Epics
Definition of genre. Bylinas are Russian folk epic songs, which are characterized by heroic plots; the social and everyday plots they contain also usually include heroic motifs.
The epic nature of epics is manifested in an objective depiction of events and actions of the heroes, in which there is no direct assessment of them. The depiction of events and deeds of the heroes makes epics a plot-narrative genre. The plot is usually centered on the heroic deed of a hero, the main character of works of this genre, a battle (and more often a duel) with the enemies of the Russian land. The hero defeats countless hordes of enemies or the enemy giant hero. His victory is of decisive importance for the Russian state.
The epic nature of epics lies in the fact that they are characterized by monumental images of heroes and their enemies. Hostile forces are embodied not only in numerous hordes of southern nomads and Mongol-Tatars, but also in images of great generalization, which can have a relatively realistic aspect of the image (Kalin the Tsar, Batyga), fantastic (TuGarin Zmeevich, Serpent) or allegorical (Filthy Idol) .
The hero is distinguished by extraordinary strength, courage and boldness, often by enormous height. This is a mighty warrior, capable of doing things that only the whole people or the whole army can do. The image of a hero is an epic generalization given using synecdoche: the transference of the qualities of many people onto one person. It embodies the power of the Russian people (the hero always defeats the enemy), the popular idea of ideal hero. Bogatyr is a patriotic warrior.
The epic nature of epics also lies in the depiction of events of the distant past (the time of early feudalism), and singer-storytellers and listeners perceive them as something that really happened. These are events of enormous significance for the fate of the people and the state. The epics poetically depict military-political clashes and social situations characteristic of Ancient Rus'. Historical and everyday realities are uniquely combined with fiction, which sometimes has a fantastic flavor, which arises as a result, on the one hand, of a poetic rethinking of mythological motifs and images (in relation to the ideological and artistic tasks of epics), and on the other hand, exaggeration of plot situations (duel) and images (hero and enemy). Bylinas preserve in the minds of the people the memory of the past of the Russian land, which is recreated according to the laws of art.
The epic nature of the epics is also manifested in the so-called “epic breadth” of the paintings, and at the same time in the solemn, stately tone of the narration, slow and calm style and melody (recitative).
Epics are songs of medium volume, but larger than historical songs and ballads; they are distinguished by a fairly stable structure and poetic features: beginnings and beginnings, slowing down actions (retardations), commonplaces and endings.
The epic nature of epics is also reflected in the poeticization of positive heroes, the Russian land, Russian nature and folk life. Therefore, the style of epics is poetic, it corresponds to the ideological essence, ideological purposefulness of the works of this genre. The hero’s struggle in the plot denouements of epics ends in victory; this expresses confidence in the victory of the Russian people over external enemies. The need to protect the Russian land is the main idea of the epics. And they testify to the high national identity of the Russian people already in that distant period when the homeland was under constant threat of attack from the southern nomads.
An important idea of the epics is the idea of the unity of the Russian land, which was weakened by the civil strife of the princes, which was the main reason for its devastation by the Mongol-Tatars and their long rule in Russia.
In a vivid poetic form, epics convey the love of the Russian people for the land and agricultural labor. This is expressed in the image of the heroic plowman Mikula Selyaninovich, in many motifs and paintings.
The epics expressed a deep popular understanding of history and historical role of the masses, as evidenced by the poeticization of the struggle of Russian heroes for the independence of their native land and the main occupation of the peasants - agriculture. The struggle for the freedom of one’s land and labor are the main factors in the prosperity of the homeland; this idea is confirmed high level the historical consciousness of the Russian people, which was clearly defined already in the 9th-13th centuries.
Terminology. The term “bylina” is accepted in science to name Russian heroic epic songs. Its folk origin is still doubtful. Among the people in the 19th century. the word “epic” was used (with emphasis on the end of the word). However, it probably entered the popular environment along with a book or was recorded by folklorist collectors. It is characteristic that in our time, when epics have already gone out of existence, collectors of folklore ^ more often began to hear the word “epics” rather than the popular terms “old,” “starinka” and “old woman,” which were popular among the people, especially in the North, in XVIII and XIX centuries. As V. F. Miller believed, the term “epic” was introduced into scientific circulation in the 30-40s of the 19th century. I. P. Sakharov, who took it from the expression in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” “according to the epics of this time.” Before the introduction of the term “epic”, for several decades in Russian science the term “heroic tales” was used, which then came out of folklore terminology.
Collection and publication of epics. The recording and publication of epic texts begins quite late, which makes it difficult to study the historical fate of epics. The earliest recordings of works of this genre were made in the 17th century. and then continued in the 18th and early 19th centuries. These are mainly epics about Ilya Muromets, which indicates the great popularity of the image of this hero among the Russian people.
The first publications of epic texts were made in the 18th century. writers M. D. Chulkov, N. I. Novikov and I. I. Dmitriev.
An important event In introducing Russian people to epics, there was the publication in 1804 of the collection “Ancient Russian Poems,” which is believed to have been compiled in Siberia or the Urals by Kirsha Danilov.
The collection of Kirsha Danilov played an important role in both the collection and study of epics. He raised interest in the works of this 134 | genre. It was highly appreciated by V. G. Belinsky, and epics were studied by Fyodor Buslaev and Orest Miller.
In the 30s of the XIX century. P. I. Kireevsky began collecting works of oral folk art, and in 1838 he, together with N. M. Yazykov and A. S. Khomyakov, appealed to the public to record and send songs, fairy tales, proverbs, etc. As a result, Kireevsky formed many correspondents, among whom were writers: A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, A. V. Koltsov, V. I. Dal. But he failed to publish recordings of epics during his lifetime. They were published after his death under the editorship of P. A. Bessonov. The publication, called “Songs collected by P. V. Kireevsky” (1860-1863), had important scientific significance. It gave new material for study, it included epics recorded in many regions of Russia, including Siberia, the Urals, the North, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov and other provinces.
In 1861-1867 In Petrozavodsk, four volumes of “Songs collected by P. N. Rybnikov” were published, which included 165 epics. The collection of songs recorded by him was an exceptional phenomenon: firstly, such a number of epics were not contained in any other collection, even in the collection of P. V. Kireevsky; secondly, all the epics were recorded in one province - Olonets, and not in many provinces; thirdly, among those recorded were works with previously unknown plots, for example “Volkh Vseslavyevich”, “Volga and Mikula”; fourthly, the texts were full-fledged, with a wide development of action, with all the main artistic features of the genre.
In 1871, A.F. Gilferrding set off “in the footsteps of Rybnikov.” In 48 days, he recorded 270 epics from 70 storytellers. They consisted of three volumes and were published in St. Petersburg in 1873 under the title “Onega epics recorded by A.F. Gilferding in the summer of 1871.” His collection contains new versions of epics, recorded A made from a number of new singers and from singing, not from telling, the texts are distributed according to localities and storytellers. The Slavophile beliefs that Hilferding held prevented him from revealing the social-historical foundations of the storytellers’ creativity. Yao, the materials he collected are very valuable. A new edition of “Onega epics” was published in three volumes in 1949-1951.
After Rybnikov and Hilferding, epics were collected by many folklorists and ethnographers. The most effective activity was the work of S.I. Gulyaev, who recorded 28 epics in Altai. They were published in the book “Epics and Songs of Southern Siberia” (1952).
TO end of the 19th century V. the study of the epic expanded significantly in Russia. At this time, the so-called school of V. F. Miller - the historical school - occupied an important place in science. Under the influence of Miller's ideas, folklore was also collected. The results are combined in the collection “Russian epics of old and new recording” (1894), which was published under the editorship of N. S. Tikhonravov and V. F. Miller, and in the collection “Epics of new and recent recording” (1908), published under the editorship of V. . F. Miller.
V. F. Miller's students made a great contribution to the collection and publication of epics. In 1901, A. V. Makarov’s collection “White Sea epics” appeared, which included 116 texts; in 1904 - the collection of N. E. Onchukov “Pechora epics” (101 texts). A.D. Grigoriev did a lot for collecting epics. His collection “Arkhangelsk epics and historical songs”, containing 424 texts, was published in three volumes (vol. 1, 1904; vol. 2, 1909; vol. 3, 1910).
These three collections give a good idea of the epics of the North.
A new stage in collecting works of Russian epic creativity began after the October Revolution. First of all, collecting work received organized forms and a wide scale. It began to be conducted by scientific institutions and leading educational institutions.
In 1926-1928. State Academy artistic sciences conducted an expedition “in the footsteps of Rybnikov and Hilferding” under the leadership of the brothers B. M. and Yu. M. Sokolov. 280 epics were collected. They were published only after the death of the expedition leaders in 1948 under the title “Onega epics.” In 1926-1929 and 1931-1933. The State Institute of Art History (Leningrad) organized expeditions to five areas previously identified by collectors, in which 247 epic texts were recorded. They were published in two volumes in 1938 and 1951. called "Epics of the North".
Expeditions were regularly sent to the northern regions. As a result, such a valuable publication as “Epics of Pechora and the Winter Coast” (1961) appeared.
Soviet collectors significantly expanded both the collection and publication of texts. New important materials appeared, for example, the collection by A. M. Listopadov “Don epics” (1945). Collectors paid attention to the repertoire of individual storytellers. Books such as “Epics of M. S. Kryukova” (1939, 1941) and “Epics of P. I. Ryabinin-Andreev” (1940) appeared.
The work of collecting epics continues. It is conducted by the folklore sector of the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and the Department of Russian Oral Folk Art of Moscow State University. Their archives contain many unpublished recordings of epics.
At the same time, significant popularization work was carried out. It consisted of publishing collections of epics such as anthologies. The books are very valuable: “Epics in two volumes” (compiled by V. Ya. Propp and B.N. Putilov, 1958), “Epics” (edited by V. I. Chicherov, - 1957).
Thus, Soviet folklore1sa^<р"ас а Йвлагает богатей-шими/)<йтедиала|1и для изучения быль зучение былин. Начало изучения былин относится к первой 136 half the century, when famous historians V.N. Tatishchev and G.F. became interested in them. Miller. They valued epics as a source of information about the life of the Russian people in the preliterate period. Later, K. F. Kalaidovich, editor of the second edition (1818) of Kirsha Danilov’s collection, tried to establish the connection between epics and Russian history.
A historical approach to epics was also characteristic of the historian N. I. Kostomarov and the publicist and writer K. S. Aksakov. The latter, however, interpreted epics in a Slavophile spirit, “looked for in them an idealization of patriarchy and a reflection of religious morality.” Kostomarov compared epics with chronicle legends, which, in his opinion, allows us to see the connection between epics and historical events.
A deep and progressive interpretation of the epics was given by V. G. Belinsky. In 1841, he wrote a number of articles about folk art and a review of the collection of Kirsha Danilov. He saw in epics not only a reflection of social relations and living conditions of the people, but also an expression of their historical consciousness. Belinsky noted the patriotic nature of epics, the poeticization of physical strength, but did not see in them a struggle against social evil. He considered the peculiarities of epics to be the poetic form, the depiction of the exploits of heroes, the fabulousness of some situations, without, however, connecting them with mythological motives.
Belinsky's main ideas were developed by N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Dobrolyubov. Chernyshevsky highly valued Russian epics, although he pointed out that the pictures depicted in them were somewhat static and monotonous. He considered the basis of the epic to be the participation of the people in great events. Dobrolyubov expressed many important thoughts about the ideological significance of epics. In his opinion, these expressed the people's dreams of a free life; During the time of Mongol-Tatar oppression, these dreams took on a fantastic and hyperbolic character.
The views of Belinsky, Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov provided the basis for the formation of a historical school. This was also helped by the judgments about the epics of the famous collectors P.N. Rybnikov and A.F. Hilferding, who observed the life of the epics in the North and discovered talented storytellers. However, this process in biblical studies was delayed by the influence of German mythological theory, the founder of which was Jacob Grimm.
Since the 50s of the XIX century. In Ruhr folklore studies, special directions in the approach to epics began to form. The first of 137 of these was the mythological, or mythological school, as it is usually called. It was presented by F. I. Buslaev, O. F. Miller and others.
Representatives of the mythological school believed that the epic genres were based on ancient mythological tales.
Fyodor Ivanovich Buslaev (1818-1897), a professor at Moscow University, began his scientific career as a supporter of the mythological approach to folklore, in particular to the epic. He divided the history of the epic into three periods: mythological, two-faithful and Christian. In his opinion, the epic initially existed as a mythological epic whose heroes were gods, then it grew into a heroic one, in which historical features were increasingly intensified. The epics are based on ancient legends of pagan times, which were subsequently historicized.
The views of F. I. Buslaev differed significantly from the views of J. Grimm, since he raised the question of the social significance and moral foundations of folklore. The main works of F. I. Buslaev are collected in the books: “Historical Sketches of Russian Folk Literature and Art” (1861), in the first volume of which the article “Epic Poetry” is placed, and “Folk Poetry” (1887), where the articles “Russian” are especially important. heroic epic" - about the collections of Kireyevsky and Rybnikov, and "Everyday layers of the Russian epic."
A profound researcher of epics was Orest Fedorovich Miller (1833-1889). In his book “Ilya Muromets and the heroism of Kiev. Comparative and critical observations on the layer composition of the Russian epic (1869) Miller sought to reveal the ancient mythological basis of the images of heroes, who, in his opinion, were the embodiment of light forces fighting dark forces for the liberation of captive creatures.
Criticism of O. Miller's work by F. I. Buslaev and A. A. Kotlyarevsky showed that the mythological school was experiencing a deep crisis. Indeed, Buslaev soon moved to other scientific positions. In Russian folkloristics, the so-called school of borrowing began to take shape.
The theory of borrowing, or migration theory, originated in Germany. Its founder is considered to be Theodore Benfey, who in 1859 published his translation of the Indian book “Pancha Tantra” with a detailed introduction, where he outlined his views on the existence of similar plots in folklore, including in the epics of different nations. He explained this phenomenon by the borrowing of plots by one people from others.
In 1868, the journal “Bulletin of Europe” published an article by V.V. Stasov “The Origin of Russian Bylinas.” In it, the author consistently used the theory of borrowing to explain the origin of Russian epics. Stasov defined the purpose of his work as the struggle against the Slavophil approach to epics
and criticism of mythological theory. He achieved his goal. But he could not conclusively explain the origin of the epics.
He was sharply criticized by A.F. Gilferding, O.F. Miller, P.I. Bessonov, F.I. Buslaev. Stasov was accused of exaggerating the importance of eastern elements in epics. A significant step forward in the development of the theory of borrowing was made by the largest Russian folklorist A. N. Veselovsky
In his study “South Russian epics” (1-2, 1881;
3-4, 1884) he took a new approach to the problem of borrowing and wandering subjects. He saw and proved a two-way 139 process: “Borrowing presupposes a counter environment with motives or plots similar to those brought from the outside,” he wrote in “The Poetics of Plots.” Moreover, he devoted the main place not to borrowings, but to influences, a phenomenon broader and more limited than borrowings. He developed the so-called theory of countercurrents and criticized those supporters of the theory of borrowings who studied only motives, forgetting about the artistic whole.
Some younger scientists also joined the theory of borrowing. M. G. Khalansky in the monograph “Great Russian epics of the Kiev cycle” (1885) attributed the creation of epics to a later time than others proposed, and the cyclization around Kiev and Prince Vladimir to the 15th-16th centuries, the creation of epics was considered the work of druzhina singers. In his large work “South Slavic tales about Kralevich Mark in connection with the works of the Russian epic epic” (1893-1896), he compared Russian epics with Serbian and Bulgarian youth songs and expressed an opinion about the transition of epic plots.
Dissatisfaction with the research methods of epics, which were used by the mythological school and supporters of the migration theory, caused their sharp criticism. They were accused of separating the Russian epic from Russian history.
A new scientific direction began to take shape in Russian folkloristics, which was called the historical school. Without denying the facts of borrowing, she first of all sought to reveal the connections of Russian epics with Russian history, to explain their emergence by the conditions of Russian public life, the basis of the views of representatives of the historical school was the idea that epics came from historical events and had historical persons as prototypes of heroes, which was erased as a result of the long existence of the works among the people. Therefore, the task arose to restore the primary texts of epics, removing the upper, i.e., later, layers and going to earlier ones. The historical school developed a methodology for studying epics, the task of which V.F. Miller (1848-1913) defined as follows: “... from a comparison of options, derive the most archaic one (epics. - Ya. TO.) excerpt and, by examining the historical and everyday data of this excerpt, determine, if possible, the period of its composition and the area of its origin.”
V. F. Miller attributed the composition of the main part of the epics to the pre-Mongol time, arguing that in the difficult era of the Horde yoke such an optimistic epic could not have developed. He considered the Kiev and Novgorod cycles to be single, explaining this by the fact that Kyiv and Novgorod were inextricably linked both politically and economically. Miller attached great importance to the era of Vladimir as the time of the unification of Russian 4 lands, the independence and power of the state, and major historical events (reforms, baptism). That is why epics were written at that time. He attributed their composition to druzhina singers, and considered the nature of their work to be aristocratic. In his opinion, from the environment of the court epics they subsequently descended into the environment of the urban common people, and then into the peasantry, where their initial appearance changed significantly. V. F. Miller did not understand that the druzhina singers also represented folk art. The main drawback of V. F. Miller's works was one-sidedness: he considered epics to be a direct reflection of historical facts, forgetting that they are poetic works. . His scientific views were criticized by A.P. Skaftmov in his book “Poetics and Genesis of Epics” (1924). Miller's main works are collected in two of his works: “Excursions into the field of Russian folk epic” (1892) and “Essays on Russian folk literature” (vol. 1-3, 1897, 1910, 1924).
In Soviet science, V. F. Miller’s views were assessed differently. Two approaches to the historical side of epics developed: some scientists tried to find out the historical foundations of epics, to find those events and persons who were reflected in epics, of course, improving the methodology of V.F. Miller (B.A. Rybakov, M.M. Plisetsky, L. I. Emelyanov); others sharply rejected his views, basing their approach to epics on understanding them as an artistic phenomenon (V. Ya. Propp, B. N. Putilov).
Place and time of composition of epics. Many folklorists and historians disagree about the place where the epics were composed. Some scientists believe that the division of epics into cycles indicates not only that the scene of action is Kyiv or Novgorod, but also that these epics were composed in the Kyiv or Novgorod lands. However, epics took shape not only in the named Two Political Centers of Ancient Rus', but also in other places. This opinion was expressed back in the 19th century, then it was adhered to by M. N. Speransky, Yu. M. Sokolov, with certain differences - V. J. Propp and Dr. This is related to the historical classification of epics. V. Ya. Propp divides epics into three groups of works: the epic of the period of development of feudal relations, which includes epics about Volkh and Svyatogor, epics about matchmaking and epics about the fight against monsters; the epic of the time of struggle against the Mongol-Tatar invasion; the epic of the era of the formation of the centralized Russian state, considering that this includes epics about Mikul and Volga, Sukhman, Danil Lovchanin, Vasily Buslaev, Duke Stepanovich. This division cannot be accepted because its motivation is too general.
V.P. Anikin divides the epics into the most ancient (pre-Kiev) epics, these are the epics about the Volkh, Danube, Potyk; Kyiv - about Dobrynya, Sukhman, Danil Lovchanin, Churil, Solove Budimirovich; Vladimir-Suzdal - about Ilya Muromets, Alyosha Popovich (Rostov); Galician-Volyn - about Duke; Pskov-Novgorod - about Volga and Mikul, Sadko, Vasily Buslaev; Chernigov - about Ivan Gostin's son; Bryansk - about Prince Roman and the Livik brothers.
Some works note that in the XIV-XV centuries. there was a process of “Kievanization” of epics; they adapted to the Kiev cycle and were included in the all-Russian epic. V. Ya. Propp noted the fallacy of the opinions of scientists who, carried away by the theory of the regional origin of the Russian epic, forgot that an all-Russian epic was created. The point here is not “Kievization,” but the fact that already at the time of the composition of new epics or their variants, they were directly included in the all-Russian epic, which was widely known and familiar.
We believe that the issue of the Kiev cycle is simplified. Taking into account the circumstances and materials allows us to conclude that it existed and took shape in pre-Mongol times, reflecting the struggle with the Pechenegs and Polovtsians; During the yoke, in the process of evolution, it naturally transformed.
^ Most Soviet scientists attribute the formation of the genre of epics to the 10th-11th centuries.
Two main cycles of epics - Kiev and Novgorod - developed during the heyday of Kiev and Novgorod, which were closely related to each other. From the end of the 11th century. the unified Kiev state begins to disintegrate into separate principalities; this process fully developed in the XIII-XV centuries. At the same time, this is the time of Mongol-Tatar domination. There is a new understanding of previously established epics. The main enemies are the Horde. New epics are also being created - “Ilya and Kalin Tsar”, “Ilya and Batyga”, “Kama Massacre”, “Vasily Ignatievich”, “Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich”.
At this time, the all-Russian epic was finally formed. It includes regional subjects, which, however, are very few. But what is especially important is that the epics that appeared later nevertheless date the action back to the time of Prince Vladimir. This important question has always occupied Russian science (O. Miller). However, this idea was developed into a coherent theory only by D.S. Likhachev. He showed that the time of epics refers to the past and always to the conventional era of the Russian past, which could be called the “epic era.” It also includes the era of Novgorod freedom. This era is an ideal antiquity, a time of “Russian independence, glory and power”, a time of “patriarchal relations between the prince and the squad of heroes”, in the person of whom the people acted. D. S. Likhachev notes an important feature of Russian epics: “Epics are multi-layered, they were created by the people over many centuries. The epics reflected the plots of both the ancient epic, the “Dokiev” and “Donovgorod” epics, and the plots of subsequent centuries. However, in both cases, the epic becomes an epic only by transferring the action to this “epic era”, to its conventional historical setting. The basis for the image of the “epic era” was given by Vladimir’s time, rich in important events. It began to express the ideals of the people, especially during the Mongol-Tatar rule. From what has been said, it is clear that the composition of the epic cannot be attributed to the time that it depicts.
The further stage of development of the Russian epic is the XV-XVIII centuries. At this time, almost no new epics are created; old ones are interpreted in connection with modernity. Since the 17th century The all-Russian epic begins to fade away, although the traditions of its performance live on. Old stories are being reworked, often distorting epics, such as the inclusion of Ermak in the epic about Ilya Muromets. The epic now lives mainly in the outlying regions, especially in the North. The interpretation of some plots is changing: anti-feudal and anti-church tendencies are strengthening in them. In the 17th century, scientists include the epics “Ilya and the tavern goli”, “Ilya Muromets on the Falcon-ship”, “Dobrynya and Marinka”.
Geographical distribution of epics. Collecting epics for almost two hundred years with a wide survey of many Russian regions allowed us to come to the conclusion that the geographical zones where works of this genre existed were primarily the Olonets and Arkhangelsk provinces, in which in the 19th - early 20th centuries. about 700 texts were recorded. This is the northwestern part of the Russian North. Therefore, the names of the collections of epics are characteristic: “Onega epics.” Hilferding, “Arkhangelsk epics” by Grigoriev, “White Sea epics” by Markov, “Pechora epics” by Onchukov. In the provinces close to the named ones - in Vologda and Perm - almost no epics were recorded. Some texts were found in the central part of Russia. Bylinas are registered in Siberia, in the Tomsk, Yenisei and Yakutsk provinces. Songs about epic heroes existed among the Don, Terek and Kuban Cossacks; their form differs significantly from the epic.
Naturally, the question arises: why did epics survive so firmly in the North? Obviously, there were special conditions for this. Researchers of epics pointed out several reasons: firstly, the North was distinguished by more stable forms of life; secondly, he stood aloof from major historical events; thirdly, there was no serfdom and the peasants had more freedom to dispose of their time than the peasants of the central regions of Russia; fourthly, the North was less influenced by urban culture, which undermined traditional forms of folk art.
However, S.I. Dmitrieva, a researcher on the issue of the geographical distribution of epics, is not inclined to consider these circumstances to be the main factors in the preservation of epics in the North. She points out that only the northwestern provinces of the North were the custodians of the epic. The reason was the settlement of these provinces by residents of Novgorod lands, which took place in the XII-XIV centuries. Consequently, before that time, epics were already widespread in the ancestral Novgorod lands. Peasants moved to the North, so we can conclude that they were the bearers, and perhaps the creators, of epics. The Novgorod settlement ceased with the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow, and the Moscow settlement brought mainly ballad songs to the North. The areas of Rostov-Suzdal and Moscow settlement, that is, the northeastern ones, did not preserve the epics. This circumstance, as well as the fact that epics were not found in most of the Russian territory, in Belarus and Ukraine, “suggests that by the 14th-15th centuries, there were no epics on the entire territory of Russia, except for the Novgorod land,” and therefore, “The epic tradition known to us is the Novgorod interpretation of the Russian epic.”
Creators and performers of epics. If the question is about the performers of epics in the 19th-20th centuries. .is quite clear (they are peasant storytellers), the composition of the performers at an earlier time is difficult to establish. It is even more difficult to answer the question of who the creators of the epics were.
There are different opinions: some believe that the creators of the epics were druzhina singers, others consider them to be buffoons, others consider them to be passersby, others - peasants; finally, there is an opinion that all these categories of people took part in the composition of the epics.
Before answering the question posed, it must be said that all the named types of singers are divided into two groups: professional singers and non-professional singers. The squad singers, buffoons and passers-by were professionals; they specialized in composing and performing epics; As for the peasants, some of them were professional singers, and most of them were non-professionals.
Songs in praise of the princes, according to V.F. Miller, were composed by squad singers at the princely courts; but there were also songs about “brave men,” about heroes, composed among the “threshing squad,” which in epics is always defined as “a good squad.”
N.P. Andreev also held approximately the same view. Recognizing the heterogeneity of the squad (senior and junior squad), he believed that the creators of the epics were not representatives of the squad elite, but occupied a much more modest place and, for the most part, probably came from the people’s environment. They expressed the people's point of view on the events of history and interpreted it in the spirit of traditional forms. The work of druzhina singers, who composed songs not about princes, but about “brave men,” may have been the initial form of epics.
Their art was then adopted by buffoons, wandering singers, musicians and entertainers. They were widely connected with the masses of the people, moved among them and expressed their interests and ideals. Buffoonery was a distinctive phenomenon of Russian life. Buffoons probably play some role in the processing of epics and maintaining the epic tradition.
However, the role of buffoons in the development and preservation of the epic tradition was insignificant, since the repertoire of buffoons was mainly comic, humorous, sometimes satirical, but not epic or heroic. In addition, the heyday of the creativity of buffoons occurred in the late period (XV-XVII centuries), although the first mention of them dates back to 1068. Russian epics in their main composition were formed before the heyday of the creativity of buffoons.
The main creators and bearers of epics should be considered peasants. This is confirmed by a number of considerations.
Peasants in the northern regions consistently retained the terms “old man,” “old man,” and “storyteller.” Almost all epics in the 19th-20th centuries. recorded from peasants. Among the peasants, epics were sung not only by famous master storytellers, but also by ordinary peasants. Among the peasants, collectors discovered gifted performers of epics and talented artists (T. G. Ryabinin, V. P. Shchegolenok, etc.). In this environment, the performance of epics was passed down from generation to generation, often from grandfathers and fathers to children and grandchildren, an example of which is the Ryabinin family. Trofim Grigorievich Ryabinin passed on his art to his son Ivan, and from him the singing of epics was “adopted” by his stepson Ivan Gerasimovich, from whom his son Peter learned to say epics. Collectors of epics reported that among the northern peasant storytellers there were entire schools of singers.
Researcher of epics of the North A.M. Astakhova divided storytellers into three types depending on how they reproduce the learned texts of epics. Some of them memorize the text almost verbatim and transmit it with minor changes, since they consider it unacceptable to deviate from the “old times.” Such storytellers include the famous I. T. Ryabinin. Others learned the general outline of the plot and common (typical) passages, and when performing epics they developed their own text, which they carefully preserved, which was made easier by its frequent repetition. One of the most talented performers, T. G. Ryabinin, was such a storyteller. Still others were improvisers of some sort; remembering the plot scheme and knowing the basic epic techniques, they freely handled the texts and, rearranging, omitting and introducing episodes, excluding or adding details, in fact, created new works (variants) each time. This manner was characteristic of V.P. Shchegolenko and A.M. Kryukova.
Composition and classification of epics. Collections of epics published since the end of the 18th century. to this day, contain more than 2500 texts. In addition, all the texts of epics that were published in various types of publications (magazines, newspapers, books) have not yet been collected. Published texts are stored in the archives of scientific institutes and higher educational institutions. Thus, the composition of epics is very significant.
These texts differ in their characteristics - in themes, plots, images of characters, structure, which makes it necessary to systematize the materials and bring them into a visible form. Unfortunately, we do not yet have a consolidated catalog of epics, or an index, which makes them difficult to study.
IN scientific literature Different types of classification of epics were proposed, which was due to the difference in the views of scientists. Representatives of the mythological theory, who believed that epics originated from myths, identified two groups of them corresponding to two types of heroes: epics about older heroes, in whose images mythological elements were more reflected, and epics about "younger heroes, in whose images there are traces of mythological plots and images are insignificant, but historical features are strong. The first group of epics included epics about Volkh, Svyatogor, Mikul, Sukhman, Danube, Potyka: the second group included epics about Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, Vasily Buslaev, etc.
In the second half of the 19th century. such a division of epics was rejected. A representative of the historical school, V. F. Miller, who believed that the main part of the epic is heroic epics, divided works of the epic genre into two types: heroic epics and epic short stories; For the former, he believed that the heroic struggle of the heroes and its state goals were characteristic, and for the latter - internal clashes, social or everyday. / As for the term “epic short stories,” it was rejected and replaced by the term “social and everyday epics,” which made it possible to avoid unnecessary analogies with the Western European literary and folklore genre of short stories (literary short stories were often based on the plots of everyday fairy tales and anecdotes).
V. G. Belinsky had earlier proposed dividing the epics into two cycles - Kiev and Novgorod, which he did on the basis of the connection of the epics with either Kiev or Novgorod, two political centers of Ancient Russia. But Soviet scientists supplemented it by taking into account the peculiarities of the plots and images of heroes, which contained the features of Vladimir-Suzdal, Ryazan and Galician-Volyn, i.e. folklorists came to the conclusion that epics were composed not only in Kyiv and Novgorod, but also in other Russian lands.
So, in modern folkloristics, on the one hand, the division of epics into two cycles is preserved - Kiev and Novgorod, with an amendment that emphasizes that epics were created in other areas; on the other hand, epics are divided into two types - military and social. Military epics include epics about Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, etc., in the center of which is the fight against external enemies; social epics include the epics “Volga and Mikula”, “Duke Stepanovich”, “Dobrynya” and Alyosha” (Alyosha’s failed marriage), “Nightingale Budimirovich”, “Dobrynya and Marinka”, etc., as well as epics about Sadko.
Some epics seem to occupy an intermediate place; they are not easy to attribute to one type or another. This is the epic about the marriage of Prince Vladimir. In addition to the story of marriage, it includes the exploits of heroes, the conflict between Kiev and Polotsk; marriage itself acquired state
The most ancient epics. Among Russian epics there is a group of works that almost all folklorists classify as the most ancient. These are, first of all, epics about Volkh and Svyatogor and about the Danube and Potyk. These include the epic about Dobrynya and the snake. The main difference between these epics is that they contain significant traces of mythological ideas.
Volkh Vseslavevich. The epic about Volkh consists of two parts. In the first, he is depicted as a wonderful hunter with the ability to transform into an animal, bird, fish; By hunting, he obtains food for the squad. In the second, Volkh is the leader of a campaign in the Indian kingdom, which he conquers and brutally ruins. The second part almost went out of existence, since its theme did not correspond to the ideological essence of the Russian epic. But the first part was popular among the people for a long time. She captivated me with a fabulously heroic chain of adventures. Researchers attribute the image of a wonderful hunter to ancient times. However, historical features were layered onto this image, linking the epic with the Kyiv cycle. This gave rise to a number of scientists, including D.S. Likhachev, to compare Volkh with Oleg, the Prophet and Vseslav of Polotsk, who enjoyed the fame of magicians. The image of India is fabulous, not historical, and came into the epic, probably from “The Tale of Rich India.”
|Svyatogor. The epics about Svyatogor have a special form - prosaic, the form of experience. Some scientists consider this proof of their antiquity, others - their novelty. They contain a number of episodes: about the meeting of Ilya Muromets and Svyatogor, about Svyatogor’s unfaithful wife, about the death of Svyatogor in a coffin, about a bag with earthly cravings. These epics are ancient, like the type of hero Svyatogor itself, in which there are many mythical traces.
Svyatogor is considered by many scientists as the embodiment of the old orders of life that must disappear. That is why his death is so inevitable (the epic about Svyatogor and the tomb). First, Ilya tries on a coffin for himself, but it is too big for him, while Svyatogor is just in time. When Ilya covered him with a lid in the coffin, it was no longer possible to remove it, and blows with a sword on the lid left iron hoops on it. Ilya receives part of his power from Svyatogor. V. Ya. Propp says: “He dies and goes into the irrevocable past. old a hero, but he transfers his power new hero, hero of the new historical era"; “The change of heroes expresses the change of two historical eras - this is the main, deepest meaning of the epic. Svyatogor is a thing of the past, now Ilya comes into force.” Svyatogor is a giant of gigantic strength, whom the earth can barely support. However, the episode with the earthly pull that Svyatogor cannot lift speaks of the existence of an even more powerful force; no one can stand against mother earth. Trying to lift the bag, Svyatogor sinks his feet into the ground.
Archaic elements in epics. Some epics clearly contain archaic elements. This brings them closer to the epics about Volkh. These include the epics of the 6th Danube, about Potyka and about Dobrynya and the snake.
In the epic about the Danube, the conclusion that takes place in most versions is archaic: when the wife of the Danube Nastasya and the hero himself die, then the Nastasya River and the Danube River flow from their blood. This is an ancient motif of toponymic legends. In the epic about Potyk, mythological elements consist of the image of the enchanted Marya the Swan, Potyk’s struggle with the snake and victory over it, and the revival of his wife with the blood of the snake. In the epic about Dobrynya and the snake, the plot of a double battle and victory over the snake is undoubtedly archaic. All three of these epics were later included in the Kiev cycle and acquired fairly clear historical features. The process of historicization of epics has been quite convincingly proven by scientists, although it does not exclude the overgrowth of the historical core with mythological and fairy-tale elements.
Kyiv cycle of epics. As was indicated, V. G. Belinsky identified the Kiev cycle and the Novgorod cycle in Russian epics. Both cycles have their historical foundations.
V. G. Belinsky correctly established that in the Russian epic there is a group of epics, united by a number of important features. Their common features are as follows: the action takes place in or near Kyiv; in the center of the epics stands Prince Vladimir; the main theme is the protection of Russian land from southern nomads; historical circumstances and life depicted in epics are typical specifically for Kievan Rus; events and enemies of the Russian land in these epics - the pre-Mongol period; Kyiv is not just the scene of epics, but it is glorified as the center of Russian lands: heroes go from Murom, Rostov, Ryazan, Galich to serve in Kyiv.
The formation of the Kyiv cycle of epics was determined by characteristic historical circumstances. In the IX-XI centuries. Kyiv reached "high prosperity and power; it played an important role in the fight against the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, blocking their path to the northern Russian lands. In this struggle, all-Russian tasks were realized and the self-awareness of the Russian people was formed. The raids of the steppe nomads were repelled not only by the people of Kiev, but also by representatives other Russian lands, which is clearly shown in epics! Kiev at that time united almost all Russian regions and was their recognized center. Prince Vladimir played a prominent role in organizing the fight against the Pechenegs; he reformed the administration of the lands, democratized the order, changed the structure of the squad by including it in it. composition of representatives of the lower classes; he established close relations with the squad, which is noted more than once in the chronicle; he made a number of victorious campaigns and in his activities enjoyed the support of the masses of the people, as did Prince Vladimir himself - the Red Sun. The Kiev cycle of epics experienced significant historical evolution.
Kyiv epics are usually grouped by heroes. But among the epics of the Kyiv cycle there are heroic and social works. In this regard, they can be divided into the following groups: heroic - include epics that arose before the Mongols O-Tatar invasion, and epics related to the invasion (about the Kama massacre, about the death of heroes, about Vasily Ignatievich and Batyg); social and everyday epics include songs in which “social conflicts are at the forefront” and “Mikula, Ilya in a quarrel with Vladimir, Duke, Churila, Sukhman, Danilo Lovchanin), and epics about matchmaking ( Mikhailo Potyk, Ivan Godinovich, Danube, Kozarin, Solovey Budimirovich, Khoten).
One of the important and characteristic features of the Kyiv cycle | are the images of three heroes, whose actions and fate are closely connected. The images of these heroes embody the main features of heroism. These are the images of Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. In the popular imagination, the eldest of them, the most powerful, is the hero Ilya; behind him comes Dobrynya, inferior in some qualities to Ilya; finally, Alyosha, also a brave defender of the Russian land, but in a number of features inferior to the first two heroes. They entered into an agreement on twinning, agreement in actions, and assistance to each other, which is firmly carried out by all three. All three heroes have a lot in common, but each of them is a special personality and has certain individual traits. In the images of these heroes, individualization is clearly visible, which develops already in epics, and receives significant manifestation in historical songs, where it was necessary to depict not generalized images of heroes, but certain historical figures.
Ilya Muromets. In the image of Ilya Muromets. In the image of Muromets, the main idea of the epics is most vividly and expressively embodied - the idea of protecting the native land. It is he who more often than other heroes acts as a brave guardian of the Russian land, aware of his duty. He stands at the heroic outpost more often than others, and more often than others enters into battle with enemies, winning victory.
Ilya Muromets is the ideal image of a hero, the most beloved hero of Russian epics. This is a hero of mighty strength, which gives him confidence and endurance. He is characterized by a sense of self-esteem, which he will not compromise even before the prince and is the defender of the Russian land, the defender of widows and orphans. He hates the “slant-bellied boyars” and tells everyone the truth to their face. He forgets the insult, the poison is about the misfortune hanging over native land th, calls on other heroes to stand up not for Prince Vladimir or Tyagin Opraksa, “but for the sake of Mother Holy Rus' land.”
Scientists have made attempts to find the historical prototype of the lya, but they have led nowhere. Mentions of Ilya the Russian, the German heroic poem about Ortnit and the Norwegian Thidrek-ge present him as an epic character, but not as a historical person. There is no doubt that Ilya Muromets did not have a historical prototype, since this is an image of a broad generalization.
Ilya is connected with Murom and the village of Karacharov, from where Kyiv leaves. However, in folkloristics a clearly false understanding of this connection has arisen. Some scientists present Ilya as a Murom, Vladimir-Suzdal hero. But he did not act in these places, did not defend these lands, did not cheat the princes of these lands. And there is no reason to tear him away from Kyiv, with which he is bound by all his actions. He is also connected with the Kyiv heroes. Ilya is the central character of the Kyiv cycle of epics. The question also arose about Ilya’s connection with the city of Karacharov in the Seversk land. But there is no mention of her in the epics, and the connection with the village of Karacharov is important because it determines the peasant appearance of Ilya. According to the epics, he is a peasant’s son, an old Cossack, and in the eyes of the princes and boyars he is a “peasant.” In the epic about healing, he, feeling the strength in himself, immediately goes to help his parents clear the field, uproot the forest and plow.
B. A. Rybakov explained Ilya’s democratic appearance by the fact that Prince Vladimir, “in need of warriors and boyars, resettled thousands of people from the north, and made the winners in important fights from simple artisans into “great men,” i.e., boyars. If the princely chroniclers wrote about this with feeling, then the people themselves had to sing about these heroes with even greater feeling.” The epic about Ilya and Nightingale the Robber “describes a feast and the appearance of a new hero at it, for whose sake the old “prince-boyars” had to make room.”
The image of Ilya Muromets is revealed in a significant group of epics that have been popular for a long time. These are “The Healing of Ilya Muromets”, “Ilya Muromets and the Nightingale the Robber”, “Ilya Muromets”<* и Идолище поганое», «Бой Ильи с сыном», «Илья и Калин-царг «Илья -и голи кабацкие», «Ссора Ильи с князем Владимиро>“Ilya on the Falcon-ship”, “Three trips of Ilya Muromets”.
The epic about the healing of Elijah is usually attributed by researchers to the 16th century. As a rule, it occurs in the prosaic form of experience. It is possible that wandering Kalki took part in its formation. Church religious phraseology is also characteristic of this work. The main epic about Ilya gaining power is the epic “Svyatogor and Ilya Muromets”. "* The epic “Ilya Muromets and the Nightingale the Robber” is a complex work. It contains several main episodes: Ilya’s liberation of Chernigov from the enemy force that besieged him, after which the city residents ask Ilya to be their governor, but he refuses, since he is going to serve to Kiev; meeting with the Nightingale the Robber, who closed the road from Chernigov to Kiev for 30 years; arrival in Kiev, where Prince Vladimir does not believe Ilya that he brought the Nightingale the Robber, then the hero shows the Nightingale and tells him to whistle: the boyars fall from the whistle. dead, and the prince and princess “are crawling.” To prevent the Nightingale the Robber from causing more harm, Ilya kills him.
The content and images of this epic pose a number of questions for science. The first of them is the question of the essence of the image of the Nightingale the Robber. Many consider it an exaggerated image of a robber, which contains a significant generalization of ideas about robbery. B. A. Rybakov provides historical data on the fight against robbery during the time of Vladimir. The chronicle of 996 reports an increase in robberies and that Vladimir “began to execute the robbers.”
V. Ya. Propp gives a different explanation for the image of the Nightingale. This is the image of a half-monster, half-man. He has the appearance of both a bird (wings, flight, nest) and a giant. It contains traces of mythological ideas. “The image of the Nightingale is an artistic depiction of the forces that separated Rus', crushed it into parts, and strived for Ilya to put an end to the isolation of Chernigov and other cities from Kyiv.”
The second question is the question of the relationship between Ilya and Vladimir. Vladimir does not believe Ilya, calls him a drunkard and a hillbilly. In some versions of the epic, the boyars attack Ilya. In the epic under consideration, a conflict begins between Ilya and Vladimir, which develops further in others, especially in the epic “Ilya’s Quarrel with Prince Vladimir.”
The third question is the question of the meaning of Ilya’s activities. It has a state character. Ilya cleared the road from Cher-igov to Kyiv, destroyed the “nest” of the Nightingale the Robber; he expresses a desire to serve in Kiev. This is why Ilya stands out among the heroes. He is a defender of his native land, the center of which for him is
In the epics “Ilya Muromets and the Foul Idol”, “Ilya Muromets” Kalin the Tsar”, “The Quarrel of Ilya Muromets with Prince Vladimir” are given in two main motives: the patriotic struggle of God-< нарастание его конфликта с князем.
In the epics “Ilya of Murom and the Foul Idol” Ilya appears before us as a mighty and brave defender of his native land. Some scientists believe that this epic was created under the influence of the epic “Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin”. However, the similarity of motives is not proof. The epic about Elijah and Idolishche is completely independent.
How to understand the image of the Idol? Who did the hero fight with? and the epic reflected the clash between the defenders of Christianity and infidels (filthy: Idolishche Poganoye). The Idol with great strength attacks Kiev, but the heroes, as often happens in stories about Ilya, were not in Kyiv at that time - they were all away. Ilya has to fight. The epic, sung by G. Ryabinin to P. N. Rybnikov, depicts the liberation of the leagues of Kyiv from the siege by Idolishch Pogany.
The idol is depicted as a monster, huge, terrible, voracious.
In a number of situations and episodes, the epic “Ilya Muromets and Kalin the Tsar” is similar to this epic. In it, in the image of Tsar Kalin, scientists see the personification of Mongol-Tatar power. The name Kalin has not been satisfactorily explained; it was associated with the name of the Kalka River (the battle on the Kalka River took place in 1224). In the epic about Ilya and Kalina, Vladimir was angry with the hero and put him in deep cellars. Princess Opraxa saved him from death and took care of him. At this time, Tsar Kalin approached Kyiv and began to demand that the prince surrender the city to him. The frightened prince asks for a delay, but Kalin does not give it. Vladimir became sad and upset:
There is no one to stand now - for the faith for the fatherland,
There is no one to stand for the church, after all, for God’s,
There is no one to stand for Kyiv city,
But there is no one to save Prince Vladimir
And that royal Opraxa! .
But it turns out that Ilya is alive. Vladimir asks him to protect the city. Ilya agrees to help Kyiv. Other heroes, offended by the prince, do not agree to this.
This epic depicts battle scenes in more detail than others: Ilya beats the “Tatar force” several times, and the description of the battle is repeated several times:
He began to trample the Silushka with his horse,
He began to trample with a horse, stab with a spear,
He began to beat that great strong woman,
And he hits with force, as if he was mowing grass.
But Ilya falls into enemy captivity. They brought him to Tsar Kalin, and he invited him to serve with him. Ilya refused. And when he left the royal tent, the Horde began to “press” him, but Ilya had no weapons. Here Ilya acted as he did on other occasions, as other heroes did:
Yes, he grabbed the Tatar by the legs,
So he began to wave at the Tatar.
He began to beat the Tatars with the Tatar.
Other heroes also began to help Ilya. They brought Kalin to Prince Vladimir. Kalin had to tell the prince:
I will pay you tribute forever and ever.
The conflict between Ilya and Prince Vladimir reaches its greatest severity in the epic “The Quarrel of Ilya of Murom with Prince Vladimir.” V. F. Miller attributed this epic to the 17th century, when the peasant anti-serfdom movement became widespread. If in the epic “Ilya Muromets and Kalin the Tsar” the conflict is of a state nature, then here it is social. Scientists believe that, on the one hand, social contradictions in Russian society were constantly growing, and on the other, the “democratization” of the image of Ilya was intensifying.
The reasons for the quarrel between Ilya and Vladimir are various circumstances: either Ilya prevents the prince from taking his wife away from the hunter, then the prince’s kissers do not give Ilya wine as a pledge of the pectoral cross, then the prince does not invite the hero to a feast. The last reason is more common than others. Ilya got angry and began to shoot down the church domes with arrows. With the tavern shanks, he pawned them in the tavern and began to feast: The prince came to his senses and decided to convene a feast for Ilya. He sent Dobrynya after him. Ilya came because he was called “brother of the cross.” Ilya said to the prince:
And he knew to send someone to call me...
If only he weren’t my brother...
I would kill you prince and princess.
Nikitich. The epics about Dobrynya Nikitich are considered older than the epics about Ilya. The basis for this conclusion is that the chronicles provide information about Vladimir Dobrynya’s uncle, which to some extent coincides with the situations of epic events. In the group of epics about Dobrynya, there are those that should be recognized as late, composed to complete the epic biography of the hero. These are the epics “The Birth of Dobrynya” and “The Marriage of Dobrynya”. The first talks about his miraculous birth, reminiscent of the birth of the Volkh, the second talks about his marriage to a hero. These epics are not very common and do not correspond to the image of Dobrynya established in this genre. The appearance of the epic Dobrynya is most definitely revealed in epics of a military and novelistic nature. The first include the epics “Dobrynya and the Serpent” and “Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich”, the second include “Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich” and “Dobrynya Nikitich and Marinka”.
The image of the serpent and the meaning of the epic caused controversy. Some attributed the epic to ancient times and considered it a reflection of mythical ideas, others tried to comprehend it historically. The chronicle mentions Prince Vladimir's uncle Dobrynya, who, together with Putyata, baptized the Novgorodians; Dobrynya baptized with a sword, Putyata with fire. Bathing Dobrynya was interpreted as baptism, and the image of the serpent as an image of paganism. At the same time, the iconographic image of St. George the Victorious slaying the serpent was given in parallel. This interpretation is accepted by most folklorists and historians. V. Ya. Propp believes that “the snake is an artistic image of the pre-state past, overthrown by the development of Russian culture and the Russian state.” But, probably, in the image of a snake there is also a reflection of the raids of the steppe nomads. The serpent promised Dobrynya:
And I won’t fly to the holy place anymore
Rus', Don’t carry people around too much.
In this epic, Dobrynya appears as a mighty hero:
They fought here for three whole days,
And Dobrynya’s son Nikitinich
I knocked off her twelve trunks,
Killed the damned snake.
In the epic “Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich”, Prince Vladimir sends heroes to take tribute duties to Tsar Batur to the Polovtsian land. But the heroes themselves decided to receive tribute from Batur for twelve years: gold and silver, and pearls, and falcons, and sables, and stallions. They competed with Batur: they played dice and shot with a bow. Batur could not beat them, he called the Mongol, ordered to seize the heroes, but they dealt with them and with Batur himself - he gave them tribute-duties.
In the epic “Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha PopOvich” the plot “a husband at his wife’s wedding” was developed. While Good Prince Vladimir and the princess were traveling, they wooed his wife to Alyosha. Dobrynya arrived during the wedding feast. He appeared under the guise of a guslar, but his wife recognized him. Aleshin's marriage was upset. The epic is very bright, the action is skillfully developed.
In the epic “Dobrynya and Marinka” the hero falls under power; the sorceress who turns him into a tour, and only his mother saves him; hero from witchcraft.
Dobrynya is significantly different from Ilya Muromets. He is also powerful and brave, serving the Russian land. But at the same time, he is a subtle diplomat, and it is he who Vladimir instructs to woo the bride, and it is he who instructs him to carry tribute duties. Dobrynya can read in church and play the harp. When he played, “everyone was at a feast. the games were heard,” “everyone fell silent at the feast.” Dobrynya is characterized by “courtesy”, the ability to behave.
The characterization of Dobrynya shows the development of individualization of the image in epics.
In relation to the epics about Dobrynya, a number of important questions arose in science. Particularly interesting are questions about the historical; the prototype of the hero and the development of his image.
Most scientists are inclined to consider Dobrynya’s uncle, Prince Vladimir Dobrynya, as the prototype. This point of view of V.F. Miller! supported by A.V. Markov, V.I. Chicherov, D.S. Likhachev. The baptism of Dobrynya and Putyata of Novgorod, noted in the chronicle, Dobrynya's participation in the matchmaking of the daughter of the Polotsk prince Rogneda, the diplomatic missions of Prince Dobrynya, and the actions of Dobrynya as the prince's assistant find parallels in epic situations. At the same time, the image of Dobrynya was formed on a general folklore basis, including mythical and fairy tales, which left traces in his appearance. Dobrynya received high popular praise and was glorified in epics not as a historical figure, but as a hero.
Regarding the history of the image of Dobrynya, scientists believe that it “developed not immediately, but over the course of many centuries.” “Probably the end of the 14th-17th centuries is the time when the images of Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich finally took shape.” We cannot agree with these provisions, since the image of Dobrynya already in the first two epics, especially in the epic “Dobrynya and the Serpent,” has a very definite character. This is a heroic image. If the epic “Dobrynya and Alyosha” develops the image of Dobrynya, then other epics, such as “Dobrynya and Marinka”, “The Marriage of Dobrynya”, depart from the previously created image of the hero. This cannot be called... a decline in the image, but can only be considered a violation of its essence, its quality. The creation of newer epics about Dobrynya cannot be considered the introduction of new touches and additions to the image. This is a violation of his integrity, his certain character. Scientists note the subsequent “ossification” of the image of Dobrynya as a “wonderful helper” who helps Vasily Kazimirovich receive tribute from the Horde. Danu to woo a bride for the prince. We would note the stability of the image of Dobrynya as a hero, as a heroic character, although there are epics in which his image is “eternalized.” The main thing in this image is what it does to the hero and what is persistently preserved in the epics about him. There is, "
dya "zGlesha Popovich. There are only three stories about Alyosha Popovich: “Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin”, “Alyosha and sister Zbrodoviyal (Petrovich), “Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich”. The main plot in which the image of Alyosha is revealed in its main features, the plot of the epic is the first and probably the earliest. Scientists recognize both Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin as images that have historical prototypes. D. S. Likhachev and B. A. Rybakov established that there is confusion in the chronicles: "different" faces are mixed. The historical prototype of Alyosha - the "brave" Alek-shdr (Alyosha) Popovich - dates back to the 13th century, but chroniclers associated it with the events of 1096, when one of the warriors killed the Poloshk Khan Tugor-kan. , approached Kiev. This was during the reign of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, who was married to the daughter of " "or-kan. In the image of Alyosha Popovich, the hero who killed Tugor-kan and the hero Alyosha, who died in the battle on the Kalka River in 1224. Tugarin’s image bears the features mythical creature: sometimes depicted as a monster, like a snake capable of flying, usually with paper wings. Alyosha defeats him either with the help of “heavenly power”, or because the rain soaked Tugarin’s paper wings and he fell to the ground, or by cunning, telling Garin that there was an army behind him, and he turned around and let himself be killed.
Alyosha differs from Ilya and Dobrynya in that he uses not only strength, but also cunning in the fight against enemies. He has traits that are not very befitting of a hero: he violates the twinning agreement and wants to marry Dobrynya’s wife. True, in the epic it is usually Dobrynya himself who reprimands Prince Vladimir and the princess for marrying his wife to Alyosha. [oh and Alyosha is guilty of this: he brought the news of the death of Dobrynya, which turned out to be false. In some texts, Alyosha appears., 1K "woman's mockingbird". This is clearly a violation of the essence of the image of a gator.
It should be emphasized that Alyosha’s nickname “Popovich” was intended so that in later epics his image would be adorned with negative traits: cunning, greed, infidelity.
Alyosha is a hero, and this is the main thing in his image.
Epics about repelling the Mongol-Tatar invasion. To the epics in which you can see subjects related to the reflection of a. ...of the Tatar invasion, include: “Ilya Muromets and the Lin-Tsar”, “Dobrynya and Vasily Kazimirovich”, “Vasily Igna-
1 ^vich and Batyga", "Kama Massacre", "Death of the Bogatyrs",
rvaya is probably related to the events of 1239-1240. near Kyiv,
ended in victory for the Russian troops. The victorious end of the epic
Corresponded to the heroic meaning of the epic epic. The epic “Asiliy Ignatievich and Batyga” also has reason to be attributed to the events of 1240: Kyiv, besieged by Batu, is saved by Vasily Natyevich, the hero “from Goli tavern”, who is not mentioned in other epics. The epic “Mikhail Kazarin (Kozarin)”, in which the hero rescues his sister from captivity, is compared by scientists with the events of 1106, when the governor Kazarin, sent with a vyato-regiment to Volyn, defeated the Polovtsians there and liberated the epic. It is believed that the epic was composed in Volyn and then entered the Kiev cycle.
The theme of the fight against the yoke did not receive significant development in Russian epics. The Tatars spoken of in epics are more often Polovtsians: the events of the Mongol-Tatar time were superimposed on the events of the pre-Mongol invasion. The plots of the struggle were not developed, as B. A. Rybakov says, because the defeats of the Russians could not become plots of the heroic genre.
In the scientific literature, however, a lot of attention is paid to the epics “The Battle of the Kama” and “The Death of the Bogatyrs”, which usually merge into one plot. A lot of effort has been made to prove that the “Kama Massacre” is a response to the Battle of Kulikovo. However, V.F. Miller and V.Ya. Propp did not connect this epic with the Battle of Kulikovo Field.
Regarding the topic of the death of Russian heroes, we believe that B. A. Rybakov is right, who believes that this is an indirect reflection of the events of 1380-1382-1409. “This is not a reflection of events, but an answer to the question - where did the Russian heroes go - invented by buffoon storytellers or, rather, kaliki, stylized as epics, and this answer was composed, in all likelihood, no earlier than the 16th century, when the struggle against Tatar rule was already behind,” writes B. A. Rybakov.
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1 OPTION2 Part 1 The answers to tasks 1-25 are a figure (number) or a word (several words), a sequence of numbers (numbers). Write the answer in the answer field in the text of the work, and then transfer it to the ANSWER FORM: M 1 to the right of the task number, starting from the first cell, without spaces. commas and other additional characters. Write each letter or number in a separate box in accordance with the samples given in the form. Read the text and complete tasks 1-3. (1) The emergence of the heroic epic epic, which was the pinnacle of oral folk art, dates back to the 10th century; The epics are based on real historical events; the prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. (2)<... >The prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was the uncle of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich - governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in the chronicles. (3) Epic stories rarely retained the accuracy of factual details, but the dignity of these works does not lie in their exact adherence to historical facts: their main value is that they were created by the people and reflect their views, assessment of the essence of historical events and understanding social relations, developed in the Old Russian state, its ideals. 1. Indicate two sentences that correctly convey MAIN information contained in the text. Write down the numbers of these sentences. 1) The basis of the epics, which arose in the 10th century and are the pinnacle of oral folk art, are real historical events, and the prototypes of some epic heroes are real-life people: the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich was Vladimir Svyatoslavovich’s uncle - governor Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in the chronicles . 2) Vladimir Svyatoslavovich’s uncle, Voivode Dobrynya, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in chronicles, was the prototype of the epic Dobrynya Nikitich, and this is evidence that the basis of the epics that arose in the 10th century and are the pinnacle of oral folk art are real historical events, and The prototypes of some epic heroes are real people. 3) The main value of the pinnacle of oral folk art - the heroic epic epic, which arose in the 10th century and is based on real historical events, and as some heroes - prototypes of real people - lies not in the exact following of historical facts, but in the ability to reflect the views and ideals of the people and their assessment of what is happening in the Old Russian state. 4) The ability to reflect the views and ideals of the people, their assessment of what is happening in the Old Russian state is main value the pinnacle of oral folk art - the heroic epic epic that arose in the 10th century and is based on real historical events, and some heroes are prototypes of real people. 16
2 5) The epics, which arose in the 10th century as the heroic epic of the people and were the pinnacle of oral folk art, rarely retained the accuracy of factual details, but the dignity of these works was not in the exact adherence to historical facts. 1 ~-~---" 2. Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the second (2) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words). Moreover, thanks to this, So, Despite this , Therefore 3. Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that contains the meaning of the word RELATIONSHIP. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this meaning in the given fragment of the dictionary entry. er. 1) Involvement in something. 2) Internal assessment of someone or something and the manifestation of this assessment. Responsible about. Between two events there is a certain o. between two quantities. A connection between someone, friendships, business relations 5) In mathematics. : the quotient obtained by dividing one number by another, as well as the recording of the corresponding action. Equality of two relations. 6) Official paper, document (official). O. from the Ministry In one of the words below there is an error in the placement of stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel sound is highlighted incorrectly. Write this word down. began scooping up bows, arriving before dark ~ In one of the sentences below, the highlighted word is used INCORRECTLY. Correct the lexical error by choosing a paronym for the highlighted word. Write down the chosen word. Everyone paid attention to the REGAL turn of the head and posture of the baroness, who also had good voice, sang and played music beautifully. The owner of the exclusive right to a trademark can REPRESENT the right to use it to other persons. A large mother-of-pearl shell, raised from the bottom of the sea, can decorate the interior of your apartment, office, or a MEMORIABLE gift to a friend. In works of oral folk art and in many literary works, the oak is often the personification of strength, pride, CENTURY WISDOM. An effective mechanism for regulating the globalization process must COVER all areas: from political and military to humanitarian ~----~--- 17
3 6. In one of the highlighted words below, an error was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly. Let's LIGHT a candle of cotton DRESSES WE'LL BAKE a cake in NINETY villages to express more EXACTLY Answer=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 7. Establish a correspondence between grammatical errors and the sentences in which they are made: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column. GRAMMAR ERRORS A) violation in the connection between the subject and predicate B) violation in the construction of a sentence with an adverbial phrase C) violation in the construction of a sentence with homogeneous members D) violation in construction complex sentence E) violation of the aspectual-temporal correlation of verb forms of SENTENCES 1) Knowing the period of time between stops of the same pendulum, the modulus of elasticity can be easily calculated using known equations. 2) Some of the students passed the exams ahead of schedule. 3) As soon as you start talking about the incident, the lieutenant leaves the room. 4) Galina Ulanova - one of the outstanding representatives of the Soviet ballet school. 5) Those who remained at the meeting sought to express their position. 6) Having examined the bird that was circling over the nest, the boy realized that it was a swallow. 7) Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev wrote that it is necessary to preserve the purity of the language. 8) The grove froze in midday silence, and the sounds of birch buds bursting under the sun’s rays seemed beautiful and mysterious. 9) Subtle aroma Not only the night flowers that had opened their buds, but also the heavy, dewy grass were spreading. Write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters. A B c d e 8. Identify the word in which the unstressed unverified vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter. cl.. ssisticistic orient.. oriented limited.. limited ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~z.. rnitsa.. unfolding 9. Identify the series in which the same word is missing in both words letter. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter. be.. watery, ra.. press from.. leave, n.. step on.. stab, about.. collect -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~from.. reveal, display.. yatsya pr.. brought, pr.. adjusted 18
4 10. Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap. ~~ 11. Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap. noticeable.. disturbed.. shaken.. shish captivated.. disheveled.. sh ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ 12. Determine the sentence in which NOT is written together with the word. Open the brackets and write down this word. (NOT) ENJOYING the special favor of his comrades in the carpentry team for their meticulousness in their work, Semyon was glad to see the master’s offer to test himself in the city. The meeting of former friends turned out to be by no means (NOT) ACCIDENTAL. No one (IS) OBLIGED to be guided in their actions by the opinion of the majority, if, due to certain beliefs, this opinion is not shared. Having listened, one could understand that the young people at the next table were speaking (NOT) RUSSIAN. All young people strive for (IN)DEPENDENCE. Answer=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 13. Identify a sentence in which both highlighted words are written CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write down these two words. My brother, by all accounts, had SOME kind of strange way of thinking, and his reasoning and conclusions sometimes put those around him at a dead end. My father loved to read notations, and his brother, although he did them with a sense of humor, (AND) a wonderful one. my uncle, ALSO, was prone to moralizing, Pechorin decided to look under the canopy to find out if the horses had food. JUST as there are sixty varieties of birch trees, there are quite a lot of varieties of russula: more than two dozen; To be more precise, there are twenty-seven of them. You need to make inquiries SOMEWHERE (ON) ABOUT the arrival of the train. Answer=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 14. Indicate all the numbers replaced by one N. Foreign judges have already given (2) marks and calculated (3) points and summed up (4) preliminary results of competitions in any (5) sport. Answer=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 15. Place punctuation marks. List two sentences that require ONE comma. Write down the numbers of these sentences. 1) The construction of concrete and reinforced concrete structures is expensive and labor-intensive. 2) The lecturer called on future writers to have clarity, simplicity and graphic precision of expression, to work on the musicality and euphony of speech. 3) The girl was explaining something to a group of guys and at the same time she raised her voice and then lowered it again. 19
5 4) Neither Alexey nor his classmates took part in any of the events described. 5) Mamochkin’s courage was often posturing and needed to be spurred on, and the foreman understood this. \. --~-~ 16. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence. A no less strong position was occupied in Garaska’s soul by a few truths (1) obtained through everyday experience (2) and (3) that dominated the ideas (4) instilled in him by adults. 17. Place all the missing punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence. Vyacheslav (1) looked very seriously into his friend’s eyes and said confidently: ~listen (2) Mikhail (3) you (4) will certainly (5) pass all the exams perfectly. About this (6) you (7) please (8) don’t even (9) worry>. 18. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence. In 1894, the Literary and Theater Museum (2) appeared in Moscow (1), the basis (3) of which (4) was a collection on the history of Russian and Western European theater by A.A. Bakhrushina ~ 19. Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) in whose place(s) there should be a comma(s) in the sentence. The bell (1) sounded loudly and demandingly in the silence of the room, but (2) when Maria Konstantinovna (3) opened the door (4) she found no one (5) and on the staircase in a tall vase there was an armful of her favorite wildflowers ~ 20. Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by eliminating the extra word. Write this word down. Purposeful and efficient, Boris Leonidovich Pasternak strove to bring everything to perfection, and this influenced the biography of the life of the future writer: despite his boundless love for music, he abandoned his musical career, realizing that he could not reach heights in this field. Read the text and complete the tasks (l)Once during a meeting with readers, a young woman approached me. “(2) I recognized you,” she told me. - (3) You often came to our school. (4) And once they came when a pilot was performing in front of us. (5) Don't remember? (b) he just arrived from the front. (7) Do you remember? 20
6 (8) I remembered. (9) I remembered this day very well. (lo)at the very end of the war, a young pilot arrived in his hometown for a short stay. (ll) Time was running out, but he really wanted to run into the school where he had recently studied. (12) And, taking the hand of his niece, who had entered the first grade of the very school where he had gone for ten years, the young pilot led her along a familiar path. (13) 0n brought her to the very doors of the school, first grade. and then they met the leader - (14) “Let’s come to us,” she told the pilot. - (15) A meeting with a front-line soldier is an excellent educational event. (16) We already had the director of a large plant, an honored artist of the republic and a distinguished steelmaker... (17) But there was no front-line soldier yet. (18) Let's go! (19)0n agreed. (20) And he entered the class. “(21) Here, girls, meet,” said the teacher. - (22) A hero, a pilot, came to visit us. (23) 0n flew to us straight from the front. (24)0n studied at our school and was always an exemplary student. (25) 0n always strictly followed the internal rules, was never late and carefully completed his homework. (26) He was a polite student, he was not rude to teachers, he... (27) I looked at the pilot. (28) 0n stood red as a lobster. (29) He had a high cheekbone and slightly slanted eyes. (30) And from the look of those eyes - cheerful, a little wild, it was clear: the appearance of the ideal schoolboy, which the teacher was now drawing, had nothing to do with him. (31) It was obvious: he happened to violate the rules of the school routine. (32) Sometimes he was late for classes, sometimes he didn’t do his homework very carefully. (33) And something else happened! “(34) All these qualities helped him become a real warrior,” the teacher continued. - (35) Now he will tell you about his front-line exploits and front-line everyday life. (36) The pilot looked at the girls, as if wondering what he could tell them... (37) And what would be interesting to them? (38) If only one boy sat among them, some freckled, snub-nosed Petka, some curious Lenka... (39) But in front of him were clean and neat girls in brown dresses and black aprons. (40) A front-line pilot - he was simply afraid of these girls. (41) And suddenly, making up his mind, as if jumping from a bridge into the water, he spoke. (42) He told them how he once spent the night in a village that had just been recaptured from the enemy. (43) The collective farmers were returning home from the forest, from the dugouts where they had lived for about six months, fleeing the Germans. (44) And so, when he woke up, the pilot saw that a two-year-old girl was standing by his bed. (45) She was dressed in some kind of rags, her feet were bare, although it was already deep autumn. (46) The girl’s hair hung in strands over her eyes; she had not had her hair cut for a long time. (47) There was nothing in the house: no food, no linen, no clothes, no soap to wash. “(48) And the girl’s mother was sick,” said the pilot. - (49) She caught a fever in the dugout, and they brought her home almost without memory and laid her on the stove. (50) And the girl is hungry, cold, dirty. (51) And my friend Seryoga and I boiled water, put the girl in a trough and washed her. (52) Then they wrapped her in an overcoat and began to think about how to dress it up. (53) And Seryoga was a shoemaker in civilian life. (54)0n took my fur mitten and cut shoes for the girl. (55) Do you see how big my hands are? (56) Like shovels! (57) And the girl’s legs are, well, just like a doll’s. (58) Then we made her a dress from Seryoga’s sweatshirt and even tied it up with a sash. (59) And then they decided to cut her hair. (60) Her eyes are blue, like forget-me-nots, such good eyes, but you can’t see them behind her hair. (61) But how to cut it evenly and beautifully? (62) After all, we never studied this matter. (63) And so, listen, how we figured it out: I took a pot, a small one, a clay pot, well, an ordinary pot in which porridge is cooked, and put it on the girl’s head - and cut it exactly along the edge! (64) I was tonsured into the circle! (65) The young pilot looked at the girls, and it was clear that all these neat first-graders no longer frightened him. (66) They listened and laughed, and he was ready to tell them more and more. (67) He looked at the teacher, expecting encouragement and praise, and as if someone stopped him in his tracks. (68) Pursing her lips, the teacher looked at him bewildered and stern. 21
7 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- (69) Mumbling: “Well, that’s what it was,” the pilot fell silent. “(70) We’ll thank our fellow front-line soldier,” the teacher said dryly, “and let’s do some mental arithmetic!” (71) When the pilot went out into the corridor, the teacher stepped after him and said reproachfully: “I was hoping that you would tell the children something instructive, educational!” (72) Ava... - (73) And you know what I’ll tell you, - said the one who listened to the pilot with me as a little girl seventeen years ago, in 1944, - you know what... (74) Here's a strange thing: how many different things have I listened to since then? famous people- both artists and scientists - and not that I remember much. (75) And I remember everything that that pilot said as if it were yesterday. (76) I remember everything: the girl with a pot on her head, and how he cut her hair, and how she sat quietly, and how he fed her chocolate. (77) Well, everything, everything, as if I saw it with my own eyes... *Frida Abramovna Vigdorova (gg.) - Russian Soviet writer, journalist and human rights activist. (According to F. Vigdorova *) 21. Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? Please provide answer numbers. 1) The young woman who approached the author during a meeting with readers entered first grade at the very beginning of the war. 2) When the young pilot went to school, he did not plan to speak in front of the students. 3) B school years the young pilot was one of the most diligent students. 4) Before starting the story, the pilot tried to understand for himself what would be interesting for first-graders to hear about. 5) The teacher was dissatisfied with the pilot’s story, but the first-graders really liked this story. 22. Which of the following statements are true? Please provide answer numbers. 1) The sentences provide a description. 2) Propositions 38 and 39 are contrasted in content. 3) Sentences present a narrative. 4) Proposition 68 contains the reason for what is said in sentence 69. 5) Propositions contain reasoning. 23. From sentences 8-12, write down one phraseological unit. 24. Among the sentences, find one(s) that is connected with the previous one using a conjunction, demonstrative pronoun and forms of words. Write the number(s) of this sentence(s). Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing assignments. This fragment discusses language features text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Insert into the blanks (A, B, C, D) the numbers corresponding to the numbers of the terms from the list. Write down the corresponding number in the table under each letter. 22
8 Write down the sequence of numbers in ANSWER FORM M 1 to the right of task number 25, starting from the first cell, without spaces. commas and other additional characters. Write each number in accordance with the samples given in the form. 25. “The young pilot strives to describe an incident that happened to him during the war, vividly, figuratively, so that his little listeners would understand and find it interesting. Various means of expression, including trope (A) (in sentences 55-56, 57, 60). Inviting first-graders to imagine what is happening, inviting them to think about possible actions in a difficult situation, the front-line soldier uses the syntactic device - (B) (sentences 55, 61). The pilot’s keen interest in what he is telling and in his little listeners, whose emotional response he felt, is manifested in the use of such a syntactic device as (B) (sentences 63, 64). The power of the impact of the front-line pilot’s story is emphasized by technique (D) (sentences 74-75))>. List of terms: 1) epithet 6) interrogative sentence 2) metaphor 7) syntactic parallelism 3) comparison 8) contrast 4) personification 9) anaphora 5) exclamatory sentence A B c d Do not forget to transfer all answers to ANSWER FORM M 1 in accordance with instructions for performing the work. Part 2 To answer this task, use ANSWER FORM M Write an essay based on the text you read. Formulate one of the problems posed by the author of the text. Comment on the formulated problem. Include in your comment two examples of illustrations from the text you read that you think are important for understanding the problem in the source text (avoid excessive quoting). Formulate the position of the author (storyteller). Write whether you agree or disagree with the point of view of the author of the text you read. Explain why. Argue your opinion, relying primarily on reading experience, as well as knowledge and life observations (the first two arguments are taken into account). The volume of the essay is at least 150 words. Work written without reference to the text read (not based on this text) is not graded. If the essay is a retelling or a complete rewrite of the original text without any comments, such work is scored zero points. Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting. 23
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In connection with the adoption of Christianity and the intensification of international relations, many translations from Greek, Latin and Hebrew appeared. Original Russian literary works also began to be created.
An extraordinary figure who advanced Russian culture was Grand Duke Yaroslav (1019-1054), who even received the nickname Wise. Among his most significant undertakings is the beginning of the formation of legislation called Russian Truth. From now on, in Rus', relationships in the state were regulated on the basis of law, not tradition, not the law of the strong. Blood feud was limited. Fines (vires) for certain crimes were determined. A characteristic feature of Russian Pravda was the absence of the death penalty, which was introduced subsequently. Liability before the law depended on social status person, but not from his origin and faith.
Under Yaroslav, the first monasteries appeared, in particular the future Kiev-Pechersk Lavra (Pechersk Monastery). The chronicler Nestor noted that the Christian faith began to “be fruitful and expand, and the monks began to multiply, and monasteries to appear.” The first library was created at the Hagia Sophia. Yaroslav the Wise himself was a bibliophile, great amount books were purchased and brought to Kyiv from Byzantium, and copyists worked in the monasteries. Yaroslav, who himself knew six foreign languages, encouraged the study of sciences. Under him, at the request of his sister, a school for girls was opened, which was very rare in Europe at that time. In The Tale of Bygone Years he was compared to a sower who “sowed the hearts of believers with bookish words.” It was under Yaroslav the Wise that Rus' declared its ecclesiastical independence. For the first time, a metropolitan was not sent from Byzantium, but was appointed Grand Duke from the Russian clergy. Yaroslav's associate Hilarion became the first Russian metropolitan. Yaroslav the Wise was buried in St. Sophia Cathedral, where he was called “Tsar” - king.
In the 10th century, when the process of strengthening the state was underway, a heroic epic epic. Gradually, a certain melodious style was developed in the transmission of epics, or antiquities. Bogatyrs embodied the best human qualities: patriotism, honesty, courage, loyalty, strength. The epics about Ilya Muromets tell of his struggle with the Nightingale the Robber, with the Foul Idol. Next to him is the crafty, boastful Alyosha Popovich and the smart, educated Dobrynya Nikitich. All of them are defenders of the Russian state.
Another world is revealed in Novgorod epics ah about the daredevil Vasily Buslaev, who believes only in his own strength and courage. Guslyar Sadko captivates the king of the sea with his performance. These epics introduce life in Novgorod.
The work of the farmer is reflected in the epics about the plowman Mikul Selyaninovich, endowed with miraculous heroic strength. He was part of the squad of Svyatoslav's son Oleg, who fought with the Varangians in 975. But there are immeasurably more epic characters than heroes. Among them are Prince Vladimir himself, and Polkan Polkanovich, and Marya Lebed Belaya, and others.
Russian history is also reflected in epics. One of the differences between the epic and the chronicle is that in the chronicles, which reacted very strongly to the socio-political situation in the country, the fate of Rus' in difficult, turning points depends on Prince of Kyiv, and in the epic - in a moment of danger, heroes from the people become defenders of the Motherland.
The epic cycle is dedicated to Prince Vladimir the Red Sun, who defended Rus' from the conquerors. Another cycle is dedicated to Vladimir Monomakh and his struggle with the Polovtsians. The recording of epics began in the 17th century. Now about 3 thousand epics have been recorded, but it is impossible to say how many there were in those days.
There are many plots in common with European ones in epics. But there is also a significant difference between the Russian epic and the epic of the early European Middle Ages. And here and there there is a struggle with foreigners. But in Rus' the main idea of epics and ancient Russian chronicle stories- liberation, and in the knightly chronicles - conquest, baptism of infidels. In Russian epics the idea of religious war is completely absent, however, there are also no ideas of racial irreconcilability and enmity. In the West, the motto is “He who is not killed is baptized,” and in Rus' - “Here you stand for the faith, for the fatherland, Here you stand for the glorious capital city of Kyiv.” Even in the early Middle Ages, one can see the difference with the Western European epic, where the struggle for glory and jewelry, for loyalty to the leader, and blood feud are glorified. IN ancient Russian epic These themes did not become defining.
A large place in epics is given to Kalikas who walk. At that time, pilgrims to the Holy Land were called Kalikas. From time immemorial, it was customary to help the Kaliki and feed them for the sake of Christ, since they went to worship the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. Kaliki not only were not opposed to heroes, but were often heroes themselves. This is no coincidence, because psychological world epic heroes included the concepts of awareness and atonement for sins. Pilgrimage was a traditional form of atonement. This in itself was equated to a feat. Thus, there is an equation of spiritual feat with military feat. Of these heroes we can name Dmitry Solunsky, Anika the warrior, Alexei the man of God, etc. They are spiritual heroes.
Bylinas - poetic heroic epic of Ancient Rus', reflecting the events historical life Russian people. The ancient name for epics in the Russian north is “old times”. Modern name genre - “epics” - was introduced back in the first half of the 19th century by folklorist I.P. Sakharov based on famous expression from “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” - “epics of this time.”
The time of composition of epics is determined in different ways. Some scientists believe that this is an early genre that developed during the times of Kievan Rus (X-XI centuries), others - a late genre that arose in the Middle Ages, during the creation and strengthening of the Moscow centralized state. The genre of epics reached its greatest flourishing in the 17th–18th centuries, and by the 20th century it fell into oblivion.
Bylina, according to V.P. Anikin, these are “heroic songs that arose as an expression of the historical consciousness of the people in the East Slavic era and developed in the conditions of Ancient Rus'...”.
Bylinas reproduce the ideals of social justice and glorify Russian heroes as defenders of the people. They reveal social moral and aesthetic ideals, reflecting historical reality in images. In epics, the basis of life is combined with fiction. They have a solemn and pathetic tone, their style corresponds to the purpose of glorifying extraordinary people and majestic events of history.
The famous folklorist P.N. recalled the high emotional impact of epics on listeners. Rybnikov. For the first time he heard a live performance of the epic twelve kilometers from Petrozavodsk, on the island of Shui-Navolok. After a difficult swim on the spring, stormy Lake Onega, settling down for the night by the fire, Rybnikov imperceptibly fell asleep...
The main characters of epics are heroes. They embody the ideal of a courageous person devoted to his homeland and people. The hero fights alone against hordes of enemy forces. Among the epics, a group of the most ancient stands out. These are the so-called epics about “elder” heroes, associated with mythology. The heroes of these works are the personification of unknown forces of nature associated with mythology. Such are Svyatogor and Volkhv Vseslavevich, Danube and Mikhailo Potyk.
In the second period of their history, the ancient heroes were replaced by heroes of modern times - Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich. These are the heroes of the so-called Kyiv cycle of epics. Cyclization means union epic images and plots around individual characters and locales. This is how the Kiev cycle of epics, associated with the city of Kiev, developed.
Most epics depict the world of Kievan Rus. The heroes go to Kyiv to serve Prince Vladimir, and they protect him from enemy hordes. The content of these epics is predominantly heroic and military in nature.
Another major center ancient Russian state was Novgorod. Epics of the Novgorod cycle - everyday, novelistic. The heroes of these epics were merchants, princes, peasants, guslars (Sadko, Volga, Mikula, Vasily Buslaev, Blud Khotenovich).
The world depicted in epics is the entire Russian land. So, Ilya Muromets sees from the Bogatyrskaya outpost high mountains, green meadows, dark forests. The epic world is “bright” and “sunny”, but it is threatened by enemy forces: dark clouds, fog, thunderstorms are approaching, the sun and stars are dimming from countless enemy hordes. This is a world of opposition between good and evil, light and dark forces. In it, heroes fight against the manifestation of evil and violence. Without this struggle, the epic peace is impossible.
Each hero has a certain, dominant character trait. Ilya Muromets personifies strength; he is the most powerful Russian hero after Svyatogor. Dobrynya is also a strong and brave warrior, a snake fighter, but also a hero-diplomat. Prince Vladimir sends him on special diplomatic missions. Alyosha Popovich personifies ingenuity and cunning. “He won’t take it by force, but by cunning,” they say about him in epics. Monumental images of heroes and grandiose achievements are the fruit of artistic generalization, the embodiment in one person of the abilities and strength of the people or social group, exaggeration of what actually exists, i.e. hyperbolization and idealization. The poetic language of epics is solemnly melodious and rhythmically organized. Its special artistic media- comparisons, metaphors, epithets - reproduce pictures and images that are epically sublime, grandiose, and when depicting enemies - terrible, ugly.
In different epics, motifs and images, plot elements, identical scenes, lines and groups of lines are repeated. Thus, through all the epics of the Kyiv cycle there are images of Prince Vladimir, the city of Kyiv, and heroes. Bylinas, like other works of folk art, do not have a fixed text. Passed from mouth to mouth, they changed and varied. Each epic had an infinite number of variants.
In epics, fabulous miracles are performed: the reincarnation of characters, the revival of the dead, werewolves. They contain mythological images of enemies and fantastic elements, but the fantasy is different from that of a fairy tale. It is based on folk historical ideas. The famous folklorist of the 19th century A.F. Hilferding wrote:
“When a person doubts that a hero can carry a forty-pound club or kill an entire army on the spot, the epic poetry in him is killed. And many signs convinced me that the northern Russian peasant singing epics, and the vast majority of those who listen to him, certainly believe in the truth of the miracles that are depicted in the epic. The epic preserved historical memory. Miracles were perceived as history in the life of the people.”
There are many historically reliable signs in the epics: descriptions of details, ancient weapons of warriors (sword, shield, spear, helmet, chain mail). They glorify Kyiv-grad, Chernigov, Murom, Galich. Other ancient Russian cities are named. Events also unfold in Ancient Novgorod. They indicate the names of some historical figures: Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh. These princes were united in the popular imagination into one collective image of Prince Vladimir - “Red Sun”.
There is a lot of fantasy and fiction in epics. But fiction is poetic truth. The epics reflected the historical conditions of life Slavic people: aggressive campaigns of the Pechenegs and Polovtsians to Rus', destruction of villages, full of women and children, plunder of wealth. Later, in the 13th–14th centuries, Rus' was under the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars, which is also reflected in epics. During the years of people's trials, they instilled love for their native land. It is no coincidence that the epic is a heroic folk song about the feat of the defenders of the Russian land.
However, epics depict not only the heroic deeds of heroes, enemy invasions, battles, but also everyday human life in its social and everyday manifestations and historical conditions. This is reflected in the cycle of Novgorod epics. In them, the heroes are noticeably different from the epic heroes of the Russian epic. The epics about Sadko and Vasily Buslaev include not just new original themes and plots, but also new epic images, new types of heroes who do not know other epic cycles. Novgorod heroes, unlike the heroes of the heroic cycle, do not perform feats of arms. This is explained by the fact that Novgorod escaped the Horde invasion, Batu's hordes did not reach the city. However, the Novgorodians could not only rebel (V. Buslaev) and play the gusli (Sadko), but also fight and win brilliant victories over the conquerors from the West.
Vasily Buslaev appears as the Novgorod hero. Two epics are dedicated to him. One of them talks about the political struggle in Novgorod, in which he takes part. Vaska Buslaev rebels against the townspeople, comes to feasts and starts quarrels with “rich merchants”, “men (men) of Novgorod”, enters into a duel with the “elder” Pilgrim - a representative of the church. With his squad he “fights and fights day until evening.” The townspeople “submitted and made peace” and pledged to pay “three thousand every year.” Thus, the epic depicts a clash between the rich Novgorod settlement, eminent men and those townspeople who defended the independence of the city.
The hero's rebellion is manifested even in his death. In the epic “How Vaska Buslaev Went to Pray,” he violates prohibitions even at the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, swimming naked in the Jordan River. There he dies, remaining a sinner. V.G. Belinsky wrote that “Vasily’s death comes directly from his character, daring and violent, which seems to be asking for trouble and death.”
One of the most poetic and fabulous epics of the Novgorod cycle is the epic “Sadko”. V.G. Belinsky defined the epic “as one of the pearls of Russian folk poetry, poetic apotheosis of Novgorod." Sadko is a poor psaltery player who became rich thanks to skillful playing of the gusli and the patronage of the Sea King. As a hero, he expresses infinite strength and endless prowess. Sadko loves his land, his city, his family. Therefore, he refuses the countless riches offered to him and returns home.
So, epics are poetic, works of art. They contain a lot of unexpected, surprising, incredible things. However, they are fundamentally truthful, conveying the people's understanding of history, the people's idea of duty, honor, and justice. At the same time, they are skillfully constructed, their language is unique.
Artistic originality of epics
The epics were created in tonic (also called epic, folk) verse. In works created in tonic verse, the poetic lines may have a different number of syllables, but there should be a relatively equal number of stresses. In epic verse, the first stress, as a rule, falls on the third syllable from the beginning, and the last stress on the third syllable from the end.
Epics are characterized by a combination of real images that have a clear historical meaning and conditioned by reality (the image of Kyiv, the capital Prince Vladimir), with fantastic images (Serpent Gorynych, Nightingale the Robber). But the leading images in epics are those generated by historical reality.
Often an epic begins with a chorus. It is not related to the content of the epic, but represents independent picture, preceding the main epic story. The outcome is the ending of the epic, a short conclusion, summing up, or a joke (“then the old days, then the deed,” “that’s where the old days ended”).
The epic usually begins with a beginning that determines the place and time of action. This is followed by an exposition in which the hero of the work is highlighted, most often using the technique of contrast.
The image of the hero is at the center of the entire narrative. Epic grandeur of the image epic hero is created by revealing his noble feelings and experiences, the qualities of the hero are revealed in his actions.
Tripleness or trinity in epics is one of the main depiction techniques (there are three heroes at the heroic outpost, the hero makes three trips - “Three trips of Ilya”, Sadko is not invited to the feast three times by the Novgorod merchants, he casts lots three times, etc. .). All these elements (threefold persons, threefold action, verbal repetitions) are present in all epics. Hyperboles used to describe the hero and his feat also play a large role in them. The description of the enemies (Tugarin, Nightingale the Robber), as well as the description of the strength of the warrior-hero, are hyperbolic. There are fantastic elements in this.
In the main narrative part of the epic, the techniques of parallelism, stepwise narrowing of images, and antithesis are widely used.
The text of the epic is divided into permanent and transitional passages. Transitional passages are parts of the text created or improvised by narrators during performance; permanent places - stable, slightly changed, repeated in various epics (heroic battle, hero’s rides, saddling a horse, etc.). Storytellers usually assimilate and repeat them with greater or less accuracy as the action progresses. The narrator speaks transitional passages freely, changing the text and partially improvising it. The combination of permanent and transitional places in the singing of epics is one of genre characteristics ancient Russian epic.
Clarification artistic originality The work of the Saratov scientist A.P. is devoted to Russian epics and their poetics. Skaftymov “Poetics and genesis of epics”. The researcher believed that “the epic knows how to create interest, knows how to excite the listener with anxiety of expectation, infect the listener with the delight of surprise and capture the winner with the ambitious triumph.”
D.S. Likhachev in the book “Poetics ancient Russian literature” writes that the time of action in epics refers to the conventional era of the Russian past. For some epics it is the idealized era of Prince Vladimir of Kyiv, for others it is the era of Novgorod freedom. The action of the epics takes place in the era of Russian independence, glory and power of Rus'. In this era, Prince Vladimir reigns “forever”, the heroes live “forever”. In epics, the entire time of action is assigned to the conventional era of Russian antiquity.
Literature from the 18th century for children. (Researcher Savvaty, Simeon Polotsky, Karion Istomin).
Children's literature in Russia XV-XVIII centuries
The entire history of ancient Russian children's literature can be divided into four periods:
1) second half of the 15th - first half of the 16th century, when the first educational works;
2) the second half of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century, when 15 printed books for children were published;
3) 20-40s. XVII century, when regular poetry begins;
4) the second half of the 17th century - the period of the development of different genres and types of children's literature.
Great development in the 17th century receives poetry. Poems of that time, addressed to children, were, from a modern point of view, still quite primitive. But it was with them that children's poetry began.
It was a rare children's handwritten or printed book without poems. There were especially many of them in the second half of the 17th century, when large works were written, which we now call poems. Poems set out rules of behavior and conveyed various information about the world. Most of the poems are anonymous. However, some authors were already known then, others have been identified now. The very first children's poet in Rus' should be considered the director of the Moscow Printing House, Savvaty. The reference book was responsible for the content and literacy of the book. Therefore, the most educated people were appointed to this position. Currently, more than ten poems by Savvaty are known, written by him specifically for children. Among them is the first poem in the book of the Moscow press, placed in the ABC edition of 1637. It consists of 34 lines. The poem simply, warmly and clearly tells the reader about the book he is holding in his hands, praises literacy and book wisdom, and gives various advice on how to study and how to read. According to the composition, this is an intimate conversation with a child on a topic that is interesting and important to him. The author convinces the child not to be lazy in learning, to be diligent, and to obey the teacher in everything. Only in this case can he learn “wisdom writing” (literacy), become one of the “wise men” and become a “true son of light.” Later, in the second half of the 17th century, this poem was widely distributed through handwritten books.
Another poem by Savvaty, “A Brief Reprimand about Laziness and Neglect,” consisting of 124 lines, was also very famous. Created in it negative image a capable student, but lazy and careless. Savvaty tries to instill in children respect for literacy, an enthusiastic attitude towards education and contempt for ignorance. The author leads the reader to the conclusion that teaching is light, and ignorance is darkness. Savvaty uses persuasion as the main educational means, and how literary device- comparison, likening. For example, he says that a diamond is precious because of the play of light, color, and paints, and a person is precious because of his education and “his understanding.”
In another large poem, consisting of 106 lines, called “Vacation ABC,” the image of a positive student is created who heeded the advice of his teacher, studied diligently, and therefore the teacher taught him everything that he himself knew and could. This is like a parting word to a child on graduation day.
The most major poet XVII century was Simeon of Polotsk. His real name is Petrovsky. In 1664, at the invitation of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Simeon moved to Moscow, where he opened a school and began to take an active part in literary and social life. Simeon of Polotsk took part in the creation of the primer of 1664. He also compiled the entire primer of the 1667 edition, which was republished in 1669. The preface written by Simeon for this primer is an outstanding pedagogical treatise of the 17th century.
But the primer of 1679 is of greatest interest. It contains two poems for children: “Preface to young men who want to learn” and “Admonition.” The first of them talks about the book, praises literacy, and calls on children to study well, for those who work in youth will be at peace in old age. Of all labors, reading and learning bring the greatest pleasure and benefit. The second poem is placed at the end of the book. He wrote poetic prefaces to the books he published for children, “Testament” and “The Tale of Baarlam and Joasaph.” In them he talks about the content of the books, draws attention to the most important thing, trying to interest children and prepare them for perception. The most important books of Simeon of Polotsk are “Reef. Mologion”, which has 1308 large format pages, and “Vertograd multicolor”, consisting of 1316 pages. The books were intended, according to the author, “for the benefit of young and old,” who could “look for words in them” and read “to teach their age.” The books contain many poems that are accessible to children, including greeting poems from children to parents, relatives and patrons.
Poems about nature, minerals, animals, plants, entertaining legends, etc., were also available to children. For example, the poem “Arc” (“Rainbow”) or poems about earth and water. Being a teacher by profession and an outstanding The poet of his time, Simeon of Polotsk, made a significant contribution to the creation of literature for children.
The first Russian writer and poet whose work was entirely dedicated to children was Karion Istomin. In all his works, Karion Istomin glorified science, “enlightenment,” yagi. He believed that everyone should study: children of all classes, boys and girls, people of all nationalities. Science, according to Karion Istomin, should save people from want and grief. Although in most of his poems Istomin directly addressed the princes, he intended them for the entire Russian people.
During Karion Istomin’s lifetime, three of his books for children and a complete set of textbooks were published. Another children's book by Karion Istomin, The Big Primer, had 11 poems. In addition, he wrote more than ten books of poetry. So, the book “Polis” talks about everyone, the seasons, parts of the world, different countries. In the poetic book "Domostroy", consisting of 176 lines, on vivid examples, figuratively sets out the rules of behavior. The main content of the rules boils down to the requirement to study the “free sciences”, etc.
1). Question about origin heroic epic- one of the most complex in literary science - has given rise to a number of different theories. Two of them stand out: “traditionalism” and “anti-traditionalism.” The foundations of the first of them were laid by the French medievalist Gaston Paris (1839-1901) in his major work"The Poetic History of Charlemagne" (1865). The theory of Gaston Paris, called the “cantilena theory,” boils down to the following main principles. The primary basis of the heroic epic were small lyrical-epic cantilena songs, widespread in the 8th century. Cantilenas were a direct response to certain historical events. For hundreds of years, cantilenas existed in... oral tradition, and from the 10th century. the process of their merging into large epic poems begins. The epic is the product of long-term collective creativity, the highest expression of the spirit of the people. Therefore, it is impossible to name a single creator of the epic poem; the recording of the poems itself is a more mechanical process than a creative one,
The positions of “traditionalists” and “anti-traditionalists” were to a certain extent brought together in his theory about the origin of the heroic epic by Alexander Nikolaevich Veselovsky. The essence of his theory is as follows. The beginning of epic creativity was small songs - lyrical-epic cantilenas, born as a response to events that excited the people imagination. After a while, the attitude towards the events described in the songs becomes calmer, the severity of emotions is lost and then an epic song is born. Time passes, and the songs, in one way or another, are close to each other, and finally the cycle turns into an epic poem. While the text exists in the oral tradition, it is the creation of a collective. At the last stage of the formation of the epic, the decisive role is played by the individual author. The recording of poems is not a mechanical act, but a deeply creative one.
The fundamentals of Veselovsky’s theory retain their significance for modern science (V. Zhirmunsky, E. Meletinsky), which also dates the emergence of the heroic epic to the 8th century, believing that the epic is the creation of both oral collective and written individual creativity.
Only the question of the fundamental principles of the heroic epic is corrected: they are considered to be historical legends and the richest arsenal of figurative means of the archaic epic.
It is no coincidence that the beginning of the formation of the heroic (or state) epic dates back to the 8th century. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), over the course of a number of centuries there was a transition from slave-owning forms of statehood to feudal ones, and among the peoples Northern Europe- the process of the final decomposition of patriarchal-tribal relations. Qualitative changes associated with approval new statehood, definitely make themselves felt in the 8th century. In 751, one of the largest feudal lords in Europe, Pepin the Short, became king of the Franks and founder of the Carolingian dynasty. Under the son of Pepin the Short, Charlemagne (reign: 768-814), a huge state was formed, including a Celtic-Roman-Germanic population. In 80b, the pope crowns Charles with the title of emperor of the newly revived Great Roman Empire. In turn, Kara completes the Christianization of the German tribes, and seeks to turn the capital of the empire, Aachen, into Athens. The formation of the new state was difficult not only because of internal circumstances, but also because of external ones, among which one of the main places was occupied by the ongoing war between the Christian Franks and the Muslim Arabs. This is how history powerfully entered the life of medieval man. And the heroic epic itself became a poetic reflection of the historical consciousness of the people.
The focus on history determines the decisive features of the difference between the heroic epic and the archaic epic, Central themes The heroic epic reflects the most important trends in historical life, a specific historical, geographical, ethnic background appears, mythological and fairy-tale motivations are eliminated. The truth of history now determines the truth of the epic.
In heroic poems created different peoples Europe has a lot in common. This is explained by the fact that a similar historical reality was subjected to artistic generalization; this reality itself was comprehended from the point of view of the same level of historical consciousness. In addition, the image medium served artistic language, which has common roots in European folklore. But at the same time, the heroic epic of each individual nation has many unique, nationally specific features.
The most significant of the Heroic poems of the peoples of Western Europe are considered to be: French - “The Song of Roland”, German - “Song of the Nibelungs”, Spanish - “Song of My Cid”. These three great poems make it possible to judge the evolution of the heroic epic: “The Song of the Nibelungs” contains a number of archaic features, “The Song of My Sid” shows the epic at its end, “The Song of Roland” is the moment of its highest maturity.
2) GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HEROIC EPIC
During the Mature Middle Ages, the development of the traditions of folk epic literature continued. This is one of the significant stages in its history, when the heroic epic became the most important link in medieval book literature. The heroic epic of the Mature Middle Ages reflected the processes of ethnic and state consolidation and the emerging seigniorial-vassal relations. The historical theme in the epic has expanded, displacing the fairy-tale-mythological theme, and the significance has increased Christian motives and patriotic pathos intensified, a larger epic form and a more flexible style were developed, which was facilitated by some distance from purely folklore models. However, all this led to a certain impoverishment of the plot and mythopoetic imagery, so subsequently the chivalric romance again turned to folklore fiction. All these features of the new stage in the history of the epic are closely interconnected internally. The transition from epic archaics to epic classics, in particular, was expressed in the fact that the epics of nationalities that had reached the stage of clear state consolidation abandoned the language of myth and fairy tales and turned to developing plots taken from historical legends(while continuing to use, of course, old plot and language clichés dating back to myths).
Clan and tribal interests were pushed aside by national interests, albeit still in their infancy, therefore in many epic monuments we find pronounced patriotic motives, often associated with the fight against foreign and other religious conquerors. Patriotic motives, as is specific to the Middle Ages, partly appear in the form of contrasting Christians with “infidel” Muslims (in Romanesque and Slavic literatures).
As said, the epic at the new stage depicts feudal strife and seigniorial-vassal relations, but due to the epic specificity, vassal loyalty (in the “Song of the Nibelungs”, “Song of Roland”, “Song of my Sid”), as a rule, merges with loyalty to clan, tribe, native country, state. A characteristic figure in the epic of this time is the epic "king", whose power embodies the unity of the country. It is shown in difficult relationships with the main epic hero - the bearer of folk ideals. Vassal loyalty to the king is combined with a story about his weakness, injustice, with a very critical depiction of the court environment and feudal strife (in the cycle of French poems about Guillaume of Orange). The epic also reflects anti-aristocratic tendencies (in songs about Dietrich of Bern or in “Song of My Sid”). In epic-heroic works of the XII-XIII centuries. At times, the influence of the courtly (knightly) novel also penetrates (in “The Song of the Nibelungs”). But even with the idealization of courtly forms of life, the epic mainly preserves folk-heroic ideals and heroic aesthetics. The heroic epic also displays some tendencies that go beyond its genre nature, for example, hypertrophied adventurism (“Raoul de Cambrai” and others), material motivations for the behavior of the hero who patiently overcomes adverse circumstances (in “The Song of My Sid”), drama , reaching the point of tragedy (in “The Nibelungs” and in “The Song of Roland”). These various trends testify to the hidden possibilities of the epic kind of poetry and anticipate the development of the novel and tragedy.
The stylistic features of the epic are now largely determined by a departure from folklore and a deeper processing of folklore traditions. In the process of transition from oral improvisation to recitation from manuscripts, numerous enjambements appear, i.e. transfers from verse to verse, synonymy develops, the flexibility and variety of epic formulas increases, sometimes the number of repetitions decreases, a clearer and more harmonious composition becomes possible (“Song of Roland").
Although broad cyclization is also familiar to oral creativity (for example, in folklore Central Asia), but mostly creating epic works of large volume and their addition into cycles is supported by the transition from oral improvisation to a handwritten book. Apparently, bookishness also contributes to the emergence of “psychological” characteristics, as well as the interpretation of the heroic character in terms of a kind of tragic guilt. However, the interaction between folklore and book literature actively continues: in the composition and especially the performance of many epic works, the participation of shpilmans and jugglers was great during this period.
6) One of the most remarkable monuments of medieval literature is considered to be the epic tale of the French people - “The Song of Roland”.
Minor historical fact formed the basis of this heroic epic and over time, enriched by a number of later events, helped the widespread dissemination of tales about Roland and the wars of Charlemagne in many literatures of Western Europe.
The Song of Roland clearly expresses the ideology of a feudal society, in which the faithful service of a vassal to his overlord was an untouchable law, and violation of it was considered betrayal and treason. However, the traits of courageous steadfastness, military valor, selfless friendship and a thoughtful attitude to what is happening were not given a class-feudal connotation in the poem, as in the remarkable monument of creativity of the Russian people “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”; on the contrary, these convincing properties of the valiant defenders of the homeland - military leaders-peers and their vassals, were perceived as typical, national. To an even greater extent, recognition and sympathy from the broad masses were facilitated by thoughts about the defense of the fatherland, about the shame and danger of defeat, which run like a red thread through the entire poem.