ABOUT artistic exaggeration as a way of revealing the typical Realist writers, reflecting typical human characters and phenomena of reality in artistic images, have as their goal not simply copying them, but revealing their essence. But the essence

The problem of the typical in non-realistic fiction Artistic typification, that is, the embodiment of the essential through the individual, is a general way of creating literary and artistic images, but at the same time understanding the essential and

“Bashfulness” of the artistic form and its spiritual nature. In terms of the universality of poetry’s embrace of life, in terms of the completeness and integrity of its perception of the world, Russian literature of the 19th century puzzled Western European contemporary writers. She reminded them of the creators of the era

4.3.2. Stages and forms of organizing students' independent activities in literature Stages: 1. The preparatory stage is carried out by the teacher and includes: setting goals and objectives; presentation of the work execution algorithm; guidelines for implementation

4.5.2. Forms of organizing extracurricular work in literature Forms of organizing extracurricular work in literature are determined by the degree of its relationship with the educational process: 1. Extracurricular activities, which are an integral part educational process and aimed at the formation

c) classic diary in fiction We call a classic diary, which the author kept continuously for many years, sometimes his entire adult life. Functionally, it differs from youth diaries and diaries begun in the second half of life.

Artistic typification and worldview of the writer

The writer, reproducing reality, artistically typifying its phenomena, inevitably expresses his point of view, his likes and dislikes. The writer's likes and dislikes, no matter how clearly individual they may be, are fundamentally determined by social conditions. The essence of every person, and therefore of the writer, “is not an abstraction inherent in an individual. In its reality it is the totality of all social relations.”

In a class society, the artist reflects and creatively reproduces the characters and phenomena of life always from certain class positions.

M. Gorky famously said: “A writer is the eyes, ears and voice of the class. He may not be aware of it, deny it, but he is always and inevitably the organ of the class, its sensitivity.”

The writer’s social position is manifested in one way or another in all aspects of a work of art, but it is most directly and directly expressed in the selection, evaluation and disclosure of typical human characters.

Each class is characterized by certain ideals and aspirations, goals and objectives. Expressing them, writers in their works highlight certain social characters and social types.

The writer’s ideological position is manifested not only in the selection of the typical, in focusing attention on certain social phenomena, but also in their assessment. In accordance with his progressive or reactionary views, the writer depicts typical life phenomena either in their true essence or distortedly.

What phenomena of the life process the writer considers typical, how he evaluates their connection with other phenomena, what he puts forward as positive or negative, leading or secondary - this expresses his understanding of life, his ideological, aesthetic, social, class position.

The writer’s worldview determines the nature of his vision of the world and the degree of truthfulness of his artistic creations.

The more progressive the writer’s worldview, the more correct his understanding of the world, the more accurately and completely he is able, with an equal degree of talent and skill, to reproduce typical characters and phenomena of reality.

The leading role of worldview in the creative process and in artistic typification is confirmed by the entire history of world literature.

Everything great and truly artistic in literature was created, as a rule, by progressive classes and writers. Everything truly aesthetic is affected in one way or another by the influence of progressive ideas, liberation struggle people, a reflection of life's truth. So, for example, the Western European bourgeoisie created “miracles of art” (Marx and Engels) precisely at the time when it was progressive, when its subjective aspirations coincided to one degree or another with the objective course of social development. Representatives of the progressive and reactionary nobility participated in the creation of Russian literature, along with other classes. But best works, which have stood the test of time, belong, as a rule, to representatives not of the reactionary, but of the progressive nobility, such as Radishchev, Griboyedov, Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev.

Fiction reflects the struggle of classes defending their ideas and interests.

In an antagonistic society, the class struggle has various stages and degrees of development. At the highest stages it takes on a political character and takes shape as a struggle between parties. “In a society based on the division of classes,” Lenin teaches, “the struggle between hostile classes inevitably becomes, at a certain stage of its development, a political struggle. The most integral, complete and formed expression political struggle classes is the struggle of parties."

Thus, the concept of class is not identical to the concept of party membership. Party affiliation - highest manifestation social consciousness and class struggle; it is associated with the conscious defense of the socio-political interests of a particular class. Lenin points out that party membership obliges “in any assessment of an event to directly and openly take the point of view of a certain social group.”

At the same time, one cannot mechanically identify partisanship in organizational, political, literary, journalistic and scientific activities with partisanship artistic creativity. Lenin warned that “the literary part of the party cause of the proletariat cannot be routinely identified with other parts of the party cause of the proletariat.”

In artistic creativity, socio-political views are manifested more complexly, less directly and directly, than in philosophy, political economy, history and other social sciences.

A writer’s party affiliation in any era is not necessarily related to his organizational entry into one or another political party, as bourgeois critics abroad who are hostile to us, as well as home-grown vulgarizers and simplifications, strive to present it. The writer's party affiliation is determined by the nature of his political convictions.

Party membership, as a conscious defense of the socio-political interests of a certain class, manifests itself differently, depending on specific historical conditions.

Thus, the revolutionary democrats recognized themselves as representatives of the interests of ordinary working people, in particular and especially the peasantry, and called themselves representatives of the “party of the people.” The partisanship of the revolutionary democrats imparted ideological clarity to their artistic creativity, which was expressed in the emphasized relevance of social problems that met the most important needs of the then social development, in open communication with the oppressed people, in the sharp opposition of the interests of the landowners to the interests of the peasants, in ardent hatred of the oppressors of the people, in a direct appeal peasants to indignation, to a revolutionary uprising. But the partisanship of the revolutionary democrats was not consistent or strict. Revolutionary democrats, as well as their predecessors, are characterized by one or another degree of inconsistency in socio-political views. Chernyshevsky was a revolutionary democrat, but in his ideas about socialism and the ways of building it, he remained a utopian socialist. Nekrasov, being unstable, weak person, hesitated between Chernyshevsky and the liberals, etc.

Party affiliation of different classes is not the same in the form of its expression. The exploiting classes, defending their socio-political positions that are hostile to the people, most often hypocritically hide their partisanship and act as champions of non-partisanship. That is why Lenin pointed out that “non-partyism is a bourgeois idea.” By creating parties, these classes hide their interests behind false phrases about the defense of supposedly national, national and universal needs and requirements.

It must be said at the same time that many even progressive writers, due to the contradictory nature of their worldview, quite sincerely considered and consider themselves alien to any class or political interests, free and independent from the influences of the class struggle. Among Russian writers, such were, for example, A.K. Tolstoy, Korolenko and Chekhov.

The highest form of partisanship is proletarian, communist partisanship. This partisanship is carried out as a direct, open and consistent defense of the socio-political interests of the working class.

The essence of the partisanship of the working class, manifested in its literature, is classically revealed in Lenin’s article “Party Organization and Party Literature.”

“Literary work must become,” Lenin argued in this article, “a part of the general proletarian cause, a “wheel and a cog” of one single, great social-democratic mechanism, set in motion by the entire conscious vanguard of the entire working class. Literary work must become an integral part of organized, systematic, united Social Democratic party work.”

The working class, defending its socio-political ideas, defends the vital needs, needs and aspirations of all working people. Therefore, the working class is interested not in concealing, but in the broadest possible explanation of its political positions. In order to involve millions of working people in the liberation movement, the working class strives in every possible way to raise the socio-political consciousness of the entire working people. This is the reason that “the party system is a socialist idea.” Lenin explained: “Strict partisanship has always been and is defended only by social democracy, the party of the conscious proletariat.”

Bourgeois critics, trying to discredit the literature of socialist realism, shout that proletarian partisanship allegedly limits the freedom of the writer and leads to sectarianism. But this is obvious slander.

Proletarian partisanship, representing the socio-political views of the most advanced, consistently revolutionary class, defending the interests of all working people, is the highest expression of objectivity. This partisanship not only does not limit writers, but, on the contrary, determines their boundless creative freedom, no longer imaginary, but true, real. This partisanship completely frees writers from narrow group social ties, makes them consistent exponents of the feelings, thoughts and aspirations of all layers of the working people, determines the complete clarity of their goals and objectives and gives them the opportunity for a truly scientific vision and the most truthful depiction of life.

Communist Party membership opens up for writers such opportunities for an objective, broad and deep view of the world that no other writer could have. literary direction, preceding socialist realism. Under equal conditions of talent and skill, without which there can be no truly artistic creativity at all, it is the communist party that ensures the creation of works that are the most aesthetically perfect.

Lenin, contrasting hypocritically free literature, but in fact connected with the bourgeoisie, with the exploiting classes, with truly free literature, organically connected with the working class, with the working people, wrote: “This will be free literature, because it is not self-interest or a career, but an idea.” socialism and sympathy for the working people will recruit more and more forces into its ranks. This will be free literature, because it will serve not the jaded heroine, not the bored and obese “top ten thousand,” but millions and tens of millions of workers who make up the color of the country, its strength, its future. It will be free literature, fertilizing the last word of the revolutionary thought of humanity with the experience and living work of the socialist proletariat, creating a constant interaction between the experience of the past (scientific socialism, which completed the development of socialism from its primitive, utopian forms) and the experience of the present (the real struggle of comrade workers).”

Lenin's dream of a party, socialist, truly free literature, consistently connected with the people, has been realized and is being realized the best writers socialist realism.

These writers, party and non-party, are proud of their connection with the people and their Communist Party. They draw strength and inspiration from serving the people and their party.

“We live,” wrote M. Gorky in the article “On Socialist Realism,” “in a happy country, where there is someone to love and respect. For us, love for a person should arise - and does arise - from a feeling of surprise at his creative energy, from the mutual respect of people for their boundless labor collective power, which creates socialist forms of life, from love for the party, which is the leader of the working people of the whole country and the teacher of the proletarians of all countries."

Emphasizing his open connection with the working class, Mayakovsky exclaimed:

I am happy that I am a part of this force, that even tears from the eyes are common. It is impossible to take communion stronger and purer great feeling named - class!

N. Ostrovsky’s works arose from a passionate desire “to be something useful to his party, to his class.” Characterizing the ideological orientation of the novel “Born of the Storm,” he said: “The leitmotif of my new book is devotion to the Motherland. I want the reader to be overwhelmed by the most beautiful of feelings when reading my book - a feeling of devotion to our great party.”

The work of Gorky, Mayakovsky, Sholokhov, Fadeev, N. Ostrovsky, Fedin, Tvardovsky, Isakovsky and many other representatives of socialist realism organically merged with the national movement led by the Communist Party. The literature of socialist realism consciously subordinated itself to the interests of Soviet state policy and became part of the national cause of the struggle for communism.

Communist party spirit permeates all the best works of Soviet literature. So, for example, the communist party in M. Sholokhov’s novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” is manifested in the open defense of the interests of the people, the working class and the peasantry, in the consistent assertion of the advantages of collective farming over individual farming, in showing the leading role of the Communist Party in the process of socialist restructuring of the countryside, in the true understanding and depicting the social forces and typical characters of the post-October village, in exposing the bourgeois-kulak forces hostile to Soviet power.

The communist party spirit of the literature of socialist realism is also expressed in the fact that at each stage of the development of socialist society, literature comes up with themes, problems and ideas that effectively help the struggle of the Soviet people, the Communist Party in the implementation of specific historical tasks determined by a given period. For example, during the Great Patriotic War The literature of socialist realism came up with themes and ideas aimed at defending the Motherland and against fascism. In the post-war period, Soviet literature was actively involved in the heroic struggle of the Soviet people for the restoration of the national economy destroyed by the Nazis, for further socialist construction, for the gradual transition from socialism to communism, for world peace.

Soviet writers, party and non-party, manifesting their communist party affiliation, created wonderful works full of genuine truthfulness, high ideology and artistry. And the higher the ideological and political level of Soviet writers, the more consciously they demonstrate communist party membership, the more, given, of course, talent and skill, they reproduce with greater truthfulness, completeness, depth and poignancy the typical characters and phenomena of both modern and past life . Convincing evidence of this is provided by such works as “The Artamonov Case” by M. Gorky, “Chapaev” by D. Furmanov, “Iron Stream” by A. Serafimovich, “Cement” by F. Gladkov, “Spring Love” by K. Trenev, “Virgin Soil Upturned” and “Quiet Flows the Don” by M. Sholokhov, “How the Steel Was Tempered” by N. Ostrovsky, “Walking in the Torments” by A. Tolstoy, “First Joys” by K. Fedin, “The Young Guard” by A. Fadeev, essays by V. Ovechkin.

The communist party is the leading principle of socialist realism, which determines its successes. That is why any opposition to this principle, direct or veiled, appearing in the foreign press, is essentially directed against the method, theory and practice of socialist realism.

There are writers who defend the socio-political interests of their class openly and directly. The most striking example of this is the representatives of socialist realism.

There are writers who defend the socio-political interests of their class, hiding behind hypocritical phrases about non-partisanship. This is how reactionary bourgeois writers act.

But there are writers whose work often conflicts with their socio-political views.

Some critics and literary scholars perceive the writer’s worldview too simplistic. The writer’s worldview is a complex unity of political, philosophical, economic, historical and other views. The worldview is not only complex, but also often quite contradictory. It contains both weak and strengths. And these contradictions, the weak and strong sides of the writer’s worldview, inevitably manifest themselves in his work.

The writer's worldview is always more or less directly influenced by social conditions, life connections and facts that the writer encounters. While the weaknesses of his worldview limit the artist’s creativity, the strengths have a beneficial and positive effect and contribute to the truthful reproduction of reality. Real reality, the objective logic of its facts, often introduces tendencies into a writer’s work that contradict his socio-political views. There are numerous examples in the history of literature when the objective meaning of works to one degree or another does not coincide with the subjective intentions of their authors. Marx, in a letter to M.M. Kovalevsky, points out: “... it is necessary for a writer to distinguish between what an author actually gives and what he gives only in his own imagination. This is true even for philosophical systems“So, two completely different things - what Spinoza considered the cornerstone of his system, and what actually constitutes this cornerstone.” An example of this kind is Balzac, whose socio-political views and artistic practice are in clear contradiction. In his socio-political views, Balzac was a defender of the reactionary nobility, but with all this, “his satire was never sharper, his irony more bitter than when he forced to act precisely those people with whom he most sympathized - aristocrats and aristocrat. The only people he always talks about with undisguised admiration are his most ardent political opponents, the Republicans...”

Thoughts that the iron logic of life, objective facts imperiously interfere with creative process, correct and change the original author's intentions, as the creators of works of art themselves have repeatedly expressed.

Thus, M. Gorky, in contrast to vulgar sociologists, argued that “the breadth of observations, the wealth of everyday experience often equips the artist with a force that overcomes his personal attitude to facts, his subjectivism.”

L. Tolstoy, in a conversation with N. Rusanov, said: “In general, my heroes and heroines sometimes do things that I would not want: they do what they should do in real life and as happens in real life, and not what I would like to".

The presence of writers with a contradictory worldview, writers whose work is more or less in conflict with their socio-political views, serves as convincing evidence of the fallacy of the assertion that the problem of typicality is always a political problem and the typical is the main sphere of manifestation of partisanship.

In fact, can the position about typicality as a problem “always political” be a guiding principle in the study of the works of such complex, contradictory writers in their worldview as Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoevsky, A.K. Tolstoy, Ya. Polonsky, Leskov, L.N. .Tolstoy? What can this situation lead to when understanding the work of writers like Maikov, Fet, Tyutchev?

By simplifying, impoverishing and distorting their creative image, we will be forced to characterize Turgenev only as a noble liberal, Goncharov only as a bourgeois liberal, Fet only as a noble reactionary, Dostoevsky of the post-reform era as an exponent of petty-bourgeois reactionaryism, etc. But their work clearly does not fit into the vulgar sociological schemes just mentioned.

TYPIZATION in art is a way of revealing in artistic images the general, natural in human life and the life of society, in the psychological experiences of people and their relationships through the image of the unique and individual; a combination of artistic generalization and individualization.
In the process of typification, the artist identifies and selects the most characteristic class features, actions and deeds, psychological characteristics, habits, tastes, gestures, external signs, and speech characteristics. The basis of this purposeful process of identifying and generalizing some qualities and discarding and relegating others to the background is the artist’s worldview, his aesthetic attitude to reality. At the same time, the artist, with the help of typical imagination and fantasy, using visual and expressive capabilities and specific material means of a particular type of art, embodies the achieved generalizations into the forms of individualized, bright and original characters, encountering and acting in specific, unique circumstances.
Only as a result of the successful implementation of this dual essence of typification can one create works of art that are truthful, highly ideological in content and perfect in artistic form. Ignoring any of these components of typification inevitably leads to a distortion of the content of the work, to the weakening and even destruction of its artistic form, to a decrease in the level of artistic skill.
The relationship between generalization and individualization ultimately depends on the artistic method. In realistic art, where the essence of the depicted phenomena is revealed through showing the specific, individual appearance of the bearers of these phenomena, both sides of typification are interconnected and interpenetrate each other. Created on this basis classic images- types of world realistic art - Hamlet and Don Quixote, Chatsky and Oblomov, heroes of paintings by Rembrandt and V. I. Surikov, films by C. Chaplin and S. M. Eisenstein. In various directions of modern modernist art of the bourgeoisie (abstractionism, cubism, expressionism, surrealism, tachisme, naturalism, etc.), generalization and individualization, on the contrary, turn into antagonistic opposites, which leads to a violation of typicality, and therefore artistry.

ARTISTIC TYPE (from the Greek typos - imprint, sample) - an artistic image, the individual originality of which embodies features characteristic of representatives of a particular social group, class, nation, features typical of many people of a certain historical era or even a number of eras. So, for example, in the portrait of Pope Innocent X by the Spanish artist D. Velazquez, such character traits of the person being portrayed as cunning, malice, cruelty are expressed, but these are not just the traits of a given person: the colossal power of generalization helped the artist to reveal in the portrait of one person the psychological and social essence an entire class of clergy, that is, to create a certain social type.
Typical individuals, in whose appearance, thoughts and actions the features characteristic of a whole circle of people are most fully, prominently, and concentratedly expressed, undoubtedly exist in life itself. V.I. Lenin repeatedly noted the existence of “group and class types” in his works. A true realist artist has the ability to skillfully notice the types existing in life and use them in his artistic generalizations. But most often, an artistic type is not a reproduction of a really existing personality: its unique individuality is a figment of the artist’s imagination, the result of creative comprehension, generalization and concentration of traits and characteristics inherent in many people.
The significance of the types created by the artist depends on the social significance of those features that are embodied in the typical image, and on the degree of artistry in its depiction in the work. The artist generalizes in one type or another life phenomena that are different in nature: emerging, already widespread and rooted in society, and dying out, becoming obsolete. Images embodying any of these groups of phenomena can equally claim to be typical. Thus, the image of Chatsky from A. S. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit,” which expresses the typical features of the most advanced people of the 20s of the 19th century, is no less typical than the image of Molchalin, for whom Griboedov’s time gave birth to much more prototypes than for Chatsky.
Artistic type its content is always historically specific. This is the “mirror” of artistic creativity in which the era is reflected, in which the generation sees its own portrait and the portraits of its predecessors. However, this cannot prevent the typical image from embodying, along with the traits characteristic of people of a certain social class and a certain era, traits inherent in people in general, universal human traits. Romeo and Juliet by V. Shakespeare, Don Quixote by M. Cervantes and Faust by I. V. Goethe, Gogol’s Khlestakov and Goncharov’s Oblomov, Raphael’s Sistine Madonna or Michelangelo’s David, the lyrical hero of A. A. Blok’s poems or C. Chaplin’s “The Little Man” - all these and many other types created by world art embodied, along with the specific historical features of their era, deep and eternal human traits.

Typing

the embodiment of the typical in literature, the generalization underlying the creation of an artistic image, the process of creating the typical. T. is also understood as synthesis in one human form a whole series of typical traits that the artist found in various real people, as well as the development and completion of those possibilities that the author saw in real people known to him. The author's worldview is embodied in typical characters, in their interaction, in their connection with circumstances.

Typification is a method of artistic generalization of reality, which presupposes individualization, originality and uniqueness of aesthetic values ​​created by the artist.

Typing is:

• 1. Image of the general through the individual, i.e. a combination of the characteristic and the individual in a single artistic image.
• 2. A situation that is frequently repeated or widespread.
• 3. Literary experience in creating an artistic world, accumulated by many generations of authors.

Concept of the topic

The theme is the subject of the image, in other words, the material taken for display in the work. In fact, the theme is the starting point for the creation of any work. As a rule, there are several themes in a work, but one is dominant. The topics are historically determined, because change over time, but there are also “eternal” themes that remain relevant at any time - themes of fathers and sons, good and evil, betrayal, love, etc.

Theme is a circle of phenomena and events that form the basis of the work; an object artistic image; what the author is talking about and what he wants to attract the attention of readers to.

The basis of the inner world of a work is its theme. This word goes back to the ancient Greek thema - that which is the basis.

Three main levels of artistic themes can be distinguished. Firstly, a work of art necessarily raises eternal themes- those that worried various authors at all times: from antiquity to the present day. They can be divided into two groups: ontological ones are related to being, anthropological ones are related to man. Ontological themes include life and death, movement and stillness, light and darkness, chaos and space. These are the themes that underlie philosophical lyrics Tyutchev, in which the picture unfolds eternal struggle two opposite principles - chaos and space, day and night, light and darkness.

On the contrary, at the center of Pushkin's philosophical lyrics are anthropological problems such as love and hatred, good and evil, youth and old age, sin and forgiveness, the purpose and meaning of life.

The second level of artistic subject matter is its cultural and historical aspect. It is due to the fact that the action of each work involves the depiction of a specific country and era. Literature is inextricably linked with history: the character of the hero and the conflict is largely determined by the historical situation that is reflected in the work. So, F.M. Dostoevsky wrote that the plot of his novel “Crime and Punishment” “partly justifies modernity” (letter to M.N. Katkov), and I.S. Turgenev accurately dated the events described in Fathers and Sons (the novel, written in 1861, begins on May 20, 1859). The task of both authors was not only to pose in their works the most important universal human problems and to propose ways to solve them, but also to create the image of a contemporary - a man of the sixties of the 19th century, a commoner, a nihilist, an experimenter who strives to fit the entire complexity of life phenomena into the framework of his theory.

The third thematic level is associated with the depiction of the lives of individual characters. Often (especially in lyrics, in autobiographical works) it is directly related to the life of the author, his worldview, experiences, personal experience. Thus, in the novel “A Hero of Our Time,” Pechorin largely bears the imprint of both Lermontov’s thoughts and Lermontov’s life experience. Some fragments of Lermontov’s diary entries are close to Pechorin’s “Journal”. The works of Marina Tsvetaeva, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sergei Yesenin, Vladimir Vysotsky are of a confessional nature.

Collection output:

ON THE PROBLEM OF “TYPOLOGY” AND “TYPICATION” IN RUSSIAN LITERATURE

Bulycheva Vera Pavlovna

Lecturer at the Department of English for Economic Specialties Astrakhan State University, Astrakhan

For linguistics, the problem of typology is not new. The term " typology"was considered in the works of ancient rhetoricians, and the list of works devoted to the study typologies, has hundreds of titles. Like some other fundamental concepts, the term typology broad and multifaceted, within different sciences it is understood differently, which makes it extremely difficult task its definitions. For example, in philosophy typology(from Greek - imprint, form, sample and - word, doctrine) - this is “a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the division of systems of objects and their grouping using a generalized, idealized model or type”, in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary it is “ scientific method, the basis of which is the dissection of systems of objects and their grouping using a generalized model or type; used for the purpose of comparative study of essential features, connections, functions, relationships, levels of organization of objects.

Only in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary do we find information about linguistic typology - this is “a comparative study of the structural and functional properties of languages, regardless of the nature of the genetic relationships between them”

Perhaps it is precisely because of the complexity of the concept itself that the term “typology” is absent in a number of specialized terminological dictionaries. Therefore, we believe that the term “typology” is primarily a general scientific term, and not a literary one.

Much more often in literary criticism we come across the term “typification”, although in terminological dictionaries in philology this term is also absent. Typification is “the development of standard designs or technological processes based on technical characteristics common to a number of products (processes). One of the methods of standardization".

Character images, like all other types of imagery, are, as it were, a clot of what the writer sees around him. Such a condensation of essential phenomena in an image is typification, and an image-character that reflects the leading features of an era, group, social class, etc. is usually called a literary type.

There are literary types three types: epochal, social, universal.

Epochal types condense the properties of people of a certain historical period of time. It is no coincidence that the expression “children of their time” exists. Thus, the literature of the 19th century developed in detail and showed the type extra person, which manifested itself in such different images: Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov - they all belong to different generations of people, but they are united by a common type of dissatisfaction with themselves and life, the inability to realize themselves, to find an application for their abilities, but this manifests itself every time in accordance with the requirements of the time and individuality: Onegin is bored, Pechorin is chasing life, Oblomov is lying on the sofa. Epochal types most clearly express temporary characteristics in people.

Social types concentrate the traits and qualities of people of certain social groups. It is by these indicators that we can determine in what environment this type arose. Thus, Gogol in “Dead Souls” very convincingly showed the type of landowners. Each of them, according to the author’s plan, is characterized by a unique enlarged character trait: Manilov is a dreamer, Korobochka is a clubhead, Nozdre is historical person, Sobakevich is a fist, Plyushkin is a hole in humanity. Taken together, all these qualities recreate the general type of landowner.

Social types make it possible to recreate the vivid typical properties of people of a certain social group, emphasizing its most natural qualities, indicators by which we can judge the state of society, its hierarchical structure and draw appropriate conclusions about the relations between social groups of a particular period.

Universal human types concentrate in themselves the properties of people of all times and peoples. This type is synthetic because it manifests itself in both epochal and social types. This concept is multidimensional, independent of temporary or social connections and relationships. Such qualities as, for example, love and hatred, generosity and greed, characterize people from the moment they became self-aware until our times, that is, these categories are constant, but filled with unique content in the process of historical development. More precisely, these universal human categories manifest themselves individually each time, so Pushkin in the Stingy Knight, Gogol in Plyushkin, Moliere in Tartuffe depicted the type of stingy person, but in each writer it found its own embodiment.

By creating typical characters, the writer each time makes his own judgment on the person portrayed. His verdict can sound in various forms, for example, in the form of satire - direct ridicule, which we hear already in the title of Saltykov-Shchedrin’s fairy tale “ Wild landowner"; irony - hidden ridicule, when the direct content of a statement contradicts its internal meaning, for example, in Krylov’s fable “The Fox and the Donkey” the fox says: “Okol smart your head is delirious.” The writer’s verdict can also be expressed in the form of pathos, that is, an enthusiastic depiction of positive phenomena, for example, the beginning of Mayakovsky’s poem “Good”:

I am the globe

I almost walked around everything!

And life is good!

The nature of the author's assessment depends on the artist's worldview and in some cases may be erroneous, which leads to errors in typification, as a result of which atypical characters appear. Their main reasons: the writer’s shallow understanding of the problem and a crisis of worldview, for example, in the 20s of the twentieth century, many writers depicted the participation of children and teenagers in the terrible events of the civil war in a heroic, adventurous, romantic way, and readers were given the impression of war as a chain exploits, beautiful deeds, victories. For example, in “The Little Red Devils” by Pyotr Blyakhin, teenagers commit actions that are atypical for their age and life experience, that is, the characters were created by the writer, but they are not typical. An important factor in the emergence of such characters is a crisis of worldview. Sometimes a writer lacks artistic skill, usually this happens with young, aspiring writers, whose first works remain in the category of student works, for example, A.P. Gaidar wrote his first story, “Days of Defeats and Victories,” for which he received serious criticism from the editor: vagueness, unconvincing images. It was never published, but the next story brought fame to the author.

It happens that the author has not found a full-fledged artistic form to express his life impressions and observations, for example, A.I. Kuprin planned to write a big novel about the life of the military, for which he collected a lot of autobiographical material, but while working on it he felt that he was drowning in this volume and his plan was not being realized in the intended form of the novel. Kuprin turned to Gorky, who recommended the story to him. The required form was found and “Duel” appeared.

Sometimes the writer simply did not work hard enough to perfect the image he was creating.

In all these cases, the image contains either much less, or not at all, what the author wanted to say. From the above it follows that the image and the type are in the following relationship: a type is always an image, but an image is not always a type.

Working on the image, trying to embody in it the essential laws of time, society and all people, the writer typifies in it a wide variety of phenomena:

· massive. The fact that a particular phenomenon is widespread indicates its typicality for a certain group of people or society as a whole, therefore literary types are most often created by a writer using mass generalizations, for example, type little man V XIX literature century;

Rare isolated phenomena can also be classified. Any new phenomenon at the moment of its inception is few in number, but if it contains the prospect of further spread, then such a phenomenon is typical, and by drawing it, the writer predicts social development, for example, Gorky’s songs about the falcon and the petrel were written before 1905, but they became symbols of approaching events, which soon acquired a wide scope;

· an artist can even depict a typical character by generalizing its exceptional features, for example, A. Tolstoy, in the image of Peter the Great in his novel of the same name, recreated the typical properties of a sovereign and a person, despite the fact that the personality of Peter I is an exceptional phenomenon in history. In recreating this image, Tolstoy follows the Pushkin tradition, according to which Peter was endowed best qualities of his people. What is exceptional about him is not his qualities, but their depth and concentration in one person, which makes him an exception to the rule. So, the typification of the exceptional is the condensation in one image of a large number of positive and negative qualities, which makes it stand out from everyone else. These qualities, as a rule, are possessed by prominent historical figures, men of genius in various fields of science and art, and political criminals;

· negative phenomena are also typified in the image, thanks to which a person masters the concept of the negative. Examples include various negative actions of children in Mayakovsky’s poem “What is good...”;

· typification of the positive occurs when the ideal is directly realized and ideal characters are created.

So, typification is the law of art, and the literary type is the ultimate goal to which every artist strives. It is no coincidence that the literary type is called the highest form of image.

When working on a text, creating your own art paintings, writers take material from life, but process it differently. In accordance with this, in the science of literature, two ways of creating a literary type are distinguished.

1. Collective, when the writer is observing different tempers people and noticing them common features, reflects them in the image (Don Quixote, Pechorin, Sherlock Holmes).

2. Prototype. A method of typification in which the writer takes as a basis a really existing or existing person, in whom the properties and qualities inherent in a certain group of people manifested themselves especially clearly, and on his basis creates his own image. Nikolenka Irtemyev, A. Peshkov, Alexey Meresyev are depicted in this way. Using direct material to create an image, the artist not only copies it, but also, as in the first case, processes it, that is, discards the unimportant and emphasizes the most characteristic or important. If in case collective image the path from the general to the specific, then in the case of a prototype - from the specific to the general.

The difference in these two methods is that in the second case the artist invents less, but the creative processing of life material occurs here too, so the image is always richer than the prototype, that is, the writer condenses the raw life material and brings his own assessment to the image.

Along with typing methods, to create an image, artists use typing techniques or means of creating an image. There are 12 basic techniques.

Of course, this number does not exhaust all the richness and diversity of the poetics of a literary text. Let us dwell on the characteristics of fixed assets:

1. portrait characterization - a typing technique in which a person’s appearance is described, for example, “Lensky is rich and handsome”;

2. object-life characteristics - a typification technique consisting in depicting the environment with which a person surrounded himself, for example, Onegin’s office;

3. biography - a typing technique that reveals the history of a person’s life, its individual stages. As a rule, biography is introduced by writers in order to show how exactly a given human type, for example, the biography of Chichikov in the first volume of “Dead Souls” is placed at the end, and it is from it that the reader draws a conclusion about how the type of entrepreneur was formed in Rus';

4. manners and habits - a typing technique with the help of which stereotypical forms of human behavior are revealed, which were formed on the basis general rules(manners) and unique personality traits (habits), for example Gogol in “ Dead souls"emphasizes the desire of provincial ladies to be like the women of secular Moscow and St. Petersburg: "No lady will say that this glass or this plate stinks, but they said “behaves badly.” We can give an example of a habit by remembering Manilov’s favorite pastime: smoking a pipe and putting the ashes on the windowsill;

5. behavior - a typification technique through which the artist shows the actions of a person.

Arranging a shelf with a group of books,

I read and read - and all to no avail;

6. depiction of emotional experiences - a typification technique through which the writer shows what a person thinks and feels at different moments: “Oh, I, like a brother, would be glad to embrace the storm”;

7. attitude towards nature - a typification technique, with the help of which a person gives a direct assessment of a particular natural phenomenon, for example:

I don't like spring

In the spring I am sick;

8. worldview - a typification technique with the help of which a person’s system of views on nature, society and himself is revealed, for example, representatives of different beliefs - the nihilist Bazarov and the liberal Kirsanov;

Forgive me, I love you so much

My dear Tatiana;

10. characterizing surname - a typing technique when a person is endowed with a surname that indicates the most important, dominant feature of the individual, speaks for itself, for example, Prostakova, Skotinin;

11. speech characteristic - a typing technique that contains a set of lexical-phraseological, figurative, intonation properties of a person, for example, in Krylov’s fable the monkey says to the bear: “Look, my dear godfather, what kind of face is that there,” - this speech the characteristic is clear evidence of the monkey’s ignorance;

12. mutual characterization - a typing technique in which the participants in the action evaluate each other, for example, Famusov says about Liza: “Oh, the potion is a spoiled one,” and Liza about Famusov: “Like all the Moscow people, your father is like this: I would like a son-in-law with stars and with rank."

Methods and techniques of typification make up the form or composition of the image. In order to analyze the content of an image, the writer puts it into a certain form, that is, builds the image using methods and techniques for characterizing it. Since content and form cannot be separated from each other, and the image is the main significant category of an artistic text, the law of the unity of content and form applies to the entire work.

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