in 1102 the Prince of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavich wanted to replace him with his son, the Novgorodians replied: “We don’t want Svyatopolk or his son... If your son has two heads, then send him to us!”

The territory of the republic was divided into regions - Pyatina. City of Novgorod r. Volkhov was divided into two sides: Sofia (Kremlin) and Trade, as well as ends(districts) and streets With Konchansky And street veche. The ordinary population participated in the Konchansky and Ulichansky veche, electing the elders of the ends and streets.

The veche system of Novgorod did not ensure true democracy. In fact, the republic was ruled by the Novgorod gentlemen(power elite) represented by the boyars and wealthy merchants. The positions of mayors and thousanders were held only by rich boyars (“ Council of gentlemen", or " 300 gold belts"). Novgorod can be considered aristocratic, oligarchic republic. Therefore, uprisings of the common people often broke out here (1136, 1207, 1229, etc.).

Galicia-Volyn land.

The Galicia-Volyn principality is the southwestern outskirts of Rus'. Favorable climate, fertile soils, trade routes to Poland and Hungary contributed to its strengthening. Initially, Galicia and Volyn were separate principalities. After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, his grandson began to rule in Volyn Davyd Igorevich, and in Galicia – great-grandchildren Vasilko And Volodar. But the princely congress expelled Davyd for blinding Vasilko Terebovlsky after the Lyubech Congress. The Monomashich dynasty, descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, strengthened in Volyn. The Galician principality achieved power under the grandson of Volodar Yaroslav Osmomysl(1119–1187; 1153–1157 gg.), married to the daughter of Yuri Dolgoruky Olga.

In 1199, the Galician and Volyn principalities were united Roman Mstislavovich Volynsky(1150–1205; 1199 – 1205 gg.). Roman sought to subjugate the rebellious Galician boyars. He said about the boyars: “If you don’t kill the bees, you can’t eat honey.” In 1203, Roman occupied Kyiv and took the title of Grand Duke. The Pope offered Roman the royal crown, but he rejected it. In 1205 Roman died in Poland in a battle with the Prince of Krakow Leshkom Bely. Strife began.

Roman's four-year-old son - Daniil (Danilo) Romanovich(1201 or 1204–1264; 1238 – 1264 yy.) was expelled with his mother from Galich, but, having matured, by 1238 he managed to regain Vladimir Volynsky, Galich, annexed the Kiev and Turovo-Pinsk principalities, founded the cities of Lvov and Kholm. In 1240, Daniil's possessions were destroyed by Batu. In 1254 he received the title of king from the Pope.

Thus, fragmentation, on the one hand, was a progressive phenomenon for economic development, but, on the other hand, it undermined the defense capability of Russia and led to the Mongol yoke.

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Veliky Novgorod occupied a special place among the Russian principalities. Like Kyiv, Novgorod was the center of Slavic lands in North-West Rus'. Novgorod, like the Rostov-Suzdal principality, pursued an active policy of conquest, as a result of which the lands of the Finno-Ugric tribes, Sami and Nenets were annexed to the Novgorod land; they paid tribute to Novgorod. The Volkhov River divided Novgorod into two sides - Sofia and Torgovaya.

The natural conditions of Novgorod were unsuitable for agriculture, so it developed as a trade and craft center. The basis economic activity Novgorod consisted of crafts, cattle breeding, fishing, fur and salt trades, and iron ore mining. Blacksmiths, weavers, potters, jewelers, gunsmiths, carpenters produced very high quality. The geographical position of Novgorod was extremely favorable for trade. Novgorod merchants traded with Germany, Sweden, Central Asia, and Transcaucasia, exporting furs, wax, honey, flax, walrus ivory, and leather. Cloth, wine, non-ferrous and precious metals were brought from the West. The interests of the boyars, merchants, and churches were intertwined, and the city elite - the aristocracy - played a large role in political life.

The highest authority in Novgorod was the veche - the people's assembly. The veche elected a mayor from among the boyars, he was in charge of all the affairs of the feudal republic, administered justice, and controlled the activities of the prince. A thousand was elected, who collected taxes (from every thousand of the population), headed the people's militia and administered court in trade matters. The Novgorod archbishop (lord) was also elected at the veche. The veche system of Novgorod is a form of feudal democracy. In fact, power belonged to the boyars and the elite of the merchant class. In 1136, the grandson of Monomakh, Vsevolod, reigned in Novgorod, with whom the Novgorodians were dissatisfied. An uprising occurred, the prince was arrested, a number of charges were brought against him and he was expelled from the city. From that moment on, the Novgorodians themselves invited the prince, concluding an agreement with him. The prince did not have the right to transfer power by inheritance, could not interfere in civil affairs, did not have the right to own lands and live in the city itself. He protected the city from enemies, tribute was received in his name, and he played the role of an arbitrator. If the prince was not liked, he was expelled. After the events of 1136, Novgorod finally became a boyar aristocratic republic, where large boyars, merchants, and the archbishop determined the policy of the city.

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Introduction

During feudal fragmentation An independent state entity appeared in the North-West of Rus' - the Principality of Novgorod. This principality differed from others in its very original political structure: the supreme power belonged not to the prince, but to the veche, therefore it is right to call Novgorod a republic, the nature of the economy: here, crafts and trade, and an original culture were developed to the highest degree for Rus' at that time. The study of these features allows us to explain many problems of our time.

But since three features of the Novgorod Republic can be identified, the presentation of information about Novgorod in the main part of the essay is divided into three parts: government structure, economy and culture. The point about the geographical location and preliminary historical information in the introduction are needed in order to show in what space and at what time the Novgorod Republic existed.

1. Geographical location

The Novgorod Republic in its heyday owned a vast territory. Its lands extended from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east and from the White Sea in the north to the headwaters of the Volga and Western Dvina in the south. Novgorod owned the Volga, Izhora and Karelian lands, the southern and western coasts of the Kola Peninsula, Obonezhye, Zaonezhye and Zavolchye. Until the 14th century, the Novgorod Republic also included the Pskov land. Such vastness of territories is a consequence of Novgorod’s active colonialist activities. The Novgorod land itself, which was like the core of the Novgorod Republic, covered the basin of Lake Ilmen and the flows of the Volkhov, Msta, Lovat and Sheloni rivers. Thus, the main directions of colonization are the north and northeast.

In addition to the fact that the climate of North-West Rus' is not conducive to successful agriculture, the Novgorod lands were also swampy and non-black earth. This caused, firstly, the need to compensate for the shortcomings of agriculture through the development of industry and trade and, secondly, the food dependence of Novgorod on the more southern principalities.

Novgorod was located on the waterway from the “Varangians to the Greeks,” which created another prerequisite for the development of trade.

In the south, Novgorod bordered on the Polotsk and Smolensk principalities, in the southeast and east - on the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, in the west, since 1237, the aggressive Livonian Order became a neighbor of the Novgorod Republic.

2. Preliminary historical information

The first mention of Novgorod in chronicles dates back to the 9th century, and it is mentioned as an already existing city. Therefore install exact date formation of Novgorod is impossible.

In 862, Rurik was called to reign in Novgorod, and Sineus and Truvor, who ruled in Beloozero and Izborsk, were invited along with him. After the death of the last two, their estates passed to Rurik, and thus the first Russian state arose with its capital in Novgorod. After Rurik, Oleg began to reign. He captured Kyiv and 882. moved the capital there, and appointed a tribute to Novgorod of 300 hryvnia and a mayor; Novgorod was equal in rights to other cities of Rus'.

In 988 St. Prince Vladimir baptizes Rus'. This event, of course, played a huge role in the history of Novgorod. The adoption of Orthodoxy became the basis for the formation of the Russian nation, but the situation is unnatural when one nation does not have a single state, therefore the Baptism of Rus' justified, in particular, the annexation of Novgorod to the Moscow state, which followed in the 15th century.

In 1014, Prince Yaroslav the Wise, who reigned in Novgorod, refused to pay the due tribute to his father, Grand Duke Vladimir. Then Vladimir began to prepare a campaign against Novgorod, but in the midst of preparations he suddenly died. Svyatopolk, who went down in history with the nickname of the Damned, was proclaimed Grand Duke by the Kyiv boyars. He villainously killed his brothers Boris, Gleb and Svyatoslav. Svyatopolk’s plans also included the elimination of Yaroslav. Yaroslav gathered an army and, after a three-year struggle with Svyatopolk, supported by the Poles, won a victory and occupied the grand-ducal throne. In Novgorod, Yaroslav the Wise achieved high respect; his name is associated with the beginning of the isolation of Novgorod.

After Yaroslav, Novgorod's ambitions begin to increase. And so, in 1136, the Novgorodians expelled Prince Vsevolod-Gabriel with the wording “does not respect the smerds”; this was the beginning of the Novgorod Republic. Since 1136, the prince ceased to be the supreme power in Novgorod; he was called upon by the veche and performed mainly military and police functions.

Having won independence, the Novgorodians were forced to defend it. In the XII-XIII centuries. the main contenders for Novgorod were the Smolensk, Vladimir and Chernigov princes. In 1170, Andrei Bogolyubsky made an unsuccessful campaign against Novgorod, but his younger brother Vsevolod the Big Nest was able to subjugate Novgorod in 1201, and began to send there those princes who were beneficial to him. The dominance of the Vladimir principality did not last long. In 1212, after the death of Vsevolod, a war began, first hidden, and then with real military actions, between Yuri and Konstantin Vsevolodovich. In this war, Konstantin was helped by the new prince of Novgorod Mstislav Mstislavich from the Smolensk Monomakhovich dynasty. As a result of the Battle of Lipitsa in 1216, Novgorod gained independence, and the Principality of Vladimir finally lost control over it.

However, at this time a serious threat arose for the Novgorod Republic in the form of German and Swedish feudal lords. Therefore, it was necessary to strengthen the princely, that is, military, power to repel the invaders. Novgorodians invited Prince Alexander Yaroslavich. He defeated the Swedes on the Neva River in 1240, for which he began to be called Nevsky, and in 1242 - the Germans. Alexander Nevsky enjoyed well-deserved respect among the Novgorodians, and under him the prince’s authority in Novgorod greatly increased. It must be said that the invasion of invaders from the West occurred simultaneously with the formation of the Tatar yoke, and only thanks to the wisdom and humility of St. blessed Prince Alexander Nevsky, the Russian people managed to avoid disaster; the prince understood that it was difficult to fight on two fronts, and that the rule of a tolerant khan was preferable to the fire and sword of Catholic missionaries. After St. Alexander Nevsky, the princely power never again had such high authority in the Novgorod Republic.

In the Novgorod Republic, citizens were legally equal, but in fact the Novgorod population was divided into several classes or groups. This discrepancy between actual and legal rights, as will be shown later, became the cause of social antagonism and conflicts, which, in turn, led Novgorod to decline. The Novgorod Republic fell into decline simultaneously with the strengthening of the Moscow principality and the gathering of lands around it, so it was impossible to avoid the annexation of Novgorod, as a Russian principality, to the emerging Russian state. However, for some time Novgorod found the strength to defend its independence, often resorting to foreign assistance.

Part of the boyars in the fight against Moscow sought support from the Lithuanian princes. In the 40s. Polish king and Grand Duke Lithuanian Casimir IV received, under a treaty, the right to collect irregular tribute from some Novgorod volosts. In 1456, Moscow troops defeated the Novgorod army near Rusa. As a result, the Yazhelbitsky Treaty was concluded. Under this agreement, Novgorod was obliged not to accept the enemies of Vasily II, was deprived of the right to foreign relations and legislative rights, the prince became the highest court, the Novgorod veche seal was replaced by the seal of the Grand Duke.

In the spring of 1471, the Novgorodians concluded an agreement with Casimir IV, according to which Novgorod recognized him as their prince, accepted his governor, and the king undertook to defend Novgorod with his army in the event that a military threat emanated from Moscow. This meant a declaration of war on Moscow. The main battle took place on the Sheloni River. Despite the enormous numerical superiority, the Novgorodians were defeated by the Moscow army, losing 14 thousand.

Peace negotiations that began soon resulted in the signing of an agreement in Korostyn, according to which Moscow received a large indemnity from Novgorod, and the Novgorodians pledged to return Ivan III the lands that his father owned, pay tribute, consecrate him to the rank of archbishop only in Moscow, not communicate with the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, cancel veche letters and not draw up letters of judgment without the approval of the Grand Duke.

After the departure of Moscow troops, the situation in Novgorod again began to deteriorate. In the spring of 1477, Ivan III sent his ambassadors there. At a meeting convened on this occasion, a letter was written, the meaning of which was that Veliky Novgorod did not call Ivan III to be its sovereign. In October 1477, an army led by Grand Duke Ivan III left Moscow in the Novgorod direction. At the beginning of December, Novgorod was completely blocked, and a month later it surrendered. The residents were sworn in to allegiance to the Grand Duke, and the veche bell was removed and taken to Moscow; The Novgorod Republic ceased to exist.

Thus, the period of existence of the Novgorod Republic is determined by the period 1136-1478.

3. Government structure

Administrative division.

Novgorod was divided by Volkhov into two parts, or sides, the Trade and Sofia. These sides were connected by the Great Bridge. The trading side received its name from the trading place located there, that is, the market. At the auction there was Yaroslav's courtyard, where the veche gathered, the stage was the platform from which speeches were made at the veche. Near the degree there was a tower with a veche bell, and the veche office was also located there. The Sofia side received its name from the St. Sophia Cathedral located there.

Novgorod was also divided into 5 ends or districts: Slavensky and Plotnitsky made up the Trade side, and Nerevsky, Zagorodsky and Goncharsky made up the Sofia side. The division into ends was historical. Novgorod was made up of several settlements or villages, which at first were independent settlements, and then united to form a city (1). Slavenskoe end used to be a separate city - Slovenskoye. In the middle of the 9th century, the Rurik settlement became the residence of the princes, and the Novaya fortress was built opposite Slovensk, which soon became Novgorod. The Zagorodsky End, judging by the name, was the last to be formed; initially it was located outside the city, and only after the construction of the fortress could it become part of it. The ends of Plotnitsky and Goncharsky probably used to be working-class suburbs of Slovensk, in which carpenters and potters lived, respectively. The name of the fifth end, Nerevsky, can be explained by the fact that “on the ditch” means “on the outskirts”. That is, the name of the end indicated that it was located on the very outskirts of the city.

Each end was assigned a specific land. There were five pyatinas in total - according to the number of ends: Votskaya, which extended to the north-west of Novgorod, between the Volkhov and Luga rivers towards the Gulf of Finland, which received its name from the Vod tribe that lived here; Obonezhskaya - in the northeast, to the right of Volkhov towards the White Sea; Derevskaya to the southeast, between the rivers Mstoya and Lovat; Shelonskaya to the southwest, between Lovat and Luga, on both sides of the Sheloni River; Bezhetskaya - far to the east and southeast, behind the Pyatina Obonezhskaya and Derevskaya.

Most likely, the Novgorod land was divided into five patches between the ends in order to collect taxes from the population living there in a more systematic manner. Perhaps Novgorod regularly redistributed pyatina between different ends to reduce the likelihood of corruption.

In addition to Pyatina, in the Novgorod Republic there was a division into volosts. Volosts are possessions that are more distant and acquired later (2). The volosts included cities that were jointly owned with other principalities, such as Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi, Torzhok, Rzhev, Velikiye Luki with their districts. Volok-Lamsky, Bezhichi and Torzhok were in joint possession with the Grand Dukes of Vladimir, and then of Moscow; and Rzhev and Velikiye Luki - with the princes of Smolensk. The volosts included a vast part of the Novgorod Republic, located in the northeast of Pyatina Bezhetskaya and Obonezhskaya - Dvinskaya land or Zavolochye. On the Vychegda River and its tributaries there was the Perm volost. Further to the northeast was the volost of Pechora on both sides of the river of the same name, and beyond the Ural Mountains was Yugra. On the northern shore of the White Sea there was the volost of Tre, or the Tersky coast.

All administrative-territorial units of the Novgorod Republic enjoyed broad rights. It is known, for example, that ends and pyatins were ruled by elected officials, and Pskov and other cities had their own prince (3).

Social system.

First of all, the Novgorod population was divided into better and lesser people. Moreover, the smaller ones were not smaller in terms of political rights, but only in terms of economic situation and actual value. Actual inequality with complete legal equality became the cause of numerous Novgorod riots.

In addition to the general division into better and lesser, Novgorod society was divided into three classes: the upper class - the boyars, the middle - the living people, natives and merchants, the lower - black people.

The Novgorod boyars, unlike the boyars of other principalities, were not the prince’s squad, but large landowners and capitalists. The boyars stood at the head of the entire Novgorod society. It was formed from the military foreman who ruled Novgorod before the appearance of Rurik. Due to various circumstances, this nobility did not lose its privileged position even under the princes. Already in the 11th century. The princes who ruled Novgorod appointed people from the local society to local government positions. Thus, the Novgorod administration became native in its personnel even before it became elected (4). The boyars were the main political force in Novgorod. Receiving colossal income from their lands, the boyars had the opportunity to bribe “screamers” at the assembly and carry out the decisions they needed. In addition, possessing large capital, the boyars lent them to merchants and thus stood at the head of trade turnover.

The middle class of Novgorod society was mainly represented by living people. Living people are the population of average income. They were a kind of shareholders investing in the development of international trade. Receiving income from their lands, living people invested them in merchant enterprises, from which they made a profit. In the political life of the city, this class carried out judicial and diplomatic assignments from the Council of Gentlemen, and represented the ends in which they lived.

Unlike other Russian principalities, Novgorod retained a class of small landowners - homeowners. But the land ownership of their own landowners was somewhat different from the usual boyar land ownership - their own landowners very rarely owned lands alone. Usually, fellow citizens cultivated and acquired land together - some semblance peasant community. The natives either cultivated their land themselves or rented it out to peasants. The natives differed from the peasants in that they had full rights to the land. They were mostly city dwellers who bought plots of land, like today's summer residents, only the lands of their own people were larger and were mostly rented out. The natives formed together into agricultural partnerships, called syabrs or storekeepers.

The merchant class was a trading class that profited from profitable geographical location Novgorod. Merchants mainly worked with the help of the capital of the boyars and living people. The Novgorod merchants conducted large transit trade and had their own land holdings. Gradually, the merchant class began to divide into “hundreds.” Each hundred had its own charter, its own privileges. The most privileged merchant society was called the “Ivanovo hundred” and met at the Church of John the Baptist. According to its charter, in order to become a full and hereditary member of this society, it was necessary to contribute 50 hryvnia of silver. The council of the society, consisting of two merchant elders chaired by the thousand, was in charge of all trade affairs and the commercial court in Novgorod (5).

The population that did not belong to the first two classes was called “black people.” Of course, black people made up the majority of the population of the Novgorod Republic. These included artisans and small traders who lived in cities, as well as the rural population: smerdas and zemstvos. They were responsible for the construction and repair of bridges and roads, the construction of churches and city fortifications, and in wartime they were drafted into the militia. Black people, like the entire free population of Novgorod, had the right to take part in the meetings.

The bulk of the rural population were stinkers. Initially, they had their own farm and paid tribute to the state. With the development of boyar land ownership, they increasingly turned into an economically dependent population.

Gradually, the smerds fell into two categories - community members, who paid taxes to Novgorod, and smerds, who were divided into mortgage holders and ladles. The mortgagees were peasants who left the community and became dependent on the boyars. Ladles were peasants who lived on the lands of private owners. They got their name from the type of land rent - half the harvest. But in Novgorod land there were also more preferential rental conditions - a third or a quarter of the harvest all depended on the value of the land in a given place. Ladles performed duties only in favor of their own master. According to the type of work, ladles were divided into izorniks (plowmen), gardeners and kochetniks (fishermen). The ladle had the right to leave his master once a year within the period established by law - Philip's plot. Before leaving, the ladle had to fully repay his debt to the master.

The most powerless group of the population in Novgorod were the zemstvos (slaves). Zemtsy gradually lost their rights with the development of boyar land ownership. Initially, a zemstvo could not be judged without his master. The agreement between the Novgorodians and Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich in 1270 decided not to believe the denunciation of slaves against their masters.

Veche and Council of Gentlemen.

Supreme authorities state power in Novgorod there was a veche and the Council of Gentlemen.

In its origin, the Novgorod veche was a city meeting, similar to the others that existed in other cities of Rus' in the 12th century (6). The Veche was not a permanent body. It was not convened periodically, but only when there was a real need for it. Most often this happened during wars, uprisings and the conscription of princes. The veche was convened by the prince, mayor or thousand on the Trade side of the city, at the Yaroslav's courtyard, or the veche was convened by the will of the people, on the Sofia or Trade side. It consisted of residents of both Novgorod and its suburbs; There were no restrictions among Novgorod citizens: every free and independent person could go to the assembly. The veche met by the ringing of the veche bell.

In fact, the veche consisted of those who could come to it, that is, mainly residents of Novgorod, since the convening of the veche was not announced in advance. But sometimes delegates from large suburbs of Novgorod, such as Pskov, Ladoga and others, were present at the meeting. For example, Ladoga and Pskov residents attended the meeting in 1136. More often, however, residents of the suburbs came to the meeting to complain about one or another decision of the Novgorodians. So, in 1384, residents of Orekhov and Korela sent their delegates to Novgorod with a complaint about Lithuanian prince Patricia, planted among them by the Novgorodians. Issues to be discussed at the veche were proposed to him in a dignified manner by the prince, mayor or tysyatsky. The Veche had legislative initiative, decided on issues of foreign policy and internal structure, and also judged the most important crimes. The veche had the right to pass laws, invite and expel the prince, elect, judge and remove mayor and mayor from office, resolve their disputes with the princes, resolve issues of war and peace, distribute volosts for feeding to the princes.

The decisions of the meeting were made unanimously; In case of disagreement, the veche was divided into parties, and the strongest forced the weakest to agree. Sometimes, as a result of strife, two meetings were convened; one on Torgovaya, the other on the Sofia side. The conflict ended with both parties meeting on the Great Bridge and fighting if the intervention of the clergy did not prevent bloodshed.

At the veche there was no concept of a quorum, and hence one time the entire population of the city could be at the veche and not pass the law, and another time - a hundredth part of the population and pass a law that was beneficial only to this part. The result of the vote was determined not by the number of votes, but by the strength of the throats of those shouting: for which they shouted louder, it was considered accepted.

Since the veche did not meet constantly, but only when it was convened, a permanent body of power was needed that would administer the Novgorod Republic. The Council of Gentlemen became such a body of power. It consisted of old and sedate posadniks, thousanders, sotskies and an archbishop. The council had an aristocratic character, the number of its members in the 15th century. reached 50. This body developed from the ancient institution of power - the boyar duma of the prince with the participation of city elders. In the 12th century. The prince invited city councilors and elders to his council with his boyars. As the prince lost organic ties with local Novgorod society, he and the boyars were gradually forced out of the council. He was replaced by the local ruler - the Archbishop, who became the permanent chairman of the Council.

Frequent shifts senior officials Novgorod became the reason for the rapid growth of the composition of the Council of Gentlemen. All members of the Council, except the chairman, were called boyars.

The Council of Gentlemen prepared and introduced legislative issues at the meeting, presented ready-made bills, but it did not have its own voice in the adoption of laws. The Council also carried out general supervision over the work of the state apparatus and officials of the republic, and controlled the activities of the executive branch. He, together with the prince, the mayor and the thousand, decided on the convening of the veche and subsequently directed all its activities.

The Council of Gentlemen was of great importance in the political life of Novgorod. It consisted of representatives of the highest Novgorod class, which had a powerful economic influence on the entire city; this preparatory council often predetermined the questions raised by it at the veche, conducting among the citizens the answers it had prepared. Thus, the veche very often became a weapon to give the decisions of the Council legitimacy in the eyes of citizens.

4. Executive branch

The main executive authority in Novgorod was the mayor (7).

The posadnik is the highest elected official who was the executive body of the veche, to whom management of the affairs of the republic was transferred. Officially, he was elected by the veche from among all full-fledged citizens of Novgorod, but in fact the mayor was elected from the few most noble families of the Novgorod Republic. So, during the 13th and 14th centuries, 12 mayors were elected from one family of mayor Mikhalk Stepanovich. The term of the mayor was not limited, but in fact the mayors held their position for one to two years. Posadniks who resigned were called “old posadniks”, in contrast to “sedate posadniks”.

The area of activity of the mayors was very extensive. They directed the activities of all persons of the Novgorod Republic, exercised control over their work, together with the prince were in charge of issues of administration and court, commanded troops during campaigns, supervised the construction of defensive structures, conducted diplomatic relations with other Russian principalities and foreign states, led meetings of the Council of Gentlemen and evening meetings. The mayor, as a representative of the city, protected the interests of Novgorod and the entire Novgorod Republic before the prince. Without him, the prince could not judge the Novgorodians and distribute Novgorod volosts. In the absence of the prince, the mayor ruled the entire city. The mayor did not receive a specific salary, but enjoyed a special tax from the volosts, called "poralie".

Particularly interesting is the position of the prince in Novgorod, which was very different from the position of the princes in other Russian regions. The prince was the highest judicial and military authority in Novgorod, led and administered the court, sealed deals and asserted rights. The prince was invited by the Novgorod council, and he was obliged to sign an agreement with Novgorod - a series. According to these agreements, the role of the prince in governing the Novgorod Republic was determined.

The first traces of such treaties appear in the 12th century. Later they are more clearly indicated in the chronicles. In 1209, the Novgorodians helped the Grand Duke of Vladimir Vsevolod the Big Nest in his campaign against Ryazan. As a reward for this, Vsevolod said to the Novgorodians: “Love those who are good to you, and execute the evil ones.” At the same time, Vsevolod gave the Novgorodians “all the will and regulations of the old princes, what they wanted” (8). In 1218, instead of Prince Toropetsky Mstislav Mstislavich the Udal, who ruled in Novgorod, his relative Svyatoslav Mstislavich Smolensky came. He demanded a change of mayor Tverdislav. The Novgorodians asked the prince about the reason for the change, to which he replied that he demanded that the mayor be removed from his post “without guilt.” Then Tverdislav said, addressing the meeting: “I am glad that I am not guilty, and you, brothers, are free to be mayors and princes.” Then the veche reminded the prince that he had kissed the cross and promised not to remove the mayor without guilt (9).

From here it is clear that the prince is already in early XIII V. Before arriving in Novgorod, he kissed the cross - that is, he signed a series with the Novgorodians, which defined their relationship. The benefits of the Novgorodians, which the princes were obliged to observe, were set out in the ranks. The oldest series that have survived to our time are two treaties between Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich of Tver and the Novgorodians - 1265 and 1270. The later letters, with some changes, repeat these two letters. The main condition of the Novgorodians was that the prince “keep Novgorod in the old days according to duty,” that is, according to Novgorod customs, without violating them. It follows that all the points outlined in the ranks of Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tver with the Novgorodians were formed long before him, during the 11th-12th centuries. The ranks with the princes determined the three most important blocks of relations between Novgorod and the princes: judicial-administrative, financial and commercial.

The prince did not have the right to judge without a mayor: "... without a mayor, you, prince, do not judge the court, nor distribute volosts, nor give letters..." The prince had the right to appoint people from the Novgorod population to lower positions in the administration of the Novgorod Republic. but did not have the right to appoint people from his squad or his boyars. Moreover, the prince could appoint people to all these positions only with the consent of the mayor. Also, the prince could not distribute the volosts for feeding without the consent of the mayor. The prince could not take away the position from a Novgorod official without first declaring his guilt at the assembly. The prince could fulfill all his duties only in Novgorod itself: “And from the Suzhdal land of Novgorod, do not row, nor distribute the volosts.”

Financial relations between the Novgorod Republic and the prince were even more unfavorable for the prince. The prince did not have the right to collect tribute from the Novgorod possessions; he could only receive a “gift” from the Novgorod volosts, such as Volok, Torzhok, Vologda and Zavolochye, that is, those that did not belong to the Novgorod Pyatina. He also received a “gift” when he traveled to Novgorod, but did not receive it when he left Novgorod. Fearing the fall of Zavolochye, the Novgorodians did not allow direct relations between the prince and this volost, demanding that the prince farm out his Zavolochye collections to the Novgorodians. If the prince himself wanted to collect them, then he had to send a Novgorod official to collect taxes, and he had to, before taking the tribute to the prince, take it to Novgorod, from where only the prince could receive tribute from Zavolochye. After the Mongol-Tatar invasion, a tribute was imposed on Novgorod - a way out, sometimes called a black tax, that is, a general tax. The Novgorodians themselves collected the black tax and delivered it to the Grand Duke, who then transported it to the Horde. In addition, the prince enjoyed in the Novgorod Republic various judicial and travel duties, various fishing, haymaking, boarding, and animal rutting. But the use of this took place according to strictly defined rules, at strictly defined times and in strictly determined quantities. The prince could not have his own sources of income in the Novgorod Republic, independent of Novgorod. A special condition in the ranks of the Novgorodians and the princes prohibited the prince, princess, their boyars and nobles from acquiring or establishing villages and settlements in the Novgorod land and accepting people as mortgages, that is, as personal dependence.

Novgorod needed the prince not only to defend its borders, but also to ensure the trade interests of the Novgorod Republic. The prince was obliged to give Novgorod merchants safe and free passage in his principality, to allow them to “stay without boundaries” into his domain, that is, without delay. It was precisely determined what duties to collect from each Novgorod boat or cart that came to his principality. The prince had the right to participate in foreign trade only through Novgorod intermediaries; he did not have the right to close the German court or assign his own bailiffs to it.

In the agreements between the Novgorod Republic and the princes, one important aspect of the relationship between the prince and Novgorod was passed over in silence - the defense of the Novgorod Republic from foreign invaders. Only in later letters is it mentioned that in the event of an attack on Novgorod, the prince is obliged to help Novgorod “without cunning.” The rights and duties of the prince in the letters are stated unclearly, they are only assumed, their scope and consequences are outlined, that is, rewards for the performance of duties.

Another bearer of executive power in the Novgorod Republic was the thousand. Tysyatsky was involved in regulating trade relations, the commercial court, convening the militia, defending the city and the republic, and had police functions. He, like the mayor, received his powers for an indefinite period, had under his command a whole staff of small agents who carried out various judicial and administrative-police orders, announced the decisions of the veche and called for trial, notified the court of a crime, carried out searches, etc. In addition, Tysyatsky was involved in a military court - a trial of the assembled militias. According to some researchers, Tysyatsky was elected as a counterweight to the mayor from the lower classes of Novgorod society, but this is unlikely. In addition, this opinion is contradicted by the fact that in the second half of the 15th century. The thousand was Dmitry Boretsky, the son of mayor Isaac Boretsky and Martha Boretsky, who came from a very noble and influential family.

Also, one of the most important elective positions in the Novgorod Republic was the archbishop. After separation from Kievan Rus in 1136, the Bishop of Novgorod began to be elected by the veche. The veche selected three candidates for this post and pieces of paper with these candidates were placed on the throne of St. Sophia Cathedral, and then a blind man or a boy chose one of the pieces of paper. The applicant whose name was written on this piece of paper became the Bishop of Novgorod, and from 1156 - the Archbishop of Novgorod (10). There was one exception to this rule: Archbishop Arkady of Novgorod himself appointed his successor. The Archbishop of Novgorod, as already mentioned, presided over meetings of the Council of Gentlemen, exercised the right of the ecclesiastical court, oversaw trade weights and measures, and was the custodian of the state treasury. The highest ranks of the Novgorod administration constantly listened to his voice. The archbishop was the largest feudal lord of the Novgorod Republic, owned vast lands, formed mainly from the confiscated possessions of the prince.

5. Judicial branch

In Novgorod, the judicial branch of government was not separated from the executive-administrative branch. All bodies of power and administration had judicial powers: the veche, the archbishop, the prince, the mayor, and the thousand. Upon taking office, the elected officials took an oath (“kissing the cross”). An image of the Novgorod court can be found in the surviving part of the Novgorod Judicial Charter. The source of the Judgment Charter was “old times,” that is, the legal customs of the Novgorod court and its practice, agreements with princes and veche resolutions. The court was not concentrated in a separate department, but was distributed among different government authorities. The court was very profitable, which was the reason for its fragmentation between various governing bodies. The emergence of new government institutions introduced complications into the existing judicial system. According to the treaty letters of the princes with the Novgorod Republic, the prince cannot judge without the mayor. So, according to the Novgorod Judgment Charter, the mayor judges together with the governor of the prince, and “the court does not end without the governor.” In practice, this joint jurisdiction of the posadnik and the governor was resolved by the fact that the authorized representatives of both, the tiuns, each separately examined the cases subject to their consideration in their “odrins” with the assistance of bailiffs elected by the litigants, but did not decide the cases finally, but transferred them to a higher authority either for a report, that is, to draw up a final decision, or for a review, that is, for verification, to review the case and approve the decision laid down by the tiun. In the court of this reporting and auditing instance, 10 jurors sat with the mayor and governor or with their tiuns, a boyar and a zhizhim from each end. They constituted a permanent panel of speakers, as they were called, and met in the courtyard of the Novgorod archbishop “in the lord’s room” three times a week under pain of a fine for failure to appear. Legal proceedings were further complicated by combinations of different jurisdictions in mixed cases where parties from different jurisdictions met. In a lawsuit between a church person and a layman, the city judge judged together with the lord's governor or his tiun. The princely man and the Novgorodian were judged by a special commission, consisting of two boyars, the princely and the Novgorodian, and if they could not agree on a decision, the case was reported to the prince himself when he arrived in Novgorod, in the presence of the mayor. Tysyatsky judged mainly cases of a police nature. But he was also the first of three elders in the council, which stood at the head of what arose in the 12th century. at the church of St. John the Baptist on Opochki merchant society ("Ivan's hundred") and was in charge of the commercial court. The same council, with the participation of the mayor, dealt with matters between the Novgorodians and the merchants of the German court in Novgorod.

6. Economy

Agriculture.

Agriculture played a primary role in the economy of the Novgorod Republic - medieval society was agrarian. The most important source of knowledge about agriculture is archaeology. Through a comprehensive study of grain, weed seeds and agricultural tools found during excavations, it was established that the level of development of agriculture in the Novgorod land was very high already in the 11th - 12th centuries.

Of the cultivated crops, the first place belonged to winter rye, as indicated by the predominance of winter weed seeds (the fact is that for each crop there are accompanying plants).

Wheat took second place in Novgorod agriculture. Judging by the seeds of spring weeds, in the 12th century, mainly spring wheat was grown in the Novgorod land. Barley and oats were sown to a much lesser extent than rye and wheat.

The appearance of winter rye is a sure sign of the formation of a free farming system. In conditions of old arable soils, the predecessor of a field with winter rye can only be a fallow field, which is the defining element of this system. One of its forms is two-field - alternating fallow and winter rye. Since it has been established that wheat was cultivated on the ancient Novgorod spring field, we can talk about the existence in the 12th century of a three-field crop rotation, most common under the fallow farming system. True, the swidden and shifting systems of agriculture, which had lost their former significance, still continued to exist, as well as some transitional forms of the fallow system, for example, variegated fields, when the crops of bread and fallow alternated without any order.

The agricultural technology used by ancient Novgorod farmers corresponded to the level of development of agriculture of that time. During excavations in Novgorod, openers were discovered, the design of which proves that they were used for cultivating cultivated old arable soils. In a cultural layer of the 13th century, a vomer of the so-called reinforced design was found, differing from the usual one in slightly smaller dimensions, greater thickness and a narrower working part. Such openers were intended for processing heavy soils and forest clearing. This means that the shifting system of agriculture had not yet disappeared by that time.

The land was cultivated with multi-pronged, often three-pronged, plows. The appearance of such plows was obviously associated with the transition to arable farming using draft power. The bread was harvested using sickles.

Closely connected with agriculture was cattle breeding, which also played an important role in the economy of the Novgorodians. If agriculture was the main occupation of the rural population of the Novgorod Republic, then city dwellers could also engage in cattle breeding. This is evidenced by archaeological data. In all layers of ancient Novgorod, uncovered by excavations, a huge number of animal bones were discovered. The widespread occurrence of cattle breeding in Novgorod is evidenced by a cultural layer richly saturated with manure. Novgorodians raised large and small cattle, pigs, and horses.

In addition to cattle breeding, both the rural and urban population of the Novgorod land were engaged in vegetable growing and fruit growing. Gardens and orchards were probably part of many city estates. In any case, seeds of vegetables and fruits are not a rare find during excavations. Cucumber seeds were discovered in the 13th century layers. It can also be assumed that cabbage was grown in ancient Novgorod - in the layers of the 13th century, strikers were found - hand tools for planting cabbage. Under 1215, the chronicle mentions turnips, which, apparently, were very common in Novgorod. Seeds of garden dill were discovered in layers of the 12th century.

The most common fruit tree was the cherry. Cherry pits are found very often during excavations, and greatest number- in layers of the 12th century. Apple trees were also grown in Novgorod.

Black currants and raspberries were grown from berry bushes, the seeds of which are often found during excavations.

Despite the fact that the agriculture of Veliky Novgorod was developed, as far as conditions allowed, it could not meet all the needs of the Novgorod population. As noted in the introduction, the scarcity of soil and the nature of the climate encouraged the Novgorodians to actively engage in crafts and trade. In addition, by producing goods, Novgorod could sell them to the West without intermediaries. Thus, the prerequisites for the development of crafts in the Novgorod Republic were quite significant.

The chronicles name the following craft specialties: shield maker, tanner, silver maker, boiler maker, oponnik, carnation maker, blacksmith. Silver artisans were called silversmiths. Shield makers, carnation makers and boiler makers were masters of various specialties in blacksmithing. Oponniki were artisans who worked a certain type weaving (later they became known as felt makers). Special success Novgorodians achieved success in carpentry: they were known in Rus' as skilled carpenters.

At the end of the Brief Edition of Russian Pravda there is a so-called “lesson for bridge builders”. Mostniks were apparently the name given to builders of roadways or bridges. In the damp Novgorod climate, city streets without pavements would be impassable and impassable, especially in spring and autumn. The pavements were rebuilt approximately every 15 - 20 years, sometimes they were repaired, and thanks to this they lasted longer. Thus, bridge workers did not experience a shortage of work, and this specialty appeared early (the oldest Novgorod pavements date back to the middle of the 10th century). Quite often it was necessary to build bridges that constantly suffered from fires; even the Great Bridge across the Volkhov burned repeatedly. The great attention to the construction of pavements is evidenced by the so-called “Charter of Prince Yaroslav on bridges” dating back to the 60s of the 13th century, which talks about the obligation of Novgorodians to pave public areas of the city.

The craft professions mentioned in the chronicles do not exhaust all types of craft in ancient Novgorod; there were much more of them. It turned out to be possible to find out what the level of development of the craft was, how diverse the craft professions were, only after systematic archaeological work began to be carried out in Novgorod.

Excavations of Novgorod, which began in 1932 and continue to this day, showed that Novgorod was the largest craft center of its time. This conclusion was made based on the study of the remains of craft workshops uncovered by excavations and the products of Novgorod artisans. Of course, not all craft workshops left behind traces from which one can reliably establish what their inhabitants were doing. A craft workshop can be identified, first of all, by a large number production residues, as well as defective products, semi-finished products and tools. As a result of excavations carried out in different areas of the city, the remains of craft workshops were discovered. This indicates that the majority of the population of ancient Novgorod was engaged in various crafts.

The 12th century and the first half of the 13th century were the heyday of crafts in many ancient Russian cities. But the heavy burden of the Tatar yoke could not but affect production spheres Rus'. Many cities were destroyed, thousands of people, including artisans, were killed or taken into captivity. As a result of this, the craft fell into decline. Novgorod the Great escaped ruin by escaping with tribute.

However, if in a number of cities destroyed by the Tatar-Mongol invasion, the period preceding it turned out to be the time of the highest flowering of medieval crafts (the pre-Mongol level of handicraft production in these cities could not be reached at a later time), then this cannot be said about Novgorod. The process of development of productive forces in the Novgorod feudal republic was not interrupted, and in the second half of the 13th century they continued to develop in an ascending line. Novgorod craft, like Novgorod itself, reached its peak in the 14th century.

The high level of ironworking production contributed to the progress of many other crafts that could not have developed successfully without the appropriate tools. Based on the study of various tools, it can be argued that in Novgorod, in addition to masters of various blacksmith specialties, mechanics, turners, joiners, carpenters, woodworkers, woodcarvers, bone carvers, tanners, shoemakers, tailors, and jewelers worked. Studying huge amount household items and other finished products, as well as semi-finished and defective products helps to supplement the list of specialties of Novgorod artisans. Noteworthy is the wide variety of both finished products and tools.

Obviously, artisans in Novgorod specialized in the production of certain types of products. Moreover, sometimes the same master worked various types crafts. A shoemaker, for example, was also a tanner for a long time, which is confirmed by joint finds of remains of both productions. Only in the 12th - 13th centuries did the shoemaking craft separate from the tanning craft. The shield maker, in addition to knowledge of blacksmithing, had to have skills in processing copper, wood and leather, since shields were made from all these materials. But at the same time, a narrow specialization developed in the blacksmith’s craft (nail makers, lock makers, etc.).

A variety of metal jewelry: bracelets, rings, brooches, pendants, beads were made by highly qualified jewelers. It has been established that most of the jewelry discovered during excavations in Novgorod is a locally produced product. This is confirmed by finds of jewelry workshops, tools and semi-finished products. Master jewelers mastered a number of complex technical techniques: casting, free forging, drawing, rolling, embossing, chasing, engraving, soldering, gilding, champlevé enamel, heat treatment of copper and bronze.

A huge amount of remains of leather shoes and leather scraps is evidence of the widespread use of shoemaking in Novgorod.

Pottery production was also developed. The most common finds during excavations are numerous fragments of pottery.

Weaving received significant development in ancient Novgorod. During excavations, many scraps of various fabrics were discovered in all layers. Based on the study of textile samples, it was established that up to mid-XII In the 1st century, the main production tool was a vertical loom, but a more productive horizontal loom was also known in Novgorod, as evidenced by finds of its parts. Weavers made fabrics from ready-made yarn, linen and wool. Spinning in Novgorod has been known since the earliest times (during excavations, many wooden spindles, flax carders, flappers, spindle whorls, and spinning wheels were found).

Craftsmen involved in wood processing also made up a very large group of Novgorod craftsmen. The huge variety of wooden products discovered during excavations (spoons, ladles, bowls, carved vessels, disks, dishes) indicates a high level of development of woodworking craft. In addition to turning tools, parts of a lathe were found. Often found are blank spoons, unfinished and damaged wooden ladles, bowls, and tops.

Combs, knife handles, various jewelry, piercings, checkers, chess pieces, buttons, etc. were most often made from bone. Processed pieces of bone, sawn pieces of horn, and semi-finished combs were found in all Novgorod layers. The technique of bone processing was high, as evidenced by the finds of both high-quality bone products themselves and the tools with which they were made.

A large group of finds in Novgorod consists of glass items, and, first of all, fragments of glass bracelets. Until recently, it was believed that the vast majority of bracelets were made in the workshops of ancient Kyiv, from where they were distributed throughout Rus'. The existence of local production of bracelets in Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk and other cities was only assumed.

Using data from archaeological excavations, researchers have established that Novgorod had its own bracelet production (in addition to Kyiv imports) and that it appeared in pre-Mongol times. It was also established that initially Novgorod bracelets were made from lead-silica glass, which in its composition did not differ from the glass known in other cities, but it always contained antimony oxide as a microimpurity. The emergence of its own production of bracelets in Novgorod is associated with the resettlement of bracelet makers from Kyiv, who could not withstand the competition in their homeland. The first bracelets appeared in Novgorod around the middle of the 12th century. In addition, during excavations, bracelets made of potassium-lead-silica glass were found.

At the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, there were already two glassmaking schools in Novgorod. Glassmakers of the first school melted lead-silica glass and made green, yellow and brown bracelets from it. The masters of the second school brewed potassium-lead-silica glass and made from it bracelets of all colors known in Rus', while producing mainly turquoise, violet and blue bracelets, which their competitors, the glassmakers of the first school, could not make. This indicates a certain specialization in bracelet production.

Some craft professions have to be judged only by insignificant material finds. A number of specialties did not leave behind archaeological traces at all.

These include bread makers, kalachniks, and various specialized tailors, which we can learn about from scribe books of the 16th century and which obviously existed in an earlier time, since the need for their products existed before.

Trade.

Trade played an important role in the economy of ancient Russian cities. Russian merchants traded with the Baltic and Arab East, with Byzantium and countries Western Europe. Even in pre-Mongol times, a number of large craft and trade centers formed in Rus', of which Novgorod stood out in the north. The products of artisans had to find markets, and not only in the city itself, but also in nearby districts and in more distant places. If at first the artisan was also a merchant, then later a special class of merchants emerged. Merchants specialized in trade, so the emergence of this class contributed to the development of external and internal trade relations.

Trade ties within the Novgorod land undoubtedly existed for a long time, and they arose earlier than foreign trade ties, but it is quite difficult to trace them due to the extreme paucity of chronicle reports. The village was of little interest to the city chronicler, and other cities were mentioned by him only in connection with some important political events. Archaeologically, these connections are also almost impossible to trace, since it is impossible to determine the difference between many locally produced items made in different cities of the Novgorod land, for example, iron knives made in Novgorod, Pskov or Russa.

One can only distinguish objects made by rural artisans from products of highly skilled urban craftsmen.

In Novgorod, as in general ancient Russian village, dominated subsistence farming. The basic needs of the rural population were satisfied within their own households, and they received the things needed in the household and everyday life, as a rule, from rural artisans. Only high-quality steel tools, weapons, some types of jewelry, jewelry I had to buy it in the city. Exchange in rural areas most likely occurred in its simplest form, when a blacksmith (or other rural artisan) received meat, grain, fish, etc. for his products.

Agricultural products came from the village to the city for sale and were sold for money. The purchase and sale took place “at the auction”, the city market, which was in every city. Here prices for goods were usually set, fluctuating depending on various circumstances, mainly depending on harvests and crop failures. The chronicle repeatedly indicates an increase in prices, mainly for bread, during famine years.

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Economy of Novgorod land

Most of the population in Novgorod was engaged in agriculture. Until the 13th century, agriculture in the Novgorod land developed extremely slowly. This was facilitated by external factors: low yields, epidemics, death of livestock, raids by robbers. In the 13th century, clearing (a farming system based on cutting and burning forests) was replaced by a new three-field system, which was more efficient. The most produced grain here was rye. Other grains were also grown. Some types of vegetables were also grown. In the Novgorod waters there was fish, which was successfully sold. Beekeeping (honey farming) was developed. Thanks to the abundance in the Novgorod forests different types animals, Novgorod was considered a huge exporter of furs to Europe.

Culture of Novgorod land

Novgorodians used birch bark letters to transmit written information. Novgorod styles of architecture and painting are also widely known. The main religion here was Orthodoxy. The Novgorod language differed from the language of other Russian principalities, called the “Novgorod dialect”.

Fall of the Novgorod Republic

Since the 14th century, the Moscow and Tver principalities tried to subjugate Novgorod to themselves. The Novgorod supreme power was against the collection of tribute by Moscow and asked for support from Lithuania.

The Moscow prince, alarmed by the brewing Novgorod-Lithuanian alliance, accused Novgorod of treason and after the Battle of Shelon (1471), as well as his subsequent campaign against Novgorod in 1478, contributed to the annexation of the Novgorod Republic to. Thanks to this, Moscow inherited the previous relations of the Novgorod Republic with its neighbors. The territory of the Novgorod land during the era of the Muscovite kingdom (16th - 17th centuries) was divided into 5 pyatyns: Vodskaya, Shelonskaya, Obonezhskaya, Derevskaya and Bezhetskaya. With the help of graveyards (a unit of administrative division), the geographical location of villages was determined, and the population and their property for taxes were counted.

On March 21, 1499, the son of Ivan 3 became the Grand Duke of Novgorod and Pskov. In April 1502, Vasily became co-ruler of Ivan 3, and after his death in 1505 - sole monarch.

The territory of Novgorod land developed gradually. Its center was the ancient region of Slavic settlement, located in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the Volkhov, Lovat, Meta and Mologa rivers. The extreme northern point was the city of Ladoga - a strong fortress at the mouth of the Volkhov. Subsequently, this ancient region acquired new territories, some of which organically merged with the original core of the Novgorod land, others formed a kind of colony of Novgorod.

In the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod owned lands in the north along Lake Onega, the Lake Ladoga basin and the northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. In the west, Novgorod fortified itself in the Peipsi land, where the city of Yuryev (Tartu), founded by Yaroslav the Wise, became its stronghold. But the growth of Novgorod's possessions was particularly rapid in the northeastern direction, where Novgorod owned a strip of land stretching to the Urals and beyond the Urals.

The Novgorod lands themselves were divided into five large areas of Pyatina, corresponding to the five ends (districts) of Novgorod. To the northwest of Novgorod, towards the Gulf of Finland, the Vodskaya Pyatina ran, it covered the lands of the Finnish Vod tribe; to the southwest, on both sides of the Shelona River - Shelonskaya Pyatina; to the southeast, between the Dostaya and Lovatyo rivers - Derevskaya Pyatina; to the northeast (From the White Sea but both sides of Lake Onega - Onega Pyatina; behind Derevskop and Onega Pyatina, to the southeast, lay the Bezhetskaya Pyatina.

In addition to Pyatina, a huge space was occupied by Novgorod volosts - Zavolochye, or Dvina land - in the Northern Dvina region. Perm land - along the course of the Vychegda and its tributaries, on both sides of the Pechora - the Pechora region, to the east of the Northern Urals - Yugra, to the north, within the Onega and Ladoga lakes - Korela, and finally, on the Kola Peninsula - the so-called Tersky coast.

The population of the Novgorod land was mainly engaged in agriculture, primarily farming, which formed the basis of the Novgorod economy. Novgorod boyars and clergy had extensive estates. Merchant land ownership was also developed here.

In the agriculture of the Novgorod patches, the arable system predominated; cutting was preserved only in the extreme northern regions. Due to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, harvests were not high, therefore, despite the widespread use of agriculture, it still did not cover the needs of the Novgorod population for bread. Part of the grain had to be imported from other Russian lands, mainly from Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan. In lean years, which were a frequent occurrence in the life of the Novgorod land, the import of grain acquired decisive importance.

Along with agriculture and cattle breeding, the population of the Novgorod land was engaged in various trades: hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, bee farming, salt development in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, iron ore mining in Votskaya Pyatina. In the center of the Novgorod land - Novgorod and its suburb - Pskov, craft and trade flourished. Novgorod has long been famous for its artisans, carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths; in addition, shoemakers, tanners, felt makers, bridge workers and many other artisans of various specialties lived there. Novgorodian carpenters were sent to work in Kyiv and became so famous for their art that the term “Novgorodian” often meant “carpenter.”

Domestic and foreign trade were of great importance in the economy of Novgorod. The most important trade routes of that time passed through Novgorod Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin and from Western countries to Eastern European countries. This has long contributed to the development of crafts and trade in it.

Enterprising Novgorod merchants already in the 10th century. sailed in their fragile little boats along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” reaching the shores of Byzantium. Extensive exchange existed between Novgorod and European states. At first, Novgorod was connected with the island of Gotland, a major trading center in Northwestern Europe. In Novgorod itself there was a Gothic court - a trading colony, surrounded by a high wall, with barns and houses for resident foreign merchants. In the second half of the 12th century. Close trade ties between Novgorod and the union of North German cities (Hansa) were established. A new German trading court was built in Novgorod, and a new trading colony grew up. On the territory of these trading colonies, foreign merchants were inviolable. A special charter “Skra” regulated the life of the trading colony.

Cloth, metals, weapons and other goods came to Novgorod from abroad. From Novgorod to different countries they carried linen, hemp, flax, lard, wax, etc. The role of Novgorod as a mediator in exchanges between the West and the East was significant. Eastern goods for Europe traveled along the Volga to Novgorod, and then to Western countries. Only the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the dominance of the Golden Horde undermined this intermediary significance of Novgorod.

An equally important role for Novgorod was played by trade within the Novgorod Republic itself and with North-Eastern Russia, from where it received the bread it needed. The need for bread has always forced Novgorod to value its relations with the Vladimir-Suzdal princes.

The numerous and powerful Novgorod merchants had their own organizations similar to Western European merchant guilds. The most powerful of them was the so-called “Ivanovo hundred”, which had great privileges. It elected five elders from among itself, who, together with the thousand, were in charge of all trade affairs and the trade court in Novgorod, established measures of weight, measures of length, and monitored the correctness of trade itself.

The structure of the Novgorod economy determined its social and political system. The ruling class in Novgorod were secular and spiritual feudal lords, landowners and wealthy Novgorod merchants. Vast land holdings were in the hands of the Novgorod boyars and the church. One of the foreign travelers - Lalua - testifies that in Novgorod there were such lords who owned lands for hundreds of miles. An example is the boyar family Boretsky, which owned vast territories along the White Sea and Northern Dvina.

In addition to the boyars and the church, there were also large landowners in Novgorod who were engaged in various trades. These are the so-called “living people”.

The owners of the estates exploited the labor of feudal-dependent people - “ladles”, “guarantees”, “old people”. The main form of exploitation of the feudal-dependent population in the Novgorod land was the collection of quitrents.

Large feudal lords were masters of the situation not only in their estates, but also in the city. Together with the merchant elite, they formed the city patriciate, in whose hands was the economic and political life of Novgorod.

The peculiarities of the socio-economic development of Novgorod determined the establishment of a special political system in it, different from other Russian lands. Initially, prince-governors, sent by the great princes of Kyiv, sat in Novgorod. They appointed mayors and mayors. But the strong Novgorod boyars and rich townspeople were increasingly reluctant to submit to the henchmen of the Kyiv prince. In 1136, the Novgorodians rebelled against Prince Vsevolod and, says the chronicler, “they brought Prince Vsevolod into the bishop’s courtyard with his wife and children, his mother-in-law and the guard. 30 husband per day with a weapon.” Then Vsevolod was exiled to Pskov. From this time on, a new political order was established in Novgorod.

The supreme body in Novgorod became the veche - the people's assembly. The veche was usually convened by the mayor or tysyatsky. It was convened on the trading side of the Yaroslavl courtyard with the ringing of the veche bell. Biryuchi and underlings were sent to the ends to call people to the veche gathering. All free people, men, could participate in the meeting. The Veche had great powers. It elected a posadnik, a thousand, previously appointed by a prince, a Novgorod bishop, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried posadniks, a thousand, a sotsky for crimes, and concluded treaties with foreign powers. The veche finally invited the prince, and sometimes expelled him (“showed him the way”), replacing him with a new one.

Executive power in Novgorod was concentrated in the hands of the mayor and the thousand. The mayor was elected for an indefinite term, he controlled the prince, monitored the activities of the Novgorod authorities, and in his hands was the supreme court of the republic, the right to remove and appoint officials. In case of military danger, the mayor went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. By order of the mayor, the veche, which he headed, gathered by ringing the bell. The mayor received foreign ambassadors and, in the absence of the prince, commanded the Novgorod army. Tysyatsky was the first assistant to the mayor, commanded separate detachments during the war, and in peacetime he was in charge of trade affairs and the commercial court.

The so-called poralye, i.e., was in favor of the mayor and tysyatsky. known income from the plow; This income served the mayor and the thousand as a certain salary.

On political life Novgorod was greatly influenced by the Novgorod bishop, and from 1165 - by the archbishop. The church court was in his hands, he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and foreign states, and most importantly, he was the largest of the Novgorod feudal lords.

With the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod from Novgorod in 1136, the Novgorodians did not completely eliminate the prince, but the importance and role of the prince in Novgorod changed dramatically. The Novgorodians now themselves elected (invited) one or another prince at the veche, concluding a “row” agreement with him, which extremely limited the rights and range of activities of the prince. The prince could not declare war or make peace without an agreement with the veche. He did not have the right to acquire land in the Novgorod possessions. He could collect tribute, but only in certain volosts assigned to him. In all his activities, the prince was controlled by the mayor. In short, the Novgorod prince was a “fed” prince. He was only a military specialist who was supposed to be at the head of the Novgorod army in times of military danger. Judicial and administrative functions were taken away from him and transferred to the initial people - the townspeople and the thousand.

The Novgorod princes, as a rule, were the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, the most powerful of the Russian princes. They persistently sought to subjugate Veliky Novgorod to their power, but the latter resolutely fought for its liberties.

The defeat of the Suzdal troops in 1216 on the Lipitsa River ended this struggle. Novgorod finally turned into a feudal boyar republic.

Formed in Novgorod and separated from it in the 14th century. In Pskov, the veche system existed until their annexation to Moscow.

It should be noted that the veche system in Novgorod was by no means a democracy. In fact, all power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. Next to the veche, the Novgorod elite created their own aristocratic body - the council of gentlemen. It included the sedate (i.e. active) posadnik and tysyatsky, former posadniks and tysyatsky, and elders of the Novgorod ends. The chairman of the council of gentlemen was the Novgorod archbishop. The council of gentlemen met in the archbishop's chambers and decided in advance all matters that were brought before the veche meeting. Gradually, the council of gentlemen began to replace the veche resolutions with their decisions.

The people protested against the violence of the masters. The veche life of Novgorod knows more than one example of a clash between the feudal nobility and the general population.

Features of the economic development of the Novgorod land. Novgorod land (Republic)

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