Feudal fragmentation in Rus' in the 12th–13th centuries: reasons, main principalities and lands, differences in the state system.
The basis for the beginning of political fragmentation was the formation of large land holdings, received on the basis of freehold ownership.
Feudal fragmentation – historical period in the history of Rus', which is characterized by the fact that, formally being part of Kievan Rus, the appanage principalities are constantly separated from Kyiv
Start – 1132 (death of the Kyiv prince Mstislav the Great)
Ending – formation of a unified Russian state at the end of the 15th century
Causes feudal fragmentation:
Preservation of significant tribal fragmentation under conditions of dominance of subsistence farming (social)
The development of feudal land ownership and the growth of appanage, princely-boyar land ownership - estates (economic)
Power struggle between princes, feudal civil strife (internal political)
Constant raids of nomads and outflow of population to the northeast of Rus' (foreign policy)
The decline of trade along the Dnieper due to the Polovtsian danger and the loss of Byzantium's leading role in international trade (economic)
The growth of cities as centers of specific lands, the development of productive forces (economic)
The absence in the middle of the 12th century of a serious external threat (Poland, Hungary), which rallied the princes to fight
The emergence of the main principalities:
Novgorod Boyar Republic:
The Novgorod land (northwestern Rus') occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals.
The Novgorod land was far from the nomads and did not experience the horror of their raids. The wealth of the Novgorod land lay in the presence of a huge land fund that fell into the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the local tribal nobility. Novgorod did not have enough of its own bread, but commercial activities - hunting, fishing, salt making, iron production, beekeeping - received significant development and provided the boyars with considerable income. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by its exceptionally favorable geographical position: the city was located at the crossroads of trade routes connecting Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium. Dozens of ships stood at the berths of the Volkhov River in Novgorod.
The Novgorod boyar republic is characterized by certain features of the social system and feudal relations: the significant social and feudal weight of the Novgorod boyars, which has long traditions, and its active participation in trade and fishing activities. The main economic factor was not land, but capital. This determined a special social structure of society and a form of government unusual for medieval Rus'. The Novgorod boyars organized commercial and industrial enterprises, trade with their western neighbors (the Hanseatic Trade Union) and with the Russian principalities.
By analogy with some regions of the medieval Western Europe(Genoa, Venice) in Novgorod a peculiar republican (feudal) system. The development of crafts and trade, more intensive than in the ancient Russian lands, which was explained by access to the seas, required the creation of more democratic state system, the basis of which was a fairly broad middle class Novgorod Society: live People engaged in trade and usury, fellow countrymen (a kind of farmer or farmer) rented out or cultivated the land. Merchants united into several hundred (communities) and traded with the Russian principalities and with “abroad” (“guests”).
The urban population was divided into patricians (“oldest”) and “black people.” The Novgorod (Pskov) peasantry consisted, as in other Russian lands, of smerds - community members, lads - dependent peasants working “from the floor” for part of the product on the master’s land, mortgagers (“mortgaged”), those who entered into bondage and slaves.
State administration of Novgorod was carried out through a system of veche bodies: in the capital there was citywide meeting , separate parts of the city (sides, ends, streets) convened their own veche meetings. Formally, the veche was the highest authority (each at its own level).
Veche - meeting of the unit male population of the city, had broad powers (“citywide” veche): there were cases that it called the prince, judged his “guilts,” “showed him the way” from Novgorod; elected mayor, thousand and ruler; resolved issues of war and peace; made and repealed laws; established the amounts of taxes and duties; elected government officials in the Novgorod possessions and judged them.
Prince - invited by citizens to reign, served as commander-in-chief and organizer of the defense of the city. He shared military and judicial activities with the mayor. According to agreements with the city (about eighty agreements of the 13th-15th centuries are known), the prince was forbidden to acquire land in Novgorod and distribute the land of Novgorod volosts to his associates. Also, according to the agreement, he was forbidden to manage the Novgorod volosts, administer court outside the city, make laws, declare war and make peace. It was also forbidden to enter into agreements with foreigners without the mediation of Novgorodians, judge slaves, accept pawns from merchants and smerds, hunt and fish outside the designated please him. In case of violation of treaties, the prince could be expelled.
Posadnik - Executive power was in the hands of the mayor, the first civil dignitary, chairman of the people's veche. Their functions included: relations with foreign states, courts and internal administration. During the performance of their duties, they were called sedate (from the word “degree” - the platform from which they addressed the veche). Upon retirement, they received the name of the old mayor and the old thousand.
Tysyatsky was the leader of the Novgorod militia, and his responsibilities included: tax collection, commercial court.
The Council of Gentlemen is a kind of Novgorod supreme chamber. The council included: archbishop, mayor, thousand, Konchan elders, sotsky elders, old mayors and thousand.
The regulation of the relationship between the Council of Gentlemen, the mayor and the veche with the prince was established by special letters of agreement.
The sources of law in this region were Russian Pravda, veche legislation, agreements between the city and princes, judicial practice, and foreign legislation. As a result of codification in the 15th century, Novgorod judgment letters appeared in Novgorod.
As a result of the war of 1471 and the campaign of Moscow troops against Veliky Novgorod in 1477-1478. Many institutions of republican power were abolished. The Novgorod Republic became an integral part of the Russian state, while maintaining some autonomy. Vladimir - Suzdal Principality
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality is a typical example of a Russian principality during the period of feudal fragmentation. Occupying a large territory - from the Northern Dvina to the Oka and from the sources of the Volga to its confluence with the Oka, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' over time became the center around which the Russian lands united, the formation of Russian centralized state. Moscow was founded on its territory. The growth of the influence of this large principality was greatly facilitated by the fact that it was there transferred from Kyiv the title of grand duke. All Vladimir-Suzdal princes, descendants of Vladimir Monomakh - from Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157) to Daniil of Moscow (1276-1303) - bore this title.
The metropolitan see was also moved there. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality did not retain its unity and integrity for long. Soon after its rise under the Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), it broke up into small principalities. In the 70s XIII century The Principality of Moscow also became independent.
Social system. The structure of the feudal class in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality was not much different from that of Kyiv. However, here a new category of small feudal lords arises - the so-called boyar children. In the 12th century. a new term appears - " nobles". The ruling class also included clergy, which in all Russian lands during the period of feudal fragmentation, including the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, retained its organization, built according to the church charters of the first Russian Christian princes - Vladimir the Holy and Yaroslav the Wise. Having conquered Rus', the Tatar-Mongols left the organization of the Orthodox Church unchanged. They confirmed the privileges of the church with khan's labels. The oldest of them, issued by Khan Mengu-Temir (1266-1267), guaranteed the inviolability of faith, worship and church canons, retained the jurisdiction of the clergy and other church persons to church courts (with the exception of cases of robbery, murder, exemption from taxes, duties and duties). The metropolitan and bishops of the Vladimir land had their own vassals - boyars, children of boyars and nobles who performed military service with them.
The bulk of the population of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality were rural residents, called here orphans, Christians, and later peasants. They paid quitrents to the feudal lords and were gradually deprived of the right to freely move from one owner to another.
Politic system. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was early feudal monarchy with strong grand ducal power. Already the first Rostov-Suzdal prince - Yuri Dolgoruky - was a strong ruler who managed to conquer Kyiv in 1154. In 1169, Andrei Bogolyubsky again conquered the "mother of Russian cities", but did not move his capital there - he returned to Vladimir, thereby re-establishing its capital status. He managed to subjugate the Rostov boyars to his power, for which he was nicknamed the “autocracy” of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Even during the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Vladimir table continued to be considered the first grand princely throne in Rus'. The Tatar-Mongols preferred to leave intact the internal state structure of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and the clan order of succession to grand-ducal power.
The Grand Duke of Vladimir relied on his squad, from among which, as in the times Kievan Rus, the Council was formed under the prince. In addition to the warriors, the council included representatives of the highest clergy, and after the transfer of the metropolitan see to Vladimir, the metropolitan himself.
The Grand Duke's court was ruled by a dvorsky (butler) - the second most important person in the state apparatus. The Ipatiev Chronicle (1175) also mentions tiuns, swordsmen, and children among the princely assistants, which indicates that the Vladimir-Suzdal principality inherited from Kievan Rus palace-patrimonial management system.
Local power belonged to governors (in cities) and volosts (in rural areas). They administered justice in the lands under their jurisdiction, showing not so much concern for the administration of justice, but a desire for personal enrichment at the expense of the local population and replenishment of the grand ducal treasury, for, as the same Ipatiev Chronicle says, “they created a lot of burdens for the people with sales and Virami".
Right. The sources of law of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality have not reached us, but there is no doubt that they acted in it national legislative codes of Kievan Rus. The legal system of the principality included sources of secular and ecclesiastical law. Secular law was introduced Russian Truth. Church law was based on the norms of all-Russian charters of the Kyiv princes of an earlier time - the Charter of Prince Vladimir on tithes, church courts and church people, the Charter of Prince Yaroslav on church courts.
Galicia-Volyn principality
Social system. A feature of the social structure of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that a large group of boyars was formed there, in whose hands almost all land holdings were concentrated. The most important role was played by " Galician men" - large patrimonial owners, who already in the 12th century opposed any attempts to limit their rights in favor of princely power and growing cities.
The other group consisted service feudal lords. The sources of their land holdings were princely grants, boyar lands confiscated and redistributed by the princes, as well as seized communal lands. In the vast majority of cases, they held land conditionally while they served. Serving feudal lords supplied the prince with an army consisting of peasants dependent on them. It was the support of the Galician princes in the fight against the boyars.
The feudal elite also included large church nobility in the person of archbishops, bishops, abbots of monasteries who owned vast lands and peasants. The church and monasteries acquired land holdings through grants and donations from princes. Often they, like princes and boyars, seized communal lands, turning peasants into monastic and church feudal-dependent people.
The bulk of the rural population in the Galicia-Volyn principality were peasants (smerdas). The growth of large land ownership and the formation of a class of feudal lords was accompanied by the establishment of feudal dependence and the emergence of feudal rent. Such a category as slaves has almost disappeared . Slavery merged with the peasants sitting on the ground.
The largest group of the urban population were artisans. In the cities there were jewelry, pottery, blacksmith and other workshops, the products of which went not only to the domestic, but also to the foreign market. Brought great income salt trade. Being a center of crafts and trade, Galich also gained fame as a cultural center. The Galicia-Volych Chronicle and other written monuments of the 11th-111th centuries were created here.
Political system. The Galicia-Volyn principality maintained its unity longer than many other Russian lands, although power in him belonged to large boyars . The power princes was fragile. Suffice it to say that the Galician boyars even controlled the princely table - they invited and removed princes. The history of the Galicia-Volyn principality is full of examples when princes who lost the support of the top boyars were forced to go into exile. The boyars invited Poles and Hungarians to fight the princes. The boyars hanged several Galician-Volyn princes. The boyars exercised their power with the help of a council, which included the largest landowners, bishops and persons holding the highest government positions. The prince did not have the right to convene a council at his own request, and could not issue a single act without his consent. Since the council included boyars who held major administrative positions, the entire state administrative apparatus was actually subordinate to it.
The Galician-Volyn princes from time to time, in emergency circumstances, convened a veche, but it did not have much influence. They took part in all-Russian feudal congresses. Occasionally congresses of feudal lords and the Galician-Volyn principality itself were convened. In this principality there was a palace-patrimonial system of government.
The territory of the state was divided into thousands and hundreds. As the thousand and sotskys with their administrative apparatus gradually became part of the palace-patrimonial apparatus of the prince, the positions of governors and volostels arose in their place. Accordingly, the territory was divided into voivodeships and volosts. The communities elected elders who were in charge of administrative and minor judicial matters. Posadniks were appointed to the cities. They had not only administrative and military power, but also performed judicial functions, collected tributes and duties from the population.
The feudal fragmentation of Rus' is a natural result of the development of early feudal Russian society.
The reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' can be called economic and political.
Economic ones consisted of the distribution at that time subsistence farming, and therefore, it is possible to isolate itself from the state, because production was carried out not for sale, but “for oneself.” The emergence of cities and the development of crafts led to the enrichment of the estate. The prince’s warriors turned into landowners and “settled” on their lands. The number of dependent slaves who needed to be kept in line was growing, and this required the presence of a police apparatus, but without government intervention. The development of production led to economic and political isolation. Local boyars did not intend to share their income with the Grand Duke of Kyiv and actively supported their rulers in the struggle for independence and strengthening of their own principality.
The political ones were that all the princes and patrimonial lords were relatives and considered themselves equal to each other. Outwardly, the collapse of Kievan Rus was a division of territories between representatives of the princely family, which had grown during this time.
Stages of decay.
The first attempts to secede from Kievan Rus were made after the death of Vladimir the Saint in 1052. But Prince Yaroslav the Wise united the Russian lands by force and cunning. In 1097, there was an attempt to unite the Russian lands under a treaty. The Russian princes Svyatopolk, Vladimir, Davyd Svyatoslavich, Davyd Igorevich, Oleg and Vasilko gathered in Lyubech for a congress, where two issues were resolved:
1) who should rule where;
2) on what conditions to maintain a unified state.
Kyiv was recognized as the capital of Russian cities, where tribute is paid no matter how much. Depending on the amount of tribute, help comes from Kyiv.
But already on the way from Kyiv to their lands, two princes kill Prince Vasilko in order to divide his lands. Only Vladimir Monomakh, who reigned from 1113 to 1125, was able to restore order. in Kyiv, but after his death it became impossible to stop the collapse.
In the second quarter of the 12th century, the Polovtsians were completely defeated, the number of nomadic raids on Russian lands sharply decreased, unification became unnecessary and, starting from the 12th century, the Principality of Kiev gradually faded away.
The consequences of feudal fragmentation in Rus' were that out of 12 principalities, 250 were formed, as a result of which the Russian land became very vulnerable, but at the same time feudal fragmentation contributed to the development of feudal relations. Novgorod land, the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality and the Galician-Volyn Principality were the three largest lands after the collapse. The two names for the land - Vladimir-Suzdal - were explained by the fact that it had two rulers: in Vladimir - a prince, in Suzdal - a boyar council. In these lands, the common traditions and principles of management and culture that developed during the existence of a single state continued to be preserved and developed. But at the same time different lands had their own peculiarities of development, so the process of formation of local art schools in architecture, painting, literature, there were differences in management.
Novgorod feudal republic
The main governing body in Novgorod Republic there was a meeting-meeting of adult men, later - representatives of clans, regardless of social origin. The leading role at the veche was played by “200 golden belts” (200 boyars); they constituted the boyar council. The veche was held only on important occasions; the rest of the time the boyar council ruled, headed by the archbishop. The functions of the archbishop were to keep state seal, control of the issue of coins and control of the treasury (he had the keys to the treasury), measures of weight, length and volume (this was important for trade). In addition, he was the supreme judge.
The veche elected a mayor and a thousand, who helped the archbishop.
Posadnik is a person who leads foreign policy, monitors the implementation of court decisions, is the head of the militia. The mayor was chosen from among the trade people, because foreign policy- This is primarily trade.
Tysyatsky was an executor of punishments, a deputy mayor, he oversaw the collection of taxes.
The prince was invited from the Vladimir-Suzdal land in case of war or rebellion. He was entrusted with defense, and then he was expelled.
The symbol of freedom of Novgorod was the veche bell, which rang until the end of the 16th century. After the conquest of Novgorod by the Moscow princes, the bell “took out its tongue, beat it with whips and exiled it to Siberia.” From that moment on, the existence of the Novgorod land ceased.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality occupied the area between the Oka and Volga rivers. The prince was the sovereign ruler of the principality. The Vladimir princes built the principality as an eastern state, on the principles of despotism, i.e. the prince led the entire life of society.
It was in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality that the Moscow dynasty was formed. The first of the famous Vladimir princes was Yuri Dolgoruky, one of younger sons Vladimir Monomakh, he ruled in Vladimir at the beginning of the 12th century, united a number of lands into a single Vladimir-Suzdal principality, went to Kyiv and burned it.
Yuri's son, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), first began the fight against the boyars for sole power and at the same time relied on the nobles. The difference between the boyars and the nobles was that the boyars had an estate, and the nobles did not have land; they were the prince’s warriors, to whom the prince gave land for their service.
During his reign, Andrei managed to separate the power of the prince from the boyar council, for which the boyars poisoned him.
After the death of Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212) ascended the throne. He was so nicknamed because he had 17 children, all boys (according to some historical estimates). After his death, hostility and strife began.
Galicia-Volyn Principality
The Galician-Volyn principality is the westernmost principality, bordering Poland and Hungary. The Volyn princes did not have the same rights and privileges as the Vladimir princes.
The system of government in this principality was close to the European one (vassalage). The prince's feudal lords were independent of him. The prince shared power with the boyar Duma, and the boyars had the right to remove the prince. The economy depended on trade relations with Europe, the main product being bread.
In addition, the slave trade was developed in the principality, because it was close to Mediterranean Sea, and the slave market was developed in the Mediterranean.
The collapse of the Galician-Volyn principality began in the 14th century, when Volyn was captured by Lithuania, and the Galician land by Poland.
All lands had three paths of development: republic, despotism or monarchy. Due to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, despotism began to dominate.
Feudal fragmentation in Rus' existed until the end of the 15th century, when most of the territory of the former Kyiv principality became part of the Moscow one.
Prerequisites and reasons for the transition to feudal fragmentation. At the turn of the XI-XII centuries. in Rus' there came a period characteristic of the European Middle Ages period of feudal fragmentation . On the positive side This process was the development of the feudal mode of production. The strengthening of feudal land ownership and the increase in quitrents - all this created the conditions for the further development of the country's economy. At the same time, fragmentation has caused negative phenomena in the region political life. Princely strife began, endless internal strife among feudal lords began, which worsened the foreign policy situation of Rus' and weakened its strength in the fight against foreign invaders.
The Vladimir-Suzdal principality came out from under the control of Kyiv in the 30s. XII century, when the son of Monomakh, Yuri Vladimirovich, reigned, nicknamed Dolgoruky for his attempts to occupy and hold cities as distant from Suzdal as Kyiv and Novgorod. As a feudal lord, he did not hesitate to expand his land holdings.
In the 12th century. The Vladimir-Suzdal land experienced significant economic growth. New cities were built here: Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Pereyaslavl, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov, etc. Yuri’s successors, princes Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky, then his brother Vsevolod the Big Nest, managed to strengthen personal power, subjugate Novgorod and Ryazan, and create a strong squad. All of them waged a long struggle with the Galician-Volyn princes for Kyiv land. This struggle weakened Rus'.
The Galicia-Volyn land with its center in Przemysl occupied a territory stretching along the Black Sea coast to the Danube. It had rich salt mines and salt was exported to neighboring Russian principalities. Crafts reached a high level, which led to the growth of cities, of which there were over 80. Located at the intersection of numerous water and land routes, the Galicia-Volyn land played a prominent role in European trade. For a long time, there were feuds between local boyars and princes. The boyars sought help from Hungary and Poland, which for a long time prevented political consolidation.
Novgorod, one of the largest Russian cities, was located on the main trade route connecting the Baltic, Black and Caspian seas. The power of Novgorod extended to vast territories that were previously part of the Old Russian state, to the Eastern Baltic to the Dvina, to the lands of the Karelians, Finns and Sami up to Norway, far to the north along the coast White Sea, to the Ural ridge. Agriculture was developed in the Novgorod land, but the main role in the economy was played by trades: hunting for fur and sea animals, mining of salt and iron. Novgorod itself was not only a trading center, but also a highly developed craft center. The Novgorod lands have developed a culture different from other Russian regions. political system- boyar republic. Formally, the supreme power was held by the veche, a meeting of all townspeople. However, in fact, it was in the hands of the boyars, from among whom were elected: mayor - the head of the entire administration; Tysyatsky - assistant mayor, head of military forces, tax collection; archbishop - head of the Novgorod church. The Novgorod boyars had to reckon with the opinion of the veche, especially when speeches by city “black” people took place at veche meetings. Gradually with the development of internal and foreign trade in Novgorod the role of the merchants increased.
Culture of Russian lands. Despite the dismemberment of Rus', close economic ties developed between the principalities, especially in the field of trade, this had a positive effect on all Russian lands. A developed economy became the material basis for the flourishing of culture. Russian culture of the era of feudal fragmentation amazes with its diversity. During this period, literacy spread, covering new regions of the country and various classes, construction technology was improved (the production of bricks, durable lime mixture, etc. was mastered). Many monuments of wall painting, stone carving, fine silver coinage and monumental architecture were created, which gained worldwide fame. The Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals in Vladimir are decorated with stone carved reliefs; Church of the Intercession on the Nerl - decorative sculpture. In all major cities historical chronicles were kept, which became not only historical sources, but also literary monuments. Church preaching literature developed. Individual components also belong to the literary monuments chronicle vaults, which are stories of secular content. All authors made extensive use of folklore treasures. The greatest monument Russian and world culture is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The bearers of progressive ideas of that time strongly condemned the feudal strife of the princes and called on them to unite, which was so necessary to fight the external enemy.
The collapse of the early feudal state into several large independent entities is a natural stage in the development of feudal relations, characteristic of both Western and Eastern European countries. This period lasted in Rus' from the 30s of the 12th century to the end of the 15th century.
During this time, the fragmentation of the once united state increased: by the middle of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, at the beginning of the 13th century - 50, in the 14th century - about 250.
Reasons for feudal fragmentation:
- Growth in the number of cities (to the beginning Tatar-Mongol invasion there were about 300 of them) in a subsistence economy led to the natural isolation of individual territories, which became economically independent of each other, since they provided themselves with everything. Not only Kyiv, but also other cities could lay claim to the role of cultural, trade and craft centers.
- Local ruling groups (princes, boyars) were strong enough to independently maintain order in their territories and protect their interests
- The established system of vassalage gave rise to special hierarchical relationships within the ruling elite of society: each feudal lord had certain obligations to the allied (higher feudal lord); most feudal lords had subordinate vassals (lower feudal lords), which ensured independence and independence of existence, and therefore, direct dependence on centralized power disappeared.
Stages of political fragmentation of the ancient Russian state:
- 1054 After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, the separation of individual principalities began
- 1097 The Lyubech Congress of Princes approved an agreement on securing the princely thrones locally to individual branches of the house of Rurikovich
- 1132 After the death of Mstislav the Great, the state was finally fragmented into separate lands and principalities
- Since 1132, the process of fragmentation continued within the lands and principalities
Features of feudal fragmentation:
- Unlike Medieval Europe, in Rus' there was no generally accepted political center (capital). The Kyiv throne quickly fell into decay. At the beginning of the 13th century, the princes of Vladimir began to be called Great.
- The rulers in all the lands of Rus' belonged to the same dynasty.
Main political centers:
Galicia-Volyn land (in the southwest)
The Galician-Volyn principality occupied lands in the basins of the Dnieper, Prut, Southern and Western Bug, stretching from the Carpathians to Polesie. In the 12th century, there were 2 independent principalities in this territory: Volyn and Galician. In 1199 they united into the powerful Galicia-Volyn principality.
Vladimir-Suzdal land (in the northeast)
(originally Rostov-Suzdal) Occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. Rich in fertile soils, forested lands, and flooded meadows, this land was a most fertile land, moreover, it was also well protected by natural barriers (rivers, forests) from external enemies.
Novgorod land (in the northwest)
The largest center of Russian lands in the north-west. It occupied the largest area in terms of territory - from the Baltic to the Ural Range and from the White Sea to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga. Novgorodians had huge land reserves and rich industries.
State fragmentation in Rus'
In the 30-40s. XII century princes cease to recognize power Prince of Kyiv. Rus' breaks up into separate principalities (“lands”). The struggle of different princely branches began for Kyiv. The strongest lands were Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn. Subordinate to their princes were the princes, whose possessions ( appanages ) were part of the large lands. The growth of local centers, already burdened by the tutelage of Kyiv, and the development of princely and boyar land ownership are considered to be the prerequisites for fragmentation. The Principality of Vladimir rose under Yuri Dolgoruky and his sons Andrei Bogolyubsky (d. 1174) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (d. 1212). Yuri and Andrei captured Kyiv more than once, but Andrei, unlike his father, put his brother there, and did not reign himself. Andrei tried to rule by despotic methods and was killed by conspirators. After the death of Andrei and Vsevolod, strife broke out between their heirs. The Principality of Galicia strengthened under Yaroslav Osmomysl (d. 1187). In 1199, when Yaroslav’s son Vladimir died childless, Galich was captured by Roman of Volyn, and in 1238, after a long struggle, Roman’s son Daniel. The development of this land was influenced by Poland and Hungary, which actively intervened in local feuds, as well as the boyars, who were much more influential and powerful than in other principalities. Novgorodians in 1136 They expelled Prince Vsevolod and from then on began to invite princes according to the decision of the veche. The real power lay with the boyars, whose factions fought among themselves for influence. The same situation was in Pskov, which depended on Novgorod. In the 1170s The Polovtsian danger is intensifying. The southern princes, led by Svyatoslav of Kyiv, inflicted several defeats on them, but in 1185 Igor Novgorod-Seversky was defeated and captured by the Polovtsians, the nomads ravaged part of southern Rus'. But by the end of the century, the Polovtsy, having broken up into many separate hordes, stopped raiding.
Reasons for feudal discord:
- Increasing importance of patrimonial land ownership
- disadvantages of the patrimonial principle of succession to the throne
- weakening of the political and economic role of Kyiv
- The reason for the feud of discord was the Lyubech Congress. He changed the principle of succession to the throne and introduced the principle from father to sons.
15 large independent princes received the name of lands. Only 2 princes were not transferred to anyone for succession: Kivevks and Novgor.
Why didn’t the Kiev princedom split up?:
- Formally, the Prince of Kiev was considered the Grand Duke
- All the most powerful princes could lay claim to the Kiev throne
Feudal disunity is a natural stage in the development of the society, which all countries have gone through. Therefore, it is impossible to unambiguously evaluate fr:
Positive:
- Intensive development of regions, power closer to the people
- feud strife became less frequent
- intensive perfection, namely agricultural production, transition to a 2-3 field system,
- intensive metal production, urban development.
By the end of the 13th century there were about 300 cities in the KKN. Cities are being transformed into centers of craft and trade, merchant corporations are being created, and the local self-government system is developing.
- feud relatives are entering their mature stage
Negative:
- Many Russian lands fall under the control of other peoples.
The period of feudal fragmentation, traditionally called the “appanage period,” lasted from the 12th to the end of the 15th centuries.
Feudal fragmentation weakened the defensive capabilities of the Russian lands. This became noticeable in the second half of the 11th century, when a new strong enemy- Polovtsians (Turkic nomadic tribes). According to the chronicles, it is estimated that from 1061 to beginning of XIII V. There were more than 46 major Cuman invasions.
The internecine wars of the princes, the associated destruction of cities and villages, and the removal of the population into slavery became a disaster for peasants and townspeople. From 1228 to 1462, according to S. M. Solovyov, there were 90 wars between Russian principalities, in which there were 35 cases of taking cities, and 106 external wars, of which: 45 - with the Tatars, 41 - with the Lithuanians, 30 - with Livonian Order, the rest - with the Swedes and Bulgars. The population begins to leave Kyiv and neighboring lands to the northeast to the Rostov-Suzdal land and partially to the southwest to Galicia. Occupying the southern Russian steppes, the Polovtsians cut off Rus' from foreign markets, which led to a decline in trade. During the same period, European trade routes changed to Balkan-Asian directions as a result of the Crusades. In this regard, the Russian principalities experienced difficulties in international trade.
In addition to external ones, there were also internal reasons decline of Kievan Rus. Klyuchevsky believed that this process was influenced by the degraded legal and economic position of the working population and the significant development of slavery. The courtyards and villages of the princes were full of “servants”; the position of the “purchasers” and “hiremen” (semi-free) was on the verge of a slave state. The Smerds, who retained their communities, were crushed by princely exactions and the growing appetites of the boyars. Feudal fragmentation, the growth of political contradictions between independent principalities expanding their territories led to changes in their social order. The power of the princes became strictly hereditary, the boyars, who received the right to freely choose their overlord, grew stronger, and the category of free servants (former ordinary warriors) multiplied. In the princely economy, the number of unfree servants grew, engaged in production and material support for the prince himself, his family, and members of the princely court.
Features of the divided Russian principalities
As a result of the fragmentation of the ancient Russian state by the middle of the 12th century. separated into independent ten states-principalities. Subsequently, to mid-XIII c., their number reached eighteen. They were given names based on the capital cities: Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Muromo-Ryazans. Suzdal (Vladimir). Smolensk, Galicia, Vladimir-Volynsk, Polotsk, Novgorod Boyar Republic. In each of the principalities, one of the branches of the Rurikovichs ruled, and the sons of princes and governor-boyars ruled individual appanages and volosts. However, all lands retained the same written language, a single religion and church organization, the legal norms of the “Russian Truth”, and most importantly, an awareness of common roots, a common historical destiny. At the same time, each of the established independent states had its own development characteristics. The largest of them, which played a significant role in the subsequent history of Rus', were: Suzdal (later - Vladimir) principality - North-Eastern Rus'; Galician (later - Galician-Volyn) principality - South-Western Rus'; Novgorod boyar republic - Novgorod land (North-Western Rus').
Principality of Suzdal was located between the Oka and Volga rivers. Its territory was well protected from external invasions by forests and rivers, it had profitable trade routes along the Volga with the countries of the East, and through the upper reaches of the Volga - to Novgorod and to the countries of Western Europe. The economic recovery was also facilitated by a constant influx of population. The Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125 - 1157), in the struggle with his nephew Izyaslav Mstislavich for the Kiev throne, repeatedly captured Kyiv. For the first time in the chronicle under 1147, Moscow is mentioned, where negotiations between Yuri and the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav took place. Yuri's son, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) moved the capital of the principality from Suzdal to Vladimir, which he rebuilt with great pomp. The northeastern princes ceased to lay claim to rule in Kyiv, but sought to maintain their influence here, first by organizing military campaigns, then through diplomacy and dynastic marriages. In the fight against the boyars, Andrei was killed by the conspirators. His policy was continued by his half-brother, Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212). He had many sons, for which he received such a nickname.
The settlers, who made up a significant proportion of the population, did not preserve the state traditions of Kievan Rus - the role of the “veche” and “mirs”. Under these conditions, the despotism of the power of the princes is growing, and they are intensifying the fight against the boyars. Under Vsevolod it ended in favor of the princely power. Vsevolod managed to establish close ties with Novgorod, where his sons and relatives reigned; defeated the Ryazan principality, organizing the resettlement of some of its inhabitants to his own possessions; successfully fought with Volga Bulgaria, putting a number of its lands under his control, and became related to the Kyiv and Chernigov princes. He became one of the strongest princes in Rus'. His son Yuri (1218 - 1238) founded Nizhny Novgorod and strengthened himself in the Mordovian lands. The further development of the principality was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.
Galicia-Volyn Principality occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the Dniester and Prut rivers. Profitable geographical position(neighborhood with European states) And climatic conditions contributed to economic development, and the second migration flow from the southern Russian principalities was also sent here (to safer areas). Poles and Germans also settled here.
The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav I Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), and under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich in 1199 the unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place. In 1203 Roman captured Kyiv. The Galician-Volyn principality became one of the largest states in feudal-fragmented Europe, its close ties were established with European states, and Catholicism began to penetrate Russian soil. His son Daniel (1221 - 1264) waged a long struggle for the Galician throne with its western neighbors (Hungarian and Polish princes) and the expansion of the state. In 1240, he united Southwestern Rus' and the Kyiv land and established his power in the fight against the boyars. But in 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was subjected to Mongol devastation. In the subsequent struggle, Daniel strengthened the principality, and in 1254 he accepted the royal title from the Pope. However, the Catholic West did not help Daniel in his fight against the Tatars. Daniel was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Horde khan. Having existed for about another hundred years, the Galician-Volyn state became part of Poland and Lithuania, which had a great influence on the formation of the Ukrainian people. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania included Western Russian principalities - Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Novgorod-Seversk, etc. The Belarusian nation was formed within this state.
Novgorod Boyar Republic. Novgorod land is the most important component of the ancient Russian state. During the period of feudal fragmentation, it retained its political significance, economic and trade relations with the West and the East, covering the territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga from north to south, from the Baltic states and almost to the Urals from west to east. A huge land fund belonged to the local boyars. The latter, using the uprising of the Novgorodians in 1136, managed to defeat the princely power and establish a boyar republic. Supreme body it became a meeting where they decided critical issues life and the Novgorod administration was elected. In fact, the owners of it were the largest boyars of Novgorod. The mayor became the main official in the department. He was elected from the noblest families of Novgorodians. The veche also elected the head of the Novgorod church, who managed the treasury, controlled foreign relations and even had his own army. From the end of the 12th century. The position of the head of the trade and economic sphere of life in Novgorod society was called “tysyatsky”. It was usually occupied by large merchants. The princely power also retained certain positions in Novgorod. The veche invited the prince to wage war, but even the prince’s residence was located outside the Novgorod Kremlin. The wealth and military power of Novgorod made the Novgorod Republic an influential force in Rus'. Novgorodians became a military support in the fight against German and Swedish aggression against Russian lands. The Mongol invasion did not reach Novgorod. Extensive trade ties with Europe determined significant influence West in the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod became one of the major trade, craft and cultural centers not only in Rus', but also in Europe. High level The culture of the Novgorodians shows the degree of literacy of the population, as can be seen from the “birch bark letters” discovered by archaeologists, the number of which exceeds a thousand.
Appearance in the second half of the 11th century. - first third of the 13th century. new political centers contributed to the growth and development of culture. During the period of feudal fragmentation, one of the greatest creations arose ancient Russian culture"The Tale of Igor's Campaign." Its author, touching upon the circumstances of the defeat of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in an everyday clash with the Polovtsians (1185), was able to turn it into a tragedy on a national scale. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” became a prophetic warning against the danger of princely strife, sounded four decades before the crushing Tatar-Mongol invasion.