In connection with the adoption of Christianity and the intensification of international relations, many translations from Greek, Latin and Hebrew appeared. Original Russian literary works also began to be created.
An extraordinary figure who advanced Russian culture was Grand Duke Yaroslav (1019-1054), who even received the nickname Wise. Among his most significant undertakings is the beginning of the formation of legislation called Russian Truth. From now on, in Rus', relationships in the state were regulated on the basis of law, not tradition, not the law of the strong. Blood feud was limited. Fines (vires) for certain crimes were determined. Characteristic feature There was no Russian Truth death penalty, introduced subsequently. Liability before the law depended on social status person, but not from his origin and faith.
Under Yaroslav, the first monasteries appeared, in particular the future Kiev-Pechersk Lavra (Pechersk Monastery). The chronicler Nestor noted that the Christian faith began to “be fruitful and expand, and the monks began to multiply, and monasteries to appear.” The first library was created at the Hagia Sophia. Yaroslav the Wise himself was a bibliophile, great amount books were purchased and brought to Kyiv from Byzantium, and copyists worked in the monasteries. Yaroslav, who himself knew six foreign languages, encouraged the study of sciences. Under him, at the request of his sister, a school for girls was opened, which was very rare in Europe at that time. In The Tale of Bygone Years he was compared to a sower who “sowed the hearts of believers with book words.” It was under Yaroslav the Wise that Rus' declared its ecclesiastical independence. For the first time, a metropolitan was not sent from Byzantium, but was appointed Grand Duke from the Russian clergy. Yaroslav's associate Hilarion became the first Russian metropolitan. Yaroslav the Wise was buried in the St. Sophia Cathedral, where he was called “Tsar” - king.
In the 10th century, when the process of strengthening the state was underway, a heroic epic epic arose. Gradually, a certain melodious style was developed in the transmission of epics, or antiquities. The heroes embodied the best human qualities: patriotism, honesty, courage, loyalty, strength. The epics about Ilya Muromets tell of his struggle with the Nightingale the Robber, with the Foul Idol. Next to him is the crafty, boastful Alyosha Popovich and the smart, educated Dobrynya Nikitich. All of them are defenders of the Russian state.
Another world is revealed in Novgorod epics about the daredevil Vasily Buslaev, who believes only in his own strength and courage. Guslyar Sadko captivates the king of the sea with his performance. These epics introduce life in Novgorod.
The work of the farmer is reflected in the epics about the plowman Mikul Selyaninovich, endowed with miraculous heroic strength. He was part of the squad of Svyatoslav's son Oleg, who fought with the Varangians in 975. But there are immeasurably more epic characters than heroes. Among them are Prince Vladimir himself, and Polkan Polkanovich, and Marya Lebed Belaya, and others.
Russian history is also reflected in epics. One of the differences between the epic and the chronicle is that in the chronicles, which reacted very strongly to the socio-political situation in the country, the fate of Rus' in difficult, turning points depends on Prince of Kyiv, and in the epic - in a moment of danger, heroes from the people become defenders of the Motherland.
The epic cycle is dedicated to Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who defended Rus' from the conquerors. Another cycle is dedicated to Vladimir Monomakh and his struggle with the Polovtsians. The recording of epics began in the 17th century. Now about 3 thousand epics have been recorded, but it is impossible to say how many there were in those days.
There are many plots in common with European ones in epics. But there is also a significant difference between the Russian epic and the epic of the early European Middle Ages. And here and there there is a struggle with foreigners. But in Rus' the main idea of epics and ancient Russian chronicle stories- liberation, and in the knightly chronicles - conquest, baptism of infidels. In Russian epics the idea of religious war is completely absent, however, there are also no ideas of racial intransigence and hostility. In the West, the motto is “He who is not killed is baptized,” and in Rus' - “Here you stand for the faith, for the fatherland, Here you stand for the glorious capital city of Kyiv.” Even in the early Middle Ages, one can see the difference with the Western European epic, where the struggle for glory and jewelry, for loyalty to the leader, and blood feud are glorified. In the ancient Russian epic these themes did not become defining.
A large place in epics is given to Kalikas who walk. At that time, pilgrims to the Holy Land were called Kalikas. From time immemorial, it was customary to help the Kaliki and feed them for the sake of Christ, since they went to worship the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Kaliki not only were not opposed to heroes, but were often heroes themselves. This is no coincidence, because psychological world epic heroes included the concepts of awareness and atonement for sins. Pilgrimage was a traditional form of atonement. This in itself was equated to a feat. Thus, there is an equation of spiritual feat with military feat. Of these heroes we can name Dmitry Solunsky, Anika the warrior, Alexei the man of God, etc. They are spiritual heroes.
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Bylinas - poetic heroic epic of Ancient Rus', reflecting the events historical life Russian people. Ancient name epics in the Russian north - “old times”. Modern name genre - “epics” - was introduced back in the first half of the 19th century by folklorist I.P. Sakharov based on famous expression from “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” - “epics of this time.”
The time of composition of epics is determined in different ways. Some scientists believe that this is an early genre that developed back in the days of Kievan Rus (X-XI centuries), others - a late genre that arose in the Middle Ages, during the creation and strengthening of the Moscow centralized state. The genre of epics reached its greatest flourishing in the 17th–18th centuries, and by the 20th century it fell into oblivion.
Bylina, according to V.P. Anikin, these are “heroic songs that arose as an expression of the historical consciousness of the people in the East Slavic era and developed in the conditions of Ancient Rus'...”.
Bylinas reproduce the ideals of social justice and glorify Russian heroes as defenders of the people. They reveal social moral and aesthetic ideals, reflecting historical reality in images. In epics, the basis of life is combined with fiction. They have a solemn and pathetic tone, their style corresponds to the purpose of glorifying extraordinary people and majestic events of history.
The famous folklorist P.N. recalled the high emotional impact of epics on listeners. Rybnikov. For the first time he heard a live performance of the epic twelve kilometers from Petrozavodsk, on the island of Shui-Navolok. After a difficult swim on the spring, stormy Lake Onega, settling down for the night by the fire, Rybnikov imperceptibly fell asleep...
The main characters of epics are heroes. They embody the ideal of a courageous person devoted to his homeland and people. The hero fights alone against hordes of enemy forces. Among the epics, a group of the most ancient stands out. These are the so-called epics about “elder” heroes, associated with mythology. The heroes of these works are the personification of unknown forces of nature associated with mythology. Such are Svyatogor and Volkhv Vseslavevich, Danube and Mikhailo Potyk.
In the second period of their history, the ancient heroes were replaced by heroes of modern times - Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. These are the heroes of the so-called Kyiv cycle of epics. Cyclization means union epic images and plots around individual characters and locales. This is how the Kiev cycle of epics, associated with the city of Kiev, developed.
Most epics depict the world of Kievan Rus. The heroes go to Kyiv to serve Prince Vladimir, and they protect him from enemy hordes. The content of these epics is predominantly heroic and military in nature.
Another major center of the ancient Russian state was Novgorod. Epics Novgorod cycle– everyday, novelistic. The heroes of these epics were merchants, princes, peasants, guslars (Sadko, Volga, Mikula, Vasily Buslaev, Blud Khotenovich).
The world depicted in epics is the entire Russian land. So, Ilya Muromets from the Bogatyrskaya outpost sees high mountains, green meadows, dark forests. The epic world is “bright” and “sunny”, but it is threatened by enemy forces: dark clouds, fog, thunderstorms are approaching, the sun and stars are dimming from countless enemy hordes. This is a world of contrast between good and evil, light and dark forces. In it, heroes fight against the manifestation of evil and violence. Without this struggle, the epic peace is impossible.
Each hero has a certain, dominant character trait. Ilya Muromets personifies strength; he is the most powerful Russian hero after Svyatogor. Dobrynya is also a strong and brave warrior, a snake fighter, but also a hero-diplomat. Prince Vladimir sends him on special diplomatic missions. Alyosha Popovich personifies ingenuity and cunning. “He won’t take it by force, but by cunning,” they say about him in epics. Monumental images of heroes and grandiose achievements are the fruit of artistic generalization, the embodiment in one person of the abilities and strength of the people or social group, exaggeration of what actually exists, i.e. hyperbolization and idealization. Poetic language the epic is solemnly melodious and rhythmically organized. Its special artistic media- comparisons, metaphors, epithets - reproduce pictures and images that are epically sublime, grandiose, and when depicting enemies - terrible, ugly.
In different epics, motifs and images, plot elements, identical scenes, lines and groups of lines are repeated. Thus, through all the epics of the Kyiv cycle there are images of Prince Vladimir, the city of Kyiv, and heroes. Epics, like other works folk art, do not have fixed text. Passed from mouth to mouth, they changed and varied. Each epic had an infinite number of variants.
In epics, fabulous miracles are performed: the reincarnation of characters, the revival of the dead, werewolves. They contain mythological images of enemies and fantastic elements, but the fantasy is different from that of a fairy tale. It is based on folk historical ideas. The famous folklorist of the 19th century A.F. Hilferding wrote:
“When a person doubts that a hero can carry a forty-pound club or kill an entire army on the spot, the epic poetry in him is killed. And many signs convinced me that the northern Russian peasant singing epics, and the vast majority of those who listen to him, certainly believe in the truth of the miracles that are depicted in the epic. The epic preserved historical memory. Miracles were perceived as history in the life of the people.”
There are many historically reliable signs in the epics: descriptions of details, ancient weapons of warriors (sword, shield, spear, helmet, chain mail). They glorify Kyiv-grad, Chernigov, Murom, Galich. Other ancient Russian cities are named. Events also unfold in Ancient Novgorod. They indicate the names of some historical figures: Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. These princes were united in the popular imagination into one collective image of Prince Vladimir - “Red Sun”.
There is a lot of fantasy and fiction in epics. But fiction is poetic truth. The epics reflected the historical conditions of life Slavic people: aggressive campaigns of the Pechenegs and Polovtsians to Rus', destruction of villages, full of women and children, plunder of wealth. Later, in the 13th–14th centuries, Rus' was under the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars, which is also reflected in epics. During the years of people's trials, they instilled love for native land. It is no coincidence that the epic is heroic folk song about the feat of the defenders of the Russian land.
However, epics depict not only the heroic deeds of heroes, enemy invasions, battles, but also everyday human life in its social and everyday manifestations and historical conditions. This is reflected in the cycle of Novgorod epics. In them, the heroes are noticeably different from the epic heroes of the Russian epic. The epics about Sadko and Vasily Buslaev include not just new original themes and plots, but also new epic images, new types of heroes who do not know other epic cycles. Novgorod heroes, unlike the heroes of the heroic cycle, do not perform feats of arms. This is explained by the fact that Novgorod escaped the Horde invasion, Batu's hordes did not reach the city. However, the Novgorodians could not only rebel (V. Buslaev) and play the gusli (Sadko), but also fight and win brilliant victories over the conquerors from the West.
Vasily Buslaev appears as the Novgorod hero. Two epics are dedicated to him. One of them talks about political struggle in Novgorod, in which he takes part. Vaska Buslaev rebels against the townspeople, comes to feasts and starts quarrels with “rich merchants”, “men (men) of Novgorod”, enters into a duel with the “elder” Pilgrim - a representative of the church. With his squad he “fights and fights day until evening.” The townspeople “submitted and made peace” and pledged to pay “three thousand every year.” Thus, the epic depicts a clash between the rich Novgorod settlement, eminent men and those townspeople who defended the independence of the city.
The hero's rebellion is manifested even in his death. In the epic “How Vaska Buslaev Went to Pray,” he violates prohibitions even at the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, swimming naked in the Jordan River. There he dies, remaining a sinner. V.G. Belinsky wrote that “Vasily’s death comes directly from his character, daring and violent, which seems to be asking for trouble and death.”
One of the most poetic and fabulous epics of the Novgorod cycle is the epic “Sadko”. V.G. Belinsky defined the epic “as one of the pearls of Russian folk poetry, the poetic apotheosis of Novgorod.” Sadko is a poor psaltery player who became rich thanks to skillful playing of the gusli and the patronage of the Sea King. As a hero, he expresses infinite strength and endless prowess. Sadko loves his land, his city, his family. Therefore, he refuses the countless riches offered to him and returns home.
So, epics are poetic, works of art. They contain a lot of unexpected, surprising, incredible things. However, they are fundamentally truthful, conveying the people's understanding of history, the people's idea of duty, honor, and justice. At the same time, they are skillfully constructed, their language is unique.
Artistic originality of epics
The epics were created in tonic (also called epic, folk) verse. In works created in tonic verse, the poetic lines may have a different number of syllables, but there should be a relatively equal number of stresses. In epic verse, the first stress, as a rule, falls on the third syllable from the beginning, and the last stress on the third syllable from the end.
Epic tales are characterized by a combination of real images that have a clear historical meaning and are conditioned by reality (the image of Kyiv, the capital Prince Vladimir), with fantastic images (the Serpent Gorynych, the Nightingale the Robber). But the leading images in epics are those generated by historical reality.
Often an epic begins with a chorus. It is not related to the content of the epic, but represents independent picture, preceding the main epic story. The outcome is the ending of the epic, a short conclusion, summing up, or a joke (“then the old days, then the deed,” “that’s where the old days ended”).
The epic usually begins with a beginning that determines the place and time of action. This is followed by an exposition in which the hero of the work is highlighted, most often using the technique of contrast.
The image of the hero is at the center of the entire narrative. Epic grandeur of the image epic hero is created by revealing his noble feelings and experiences, the qualities of the hero are revealed in his actions.
Tripleness or trinity in epics is one of the main depiction techniques (there are three heroes at the heroic outpost, the hero makes three trips - “Three trips of Ilya”, Sadko is not invited to the feast three times by the Novgorod merchants, he casts lots three times, etc. .). All these elements (threefold persons, threefold action, verbal repetitions) are present in all epics. Hyperboles used to describe the hero and his feat also play a large role in them. The description of the enemies (Tugarin, Nightingale the Robber), as well as the description of the strength of the warrior-hero, are hyperbolic. There are fantastic elements in this.
In the main narrative part of the epic, the techniques of parallelism, stepwise narrowing of images, and antithesis are widely used.
The text of the epic is divided into permanent and transitional passages. Transitional passages are parts of the text created or improvised by narrators during performance; permanent places - stable, slightly changed, repeated in various epics (heroic battle, hero’s rides, saddling a horse, etc.). Storytellers usually assimilate and repeat them with greater or less accuracy as the action progresses. The narrator speaks transitional passages freely, changing the text and partially improvising it. The combination of permanent and transitional places in the singing of epics is one of the genre features of the Old Russian epic.
Clarification artistic originality The work of the Saratov scientist A.P. is devoted to Russian epics and their poetics. Skaftymov “Poetics and genesis of epics”. The researcher believed that “the epic knows how to create interest, knows how to excite the listener with anxiety of expectation, infect the listener with the delight of surprise and capture the winner with ambitious triumph.”
D.S. Likhachev in his book “The Poetics of Old Russian Literature” writes that the time of action in epics refers to the conventional era of the Russian past. For some epics it is the idealized era of Prince Vladimir of Kyiv, for others it is the era of Novgorod freedom. The action of the epics takes place in the era of Russian independence, glory and power of Rus'. In this era, Prince Vladimir reigns “forever”, the heroes live “forever”. In epics, the entire time of action is assigned to the conventional era of Russian antiquity.
Literature from the 18th century for children. (Inquirer Savvaty, Simeon Polotsky, Karion Istomin).
Children's literature in Russia XV-XVIII centuries
The entire history of ancient Russian children's literature can be divided into four periods:
1) second half of the 15th - first half of the 16th century, when the first educational works;
2) the second half of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, when 15 printed books for children were published;
3) 20-40s. XVII century, when regular poetry begins;
4) the second half of the 17th century - the period of the development of different genres and types of children's literature.
Great development in the 17th century receives poetry. Poems of that time, addressed to children, were, from a modern point of view, still quite primitive. But it was with them that children's poetry began.
It was a rare children's handwritten or printed book without poems. There were especially many of them in the second half of the 17th century, when large works were written, which we now call poems. Poems set out rules of behavior and conveyed various information about the world. Most of the poems are anonymous. However, some authors were already known then, others have been identified now. The very first children's poet in Rus' should be considered the director of the Moscow Printing House, Savvaty. The reference book was responsible for the content and literacy of the book. Therefore, the most educated people were appointed to this position. Currently, more than ten poems by Savvaty are known, written by him specifically for children. Among them is the first poem in the book of the Moscow press, placed in the ABC edition of 1637. It consists of 34 lines. The poem simply, warmly and clearly tells the reader about the book he is holding in his hands, praises literacy and book wisdom, and gives various advice on how to study and how to read. According to the composition, this is an intimate conversation with a child on a topic that is interesting and important to him. The author convinces the child not to be lazy in learning, to be diligent, and to obey the teacher in everything. Only in this case can he learn “wisdom writing” (literacy), become one of the “wise men” and become a “true son of light.” Later, in the second half of the 17th century, this poem was widely distributed through handwritten books.
Another poem by Savvaty, “A Brief Reprimand about Laziness and Neglect,” consisting of 124 lines, was also very famous. Created in it negative image a capable student, but lazy and careless. Savvaty tries to instill in children respect for literacy, an enthusiastic attitude towards education and contempt for ignorance. The author leads the reader to the conclusion that teaching is light, and ignorance is darkness. Savvaty uses persuasion as the main educational means, and how literary device- comparison, likening. For example, he says that a diamond is precious because of the play of light, color, and paints, and a person is precious because of his education and “his understanding.”
In another large poem, consisting of 106 lines, called “Vacation ABC,” the image of a positive student is created who heeded the advice of his teacher, studied diligently, and therefore the teacher taught him everything that he himself knew and could. This is like a parting word to a child on graduation day.
The most major poet XVII century was Simeon of Polotsk. His real name is Petrovsky. In 1664, at the invitation of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Simeon moved to Moscow, where he opened a school and began to take an active part in literary and public life. Simeon of Polotsk took part in the creation of the primer of 1664. He also compiled the entire primer of the 1667 edition, which was republished in 1669. The preface written by Simeon for this primer is an outstanding pedagogical treatise of the 17th century.
But the primer of 1679 is of greatest interest. It contains two poems for children: “Preface to young men who want to learn” and “Admonition.” The first of them talks about the book, praises literacy, and calls on children to study well, for those who work in youth will be at peace in old age. Of all labors, reading and learning bring the greatest pleasure and benefit. The second poem is placed at the end of the book. He wrote poetic prefaces to the books he published for children, “Testament” and “The Tale of Baarlam and Joasaph.” In them he talks about the content of the books, draws attention to the most important thing, trying to interest children and prepare them for perception. The most important books of Simeon of Polotsk are “Reef. Mologion”, which has 1308 large format pages, and “Vertograd multicolor”, consisting of 1316 pages. The books were intended, according to the author, “for the benefit of young and old,” who could “look for words in them” and read “to teach their age.” The books contain many poems that are accessible to children, including greeting poems from children to parents, relatives and patrons.
Poems about nature, minerals, animals, plants, entertaining legends, etc. were also available to children. For example, the poem “Arc” (“Rainbow”) or poems about earth and water. Being a teacher by profession and an outstanding poet of his time, Simeon of Polotsk made a significant contribution to the creation of literature for children.
The first Russian writer and poet whose work was entirely dedicated to children was Karion Istomin. In all his works, Karion Istomin glorified science, “enlightenment,” yagi. He believed that everyone should study: children of all classes, boys and girls, people of all nationalities. Science, according to Karion Istomin, should save people from want and grief. Although in most of his poems Istomin directly addressed the princes, he intended them for the entire Russian people.
During Karion Istomin’s lifetime, three of his books for children and a complete set of textbooks were published. Another children's book by Karion Istomin, The Big Primer, had 11 poems. In addition, he wrote more than ten books of poetry. Thus, the book “Polis” tells about all the seasons, parts of the world, different countries. In the poetic book “Domostroy”, consisting of 176 lines, on vivid examples, figuratively sets out the rules of behavior. The main content of the rules boils down to the requirement to study the “free sciences”, etc.
Epic
LECTURE N 6
Epics are epic songs of heroic, everyday or fantastic content. They formed the main core of Russian oral poetry. According to Academician Grekov, “this is a story told by the people themselves.” The specificity of the Russian epic is that it consists of separate independent works, each epic has its own complete plot and its own hero. The term “epic” was established in science only in the second half of the 19th century; among the people, epics were usually called “old” or “old”. V.F. Miller, and after him other scientists, believed that the term “epic” has literary origin; this symbol was introduced into scientific circulation by I.P. Sakharov in the 30s of the 19th century and borrowed from “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (“According to the epics of this time”). Before the introduction of the term “epic” in Russian science, the term “heroic tales” was used; this term was used in his “Articles on Folk Poetry” by V.G. Belinsky, but later this term was not used in folkloristic terminology.
In folkloristics, there are different views on the place of composition of epics and the time of the emergence of this genre. Some researchers (V.F. Miller, the Sokolov brothers, etc.) believe that the genre of epics developed in the conditions of Kievan Rus simultaneously with the events described and only developed in subsequent years. Other scientists (M.E. Khalansky, S.K. Shambinago and others) argued that epics were mainly created in Muscovite Rus', as songs about past events. The question of the time of origin of the epic continues to concern modern scientists: D.S. Likhachev put forward the assumption that epics were mainly formed in the Middle Ages, after the fall of Kievan Rus, as heroic songs united by the image of the capital city of Kyiv. According to this theory, epics were composed as songs about the past, and not about the present. According to V.Ya. Propp, many of the epics were a reflection of the struggle not with real enemies, but with mythological creatures; they are based not on historical events, but on fiction. V.Ya. Propp divides epics into three groups; the epic of the period of development of feudal relations (epics about Volkh and Svyatogor, epics about matchmaking and the fight against monsters); the epic of the time of struggle against the Mongol-Tatar invasion; epic of the era of the formation of the centralized Russian state.
V.P. Anikin notes different periods in the historical periodization of epics: the mythological period, the Kiev period, the Vladimir-Suzdal period, the Galician-Volyn, Pskov-Novgorod, Bryansk, etc., i.e. he also singles out the “regional epic”. Most modern scientists believe that epics, for the most part, arose during the period of Kievan Rus. When considering this complex issue it is necessary to take into account the great diversity of Russian epic; it can hardly be associated with any one historical stage, because there are epics, the content of which reflects the pre-Kiev period (epics about Volkh Vseslavyevich, about Dobrynya and Marinka, etc.). Apparently, we must come to the conclusion that the question of the origin of epics does not have a clear answer; in each case it has an individual solution. But in folklore studies, three stages are distinguished in the development of epics:
Stage I – 9-12 centuries, it coincides with the heyday of Kievan Rus. The epics of this period tell about snake fighters, since the enemy in these epics appears in the form of a mythological monster - a snake. One of the first heroes of epics is Dobrynya Nikitich, who has historical prototype(“Dobrynya and the Serpent”). This epic allegorically represents the adoption of Christianity in Rus', i.e. the struggle of Christianity against paganism. Already in these epics the image of Prince Vladimir appears, the prototype of which was Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich. At first, the image of the prince was positive; he was depicted as a man who united the Russian lands.
Stage II - 13-15 centuries, the period of the collapse of Kievan Rus, the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus', therefore all epics receive an anti-Tatar orientation. In the epics there was a chronological shift in time; later events were confined to the period of Kievan Rus. At this stage, new characters emerge - Ilya Muromets and Alyosha Popovich. There is a cyclization of epics, i.e. epics are united in groups around one center: Kyiv (military, heroic) and Novgorod (social and everyday). In the epics that arose at this stage, there is a “decrease” in the image of Prince Vladimir, from positive hero he turns into a negative character (he cannot find a hero who would protect the city, his behavior and appearance look funny).
Stage III - 16-17 centuries, the final formation of the genre takes place, epics receive the completed form that is recorded in the records of collectors. New plots do not appear, new images do not appear. Some epics mention Moscow instead of Kyiv, reflecting the idea of the need to centralize Russian lands, but the ideological orientation of the epics is preserved - a story about the heroic struggle of a hero against external enemies.
The 18th century is the period of the existence of epics, i.e. epics continue to be performed without being enriched with new plots or images; the 19th and 20th centuries are a period of attenuation and disappearance of the genre.
We accept the traditional division of epics into Kyiv and Novgorod, but this does not mean that epics developed only around these centers. Researchers have proven that there were several regional centers around which epics were created: these are the Galicia-Volyn cycle, Vladimir-Suzdal, Chernigov, Bryansk, etc. V.Ya. Propp proves that all these epics were included in the all-Russian epic. Regional subjects, of which there are very few, were created under the influence of already existing traditions of this genre; they also shaped the all-Russian epic.
Collections of epics published from the end of the 18th century to the end of the 20th century contain more than 2,500 texts. These texts are different in themes, plots, images of heroes, structure, but their systematization and study is difficult, since there is no consolidated catalog or index of epics in Russian science. In modern folkloristics, the division into two cycles has been preserved - Kiev and Novgorod, first proposed by V.G. Belinsky; although a division into two types is used - military and social. Some epics occupy an intermediate place; they are not easy to attribute to one type or another (for example, the epics about the marriage of Prince Vladimir).
Military, heroic, heroic epics they talk about defending their homeland from enemies; Russian heroes became their heroes. Social and everyday epics speak mainly about the life of Novgorod; the best known are the epics of the Novgorod cycle about Sadko and Vasily Buslaev.
Kyiv CYCLE EPICS
The epics of this cycle have general features: the action takes place in or near Kyiv, in the center of the epics is the image of Prince Vladimir, the main theme is the defense of the Russian land from enemies. The main content of traditional Russian epic epic amounts to popular patriotism, combining the awareness of the great power of the people, the idea of selfless service to the fatherland and irreconcilable hatred of foreign invaders. These ideas were most clearly reflected in the gigantic images of heroes, in their courage, stamina, indestructible strength and fabulously heroic images. The abundance of heroic images is one of the features of the Russian national epic.
“It is impossible not to recognize,” V.G. Belinsky wrote about the epics, “the extraordinary, gigantic power of the life contained in them... Russian folk poetry is seething with heroes... This courage, this daring and youth appear in such wide proportions, in such indestructible strength that you involuntarily bow before them...” Undoubtedly exaggerated, the images of heroes are still realistic at their very core. In them folk singers embodied perfect performance about the indestructible power of the people.
The real blood enemies of the heroes are the enemies of the homeland, foreign invaders. The historical features of numerous enemies who attacked the Russian land, as a result of a long artistic generalization, were united in epics in several images, which bear names memorable from the raids of ancient nomads, these are the names: Tugarin (Tugorkan), Shark the Giant (Sharukan), Konshik (Konchak) and etc. Deadly danger, which threatened Rus' from its enemies, the robberies and atrocities they committed led to an extremely negative depiction of these images. The Tatar force in epics is called “black”, and the Tatars themselves are called “filthy”. The most common generalizing images of enemies are the image of the most disgusting creature - the Serpent, or the image of the “filthy Idol”, which has “a head like a tub; and eyes like beer bowls.” All these images are depicted as fantastic monsters: for some reason Tugarin has paper wings, the Nightingale the Robber sits on a tree, but the epic does not indicate what he looks like. But it can be unequivocally noted that the enemies are never depicted as people, they are monstrous creatures.
The epic depicts the enemies as arrogant, arrogant “boasters”, but the narrator does not allow their “black power” to be underestimated. In the epic depiction, the enemy is strong, cunning, cunning and numerous. Tugarin and Idolishche commit outrages in Rus' with impunity until they encounter Russian heroes. Victory over the enemy in epics is achieved through a titanic struggle of heroes; victory is often preceded by defeats of individual heroes, which continue until the main hero, Ilya Muromets, enters the battle. The epics show the insidious treachery of a defeated but undead enemy (“Ilya Muromets and Nightingale the Robber”).
1). The question of the origin of the heroic epic - one of the most difficult in literary science - has given rise to a number of different theories. Two of them stand out: “traditionalism” and “anti-traditionalism.” The foundations of the first of them were laid by the French medievalist Gaston Paris (1839-1901) in his major work “The Poetic History of Charlemagne” (1865). The theory of Gaston Paris, called the “cantilena theory,” boils down to the following main principles. The primary basis of the heroic epic were small lyrical-epic cantilena songs, widespread in the 8th century. Cantilenas were a direct response to certain historical events. For hundreds of years, cantilenas existed in... oral tradition, and from the 10th century. the process of their merging into large epic poems begins. The epic is the product of long-term collective creativity, the highest expression of the spirit of the people. Therefore, it is impossible to name a single creator of an epic poem; the recording of poems itself is a more mechanical process than a creative one,
The positions of “traditionalists” and “anti-traditionalists” were to a certain extent brought together in his theory about the origin of the heroic epic by Alexander Nikolaevich Veselovsky. The essence of his theory is as follows. The beginning of epic creativity was small songs - lyrical-epic cantilenas, born as a response to events that excited the people imagination. After a while, the attitude towards the events described in the songs becomes calmer, the severity of emotions is lost and then an epic song is born. Time passes, and the songs, in one way or another, are close to each other, and finally the cycle turns into an epic poem. While the text exists in the oral tradition, it is the creation of a collective at the last stage of the formation of the epic. decisive role played by a separate author. Writing down poems is not a mechanical act, but a deeply creative one.
The fundamentals of Veselovsky’s theory retain their significance for modern science(V. Zhirmunsky, E. Meletinsky), which also dates the emergence of the heroic epic to the 8th century, believing that the epic is the creation of both oral collective and written individual creativity.
Only the question of the fundamental principles of the heroic epic is corrected: they are considered to be historical legends and the richest arsenal of figurative means of the archaic epic.
It is no coincidence that the beginning of the formation of the heroic (or state) epic dates back to the 8th century. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), over the course of a number of centuries there was a transition from slave-owning forms of statehood to feudal ones, and among the peoples Northern Europe- the process of the final decomposition of patriarchal-tribal relations. Qualitative changes related to the statement new statehood, definitely make themselves felt in the 8th century. In 751, one of the largest feudal lords in Europe, Pepin the Short, became king of the Franks and founder of the Carolingian dynasty. Under the son of Pepin the Short, Charlemagne (reign: 768-814), a huge state was formed, including a Celtic-Roman-Germanic population. In 80b, the pope crowned Charles with the title of emperor of the newly revived Great Roman Empire. In turn, Kara completes the Christianization of the German tribes, and seeks to turn the capital of the empire, Aachen, into Athens. The formation of the new state was difficult not only because of internal circumstances, but also because of external ones, among which one of the main places was occupied by the ongoing war between Christian Franks and Muslim Arabs. This is how history powerfully entered the life of medieval man. And the heroic epic itself became a poetic reflection of the historical consciousness of the people.
The focus on history determines the decisive features of the difference between the heroic epic and the archaic epic, Central themes The heroic epic reflects the most important trends in historical life, a specific historical, geographical, ethnic background appears, mythological and fairy-tale motivations are eliminated. The truth of history now determines the truth of the epic.
In heroic poems created different peoples Europe has a lot in common. This is explained by the fact that a similar historical reality was subjected to artistic generalization; this reality itself was comprehended from the point of view of the same level of historical consciousness. In addition, the medium of image was an artistic language that has common roots in European folklore. But at the same time, the heroic epic of each individual nation has many unique, nationally specific features.
The most significant of the heroic poems of the peoples Western Europe considered: French - “The Song of Roland”, German - “Song of the Nibelungs”, Spanish - “Song of My Sid”. These three great poems make it possible to judge the evolution of the heroic epic: “The Song of the Nibelungs” contains a number of archaic features, “The Song of My Sid” shows the epic at its end, “The Song of Roland” is the moment of its highest maturity.
2) GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPIC
During the Mature Middle Ages, the development of the traditions of folk epic literature continued. This is one of the significant stages in its history, when the heroic epic became the most important link in medieval book literature. The heroic epic of the Mature Middle Ages reflected the processes of ethnic and state consolidation and the emerging seigniorial-vassal relations. The historical theme in the epic has expanded, displacing the fairy-tale-mythological theme, and the significance has increased Christian motives and patriotic pathos intensified, a larger epic form and a more flexible style were developed, which was facilitated by some distance from purely folklore models. However, all this led to a certain impoverishment of the plot and mythopoetic imagery, so subsequently the chivalric romance again turned to folklore fiction. All these features of the new stage in the history of the epic are closely interconnected internally. The transition from epic archaics to epic classics, in particular, was expressed in the fact that the epics of nationalities that had reached the stage of clear state consolidation abandoned the language of myth and fairy tales and turned to developing plots taken from historical legends(while continuing to use, of course, old plot and language clichés dating back to myths).
Clan and tribal interests were pushed aside by national interests, albeit still in their infancy, therefore in many epic monuments we find pronounced patriotic motives, often associated with the fight against foreign and other religious conquerors. Patriotic motives, as is specific to the Middle Ages, partly appear in the form of contrasting Christians with “infidel” Muslims (in Romanesque and Slavic literatures).
As said, the epic at the new stage depicts feudal strife and seigniorial-vassal relations, but due to the epic specificity, vassal loyalty (in the “Song of the Nibelungs”, “Song of Roland”, “Song of My Sid”), as a rule, merges with loyalty to family, tribe, home country, to the state. A characteristic figure in the epic of this time is the epic "king", whose power embodies the unity of the country. It is shown in difficult relationships with the main epic hero - the bearer of folk ideals. Vassal loyalty to the king is combined with a story about his weakness, injustice, with a very critical depiction of the court environment and feudal strife (in the cycle of French poems about Guillaume of Orange). The epic also reflects anti-aristocratic tendencies (in songs about Dietrich of Bern or in “Song of My Sid”). In epic-heroic works of the XII-XIII centuries. At times, the influence of the courtly (knightly) novel also penetrates (in “The Song of the Nibelungs”). But even with the idealization of courtly forms of life, the epic mainly preserves folk-heroic ideals and heroic aesthetics. The heroic epic also displays some tendencies that go beyond its genre nature, for example, hypertrophied adventurism (“Raoul de Cambrai” and others), material motivations for the behavior of the hero who patiently overcomes adverse circumstances (in “The Song of My Sid”), drama , reaching the point of tragedy (in “The Nibelungs” and in “The Song of Roland”). These Diverse Trends Reveal Hidden Opportunities epic kind poetry, anticipate the development of romance and tragedy.
The stylistic features of the epic are now largely determined by a departure from folklore and deeper processing folklore traditions. In the process of transition from oral improvisation to recitation from manuscripts, numerous enjambements appear, i.e. transfers from verse to verse, synonymy develops, the flexibility and variety of epic formulas increases, sometimes the number of repetitions decreases, a clearer and more harmonious composition becomes possible (“Song of Roland").
Although broad cyclization is also familiar to oral creativity (for example, in folklore Central Asia), but mostly creating epic works large volume and their addition into cycles is supported by the transition from oral improvisation to handwritten book. Apparently, bookishness also contributes to the emergence of a “psychological” characteristic, as well as interpretation heroic character in terms of a kind of tragic guilt. However, the interaction between folklore and book literature actively continues: in the composition and especially the performance of many epic works, the participation of shpilmans and jugglers was great during this period.
6) One of the most remarkable monuments of medieval literature is considered to be the epic tale of the French people - “The Song of Roland”.
An insignificant historical fact formed the basis of this heroic epic and over time, enriched by a number of later events, helped the widespread dissemination of tales about Roland and the wars of Charlemagne in many literatures of Western Europe.
The Song of Roland clearly expresses the ideology of a feudal society, in which the faithful service of a vassal to his overlord was an untouchable law, and violation of it was considered betrayal and treason. However, the traits of courageous steadfastness, military valor, selfless friendship and a thoughtful attitude to what is happening were not given a class-feudal connotation in the poem, as in the remarkable monument of creativity of the Russian people “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”; on the contrary, these convincing properties of the valiant defenders of the homeland - military leaders-peers and their vassals, were perceived as typical, nationwide. Also in to a greater extent recognition and sympathy on the part of the broad masses were facilitated by thoughts about the defense of the fatherland, about the shame and danger of defeat, which run like a red thread through the entire poem.