HASHEK Yaroslav
Czech satirist writer
Born into the family of a school teacher. In his youth, he was distinguished by his explosive character and was an indispensable participant in anti-German protests in Prague, various scandals and fights.
He was always the life of the party, a regular at Prague pubs and pubs. In 1902 he graduated with honors from the Trade Academy and got a job at Slavia Bank. In 1903, he quit his job and traveled through the Balkans and Central Europe.
After publishing a collection of poems, May Shouts, in 1903, written together with Ladislav Hajek, and receiving money for his notes, which he wrote during his travels, he decided to become a writer. He quickly gained popularity as the most widely read Czech humorist, publishing in the entertainment sections of daily newspapers and weeklies, humor magazines, and calendars.
In the mid-1900s, he became close to anarchist circles and took part in rallies and went on campaign trips. By 1909 he broke with the anarchist movement.
In 1909 he became editor of the magazine “Animal World”. The calm academic nature of the publication was distasteful to Hasek’s cheerful character, and he decided to please readers with all sorts of discoveries from the life of animals. From his pen came the mysterious “tabu-taburan” living in the Pacific Ocean, a fly with sixteen wings, eight of which it fans itself like a fan, domestic silver-gray ghouls, and an ancient lizard “idiotosaurus”. It is not surprising that he was soon fired from his post as editor. In 1912-1915, the collections “The Good Soldier Schweik and Others” were published amazing stories", "The Sorrows of Pan Tenkrat", "Guide for Foreigners", "My Dog Trade".
Then he opened the Canine Institute, which was essentially just an office selling dogs. Not having the money to buy purebred puppies, he caught mongrels, repainted them and forged their pedigree. This kind of fraud did not last long and ended in court. In general, Hasek’s name often appeared in police reports: “in a drunken state, he relieved himself in front of the police department building”; “while slightly intoxicated, he damaged two iron fences”; “not far from the police station, three street lamps were lit, which had already been extinguished”; “I shot from a children’s scarecrow.” Having introduced himself to the police as Saint John of Nepomuk, 518 years old, he was placed in an insane asylum, where he collected materials for new humoresques. During the First World War, he settled in a Prague hotel and registered as “Lev Nikolaevich Turgenev. Born on November 3, 1885 in the city of Kyiv. Lives in Petrograd. Orthodox. Private employee. Came from Moscow. The purpose of the visit is to inspect the Austrian General Staff.” Having been arrested as a Russian spy, he stated that as a loyal citizen he considered it his duty to check “how the state police functions in this difficult time for the country.”
In 1915 he was drafted into the army and enlisted in the 91st Infantry Regiment, located in Ceske Budejovice. He later described much of what happened to Hasek in the army in the novel “The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik.” So, he came to the regiment in military uniform, but with a top hat. He was expelled from the volunteer school for violations of discipline. And the simulation of rheumatism was recognized as an attempt at desertion and was even sentenced to three years, to be served at the end of the war. So Hasek went to the front in a prisoner's carriage.
In the army he received the position of assistant clerk, which allowed him to avoid training and continue his creativity. At the same time, he became quite close friends with the orderly Frantisek Straslipka, who became one of Svejk’s main prototypes. At the front in Galicia he served as a quartermaster, and later was an orderly and platoon liaison. He took part in the battles near Mount Sokal, was awarded a silver medal for bravery and promoted to the rank of corporal. On September 24, 1915, during the counter-offensive of the Russian army in the sector of the 91st regiment, Hasek, together with Strashlipka, voluntarily surrendered.
In captivity, like many other compatriots, he joined the Czechoslovak Legion, which fought on the side of the Russian army. In the summer of 1917, for the battle at Zborov, he was even awarded the St. George Cross of the fourth degree.
After the conclusion of a separate peace between Russia and Germany and the beginning of the evacuation of the Czech corps to Europe through Vladivostok, he went to Moscow, where he joined the Communist Party. In April 1918, he was sent to Samara, where he campaigned among Czechs and Slovaks against evacuation to France, and also called on them to join the Red Army. By the end of May, Hasek's detachment consisted of 120 fighters who took part in battles with units of the White Army and successfully suppressed the anarchist rebellion in Samara. In July, the field court of the Czechoslovak Legion issued an arrest warrant for Hasek as a traitor to the Czech people. After the White Bohemian rebellion, finding himself in territory controlled by Kolchak’s followers, he was forced to hide. Only in September did he cross the front line and in Simbirsk again join the Red Army units.
From October 1918, he was engaged in party, political and administrative work at the political department of the 5th Army of the Eastern Front. In December 1918, he was appointed commandant of the city of Bugulma. He took personal part in the Red Terror. In 1919 he was transferred to Ufa, where he managed a printing house and published the Bolshevik newspaper “Our Way”. There he married an employee of the printing house A.G. Lvovoy. Together with the 5th Army he visited Chelyabinsk, Omsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, where he was slightly wounded in an assassination attempt
In Irkutsk he was elected as a deputy of the city council. At the same time, he published the newspapers “Sturm” in German, “Rogam” in Hungarian, “Bulletin of the Political Worker” in Russian and “Ur” (“Dawn”) in Buryat. After the end of the Civil War, Hasek remained in Irkutsk, where he even bought a house. However, at that time a “prohibition law” was in effect in Siberia, which could not but upset the famous drinker. Perhaps this was one of the reasons for returning home.
In December 1920, he and his wife returned to Prague, where, due to his service with the Bolsheviks, he was met with extreme hostility. He found himself almost without a livelihood and even sold on the streets copies of his books that publishers had accumulated during the war. Soon he was again living on advances from publishers, wandering from tavern to tavern. It was in taverns that he wrote his new works, and often read them out there. Constant drinking, two typhus, refusal to follow doctors' recommendations - all this led to a constant deterioration in Hasek's health.
After returning to Prague, he published collections of short stories, “Two Dozen Stories,” “Three Men and a Shark,” and “The Peace Conference and Other Humoresques.” At the same time, he began work on the novel “The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik,” which was published in separate editions. The novel was written straight away, and each chapter written was immediately sent to the publisher. Simultaneously with the Czech edition, a translation of the book as the original is published in France, England, and America. By 1922, the first volume of the novel had already gone through four editions, and the second - three.
In August 1921 he moved to the small town of Lipnice, where he continued to actively work on a novel about Schweik. But his health steadily deteriorated. I often had to stop working due to pain. However, the writer worked until the end. The last time he dictated to Schweik was just 5 days before his own death. The novel remained unfinished. On January 3, 1923, Hasek died.
In many cities around the world, streets are named after Jaroslav Hasek, and the number of monuments to Josef Schweik even exceeds the number of monuments to Hasek himself. There are several Hasek museums in the world, including in Russia (in Bugulma). Asteroid 2734 Hasek is named after J. Hasek, and asteroid 7896 Švejk is named after his most famous character.
RUSSIA
Russian literature of the late XVIII - XIX centuries. developed in difficult conditions. The Russian Empire was economically one of the backward countries in Europe. Reforms of the 18th century Peter I and Catherine II were primarily concerned with military affairs.
If in the 19th century Russia still remained an economically backward country, but in the field of literature, music and fine arts it was already moving to the forefront.
LITERATURE OF THE BEGINNING OF THE CENTURY
The most educated class in Russia was the nobility. Most of the cultural figures of this time came from the nobility or people, one way or anotherassociated with noble culture. The ideological struggle in literature at the beginning of the century was between the society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (Derzhavin, Shirinsky-Shikhmatov, Shakhovskoy, Krylov, Zakharov, etc.), which united conservative nobles, and radical writers who were part of the “Arzamas” circle (Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Vyazemsky, Pushkin, etc.). The first and second wrote their works in the spirit of classicism and romanticism, but the Arzamas poets more actively fought for new art and defended civil and democratic pathos in poetry.
In the early 20s, poets and writers associated with the Decembrist movement or ideologically close to it played a major role in literature. After the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, in the era of the mute Nicholas reaction, the most famous writers were F. Bulgarin and N. Grech, who spoke in their organs - the newspaper “Northern Bee” and the magazine “Son of the Fatherland”. Both of them opposed new trends in Russian literature, which were advocated by Pushkin, Gogol and others. With all this, they were not devoid of talent writers.
Most popular works Thaddeus Bulgarin (1789 - 1859) became didactic and morally descriptive novels “Ivan Vyzhigin” (1829) and “Peter Ivanovich Vyzhigin” (1831), which became bestsellers during the author’s lifetime, but they were completely forgotten by contemporaries; His historical novels “Dmitry the Pretender” and “Mazeppa” abound with melodramatic effects.
The most significant creation of Nikolai Grech (1787 - 1867) was the adventurous and morally descriptive novel “The Black Woman” (1834), written in the spirit of romanticism. Grech also wrote an epistolary novel"Bytrip to Germany" (1836), "An Experience in a Brief History of Russian Literature" (1822) - the country's first work on the history of Russian literature - and several more books on the Russian language.
The largest prose writer of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, writer and historiographer Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766 - 1826) was no stranger to liberalism when it came to abstract ideas that did not affect the Russian order. His “Letters of a Russian Traveler” played an important role in introducing readers to Western European life and culture. The most famous of his stories is “ Poor Lisa"(1792) tells a touching love story between a nobleman and a peasant woman. “And peasant women know how to feel,” this maxim contained in the story testified to the humane direction of its author’s views.
At the beginning of the 19th century. Karamzin writes the most significant work of his life - the multi-volume “History of the Russian State”, in which, following Tatishchev, he interprets the events of the history of the East Slavic peoples in the spirit of the existing Russian monarchy and elevates them to the rank of state ideology royal dynasty The Romanovs are a historical justification for Moscow’s seizure of the lands of its neighbors.
The works of Vasily Zhukovsky (1783 - 1852) amounted to important stage in the development of romantic lyrics. Zhukovsky experienced deep disappointment with the Enlightenment of the 18th century, and this disappointment turned his thought to the Middle Ages. As a true romantic, Zhukovsky considered the blessings of life to be transitory and saw happiness only in immersion in the inner world of a person. As a translator, Zhukovsky opened Western European romantic poetry to the Russian reader. His translations from Schiller and the English Romantics are especially remarkable.
The lyrics of K. N. Batyushkov (1787 - 1855), in contrast to the romanticism of Zhukovsky, were of an earthly, sensual nature, imbued with a bright view of the world, harmonious and graceful.
The main merit of Ivan Krylov (1769 - 1844) is the creation of a classic fable in Russian. Krylov took the plots of his fables from other fabulists, primarily from La Fontaine, but at the same time he always remained a deeply national poet, reflecting in his fables the features of the national character and mind, bringing his fable to high naturalness and simplicity.
The Decembrists wrote their works in the spirit of classicism. They turned to the heroic images of Cato and Brutus and to the motifs of romantic national antiquity, to the freedom-loving traditions of Novgorod and Pskov, the cities of Ancient Russia. The most important poet among the Decembrists was Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795 - 1826). The author of anti-tyrant poems (“Citizen”, “To the Temporary Worker”) also wrote a series of patriotic “Dumas” and created a romantic poem “Voinarovsky”, which depicts the tragic fate of the Ukrainian patriot.
Alexander Griboedov (1795 - 1829) entered Russian literature as the author of one work - the comedy “Woe from Wit” (1824), in which there is no intrigue in the sense that French comedians understood it, and there is no happy ending. The comedy is based on contrasting Chatsky with other characters who form the Famus circle, the noble society of Moscow. The struggle of a man of progressive views - against the barbarians, parasites and debauchees who have lost their national dignity and grovel before everything French, stupid martinets and persecutors of enlightenment - ends with the defeat of the hero. But the public pathos of Chatsky’s speeches reflected the full force of indignation that had accumulated among radical Russian youth advocating reforms in society.
Griboyedov wrote several more plays together with P. Katenin (“Student”, “Feigned Infidelity”), ideological content which was directed against the poets of "Arzamas".
PUSHKIN AND LERMONTOV
Alexander Pushkin (1799 - 1837) became a turning point for Russian literature, separating new literature from old. His work determined the development of all Russian literature until the end of the century. Pushkin raised Russian poetic art to the heights of European poetry, becoming the author of works of unsurpassed beauty and perfection.
In many ways, Pushkin’s genius was determined by the circumstance of his studies at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, which opened in 1811 - a higher educational institution for the children of nobles, from whose walls during these years many poets of the “golden era” of Russian poetry emerged (A. Delvig, V. Kuchelbecker, E. Baratynsky and others). Brought up on French classicism of the 17th century and educational literature of the 18th century, at the beginning of his creative path passed through the influence of romantic poetry and, enriched by its artistic achievements, rose to the level of high realism.
In his youth, Pushkin wrote lyrical poems in which he glorified the enjoyment of life, love and wine. The lyrics of these years breathe wit, imbued with an epicurean attitude to life inherited from poetryXVIIIV. At the very beginning of the 20s, new motives appeared in Pushkin’s poems: he glorified freedom and laughed at rulers. His brilliant political lyrics caused the poet's exile to Bessarabia. During this period, Pushkin created his romantic poems “The Prisoner of the Caucasus” (1820 - 1821), “The Robber Brothers” (1821 - 1822), “The Bakhchisaray Fountain” (1821 - 1823) and “The Gypsies” (1824 - 1825).
Pushkin’s subsequent work was influenced by Karamzin’s “History of the Russian State” and the ideas of the Decembrists. In an effort to more clearly show the Russian Emperor Alexander I, and thenNicholas II “experience” of the reign of Russian rulers, believing that reforms in the state should come from the tsar, when the people are silent, Pushkin creates the historical tragedy “Boris Godunov” (1824 - 1825), dedicated to the “era of many revolts” of the early 17th century. And at the end of the 20s he wrote the poem “Poltava” (1828), the historical novel “Arap of Peter the Great” (not completed) and a number of poems, turning to the image of the reformer Tsar Peter I, seeing in this image Emperor Nicholas I, whose mission is to promote new reforms in Russia, i.e. become an enlightened monarch.
Having lost faith in his aspirations to change the will of the tsar, who sent the Decembrists to the gallows and into exile, Pushkin, in the spirit of Byron’s work “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”, works on one of his best creations - the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” (1823 - 1831). Onegin gives a broad picture of life Russian society, and in the lyrical digressions of the novel the personality of the poet himself is reflected in many ways, sometimes thoughtful and sad, sometimes sarcastic and playful. Pushkin in his creation reveals the image of a contemporary who has not found himself in life.
In his next significant work, “Little Tragedies” (30s), the poet, using images and plots known from European literature, depicts the clash of a daring human personality with laws, tradition and authority. Pushkin also turns to prose (the story “The Queen of Spades”, the cycle “Tales of Belkin”, “Dubrovsky”). Based on the artistic principles of Walter Scott, Pushkin writes “ Captain's daughter"(1836) and into the real events of the peasant uprising of the 18th century under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, he weaves the life of the main character, whose fate is closely connected with major social events.
Pushkin is most powerful in his lyrical poems. The unique beauty of his lyrics deeply reveals the inner world of a person. In terms of depth of feeling and classical harmony of form, his poems, together with Goethe’s lyric poems, belong to the best creations of world poetry.
The name of Pushkin is associated not only with the high flowering of Russian poetry, but also with the formation of the Russian literary language. The language of his works becamethe norm of the modern Russian language.
In the shadow of Pushkin’s poetry remained no less wonderful poets who lived in his time, who made up the “golden age” of Russian poetry. Among them were the fiery lyricist N.M. Yazykov, the author of witty feuilletons in verse P.A. Vyazemsky, and the master of elegiac poetry E.A. Baratynsky. Fyodor Tyutchev (1803 - 1873) stands apart from them. As a poet, he achieves an amazing unity of thought and feeling. Tyutchev devotes his lyrical miniatures to depicting the connection between man and nature.
Mikhail Lermontov (1814 - 1841) as a poet was no less talented than Pushkin. His poetry is marked by the pathos of denial of contemporary reality; in many poems and poems, motives of either loneliness and bitter disappointment in life, or rebellion, bold challenge, and anticipation of a storm slip through. Images of rebels seeking freedom and rebelling against social injustice often appear in his poems (“Mtsyri”, 1840; “Song about the merchant Kalashnikov”, 1838). Lermontov is a poet of action. It is for inactivity that he castigates his generation, incapable of struggle and creative work (“Duma”).
At the center of Lermontov's most significant works is the romantic image of a proud, lonely Personality seeking strong sensations in struggle. These are Arbenin (drama "Masquerade", 1835 - 1836), Demon ("Demon", 1829 - 1841) and Pechorin ("Hero of Our Time", 1840). Lermontov's works acutely reflect the complexity of social life and the contradictory nature of the issues raised. advanced people Russia, problems of Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century.
LITERATURE 30 - 60'S
The next important milestone in the history of Russian literature was the work of Nikolai Gogol (1809 - 1852). At the beginning of his creative activity, he acted as the author of the romantic poem “Hans Küchelgarten” (1827). In the future he writes exclusively prose. The first prose works, written based on Ukrainian folklore in an ironic, cheerful tone, brought success to the writer (collection of stories “Evenings on the Farmnear Dikanka." In the new collection “Mirgorod” the writer continues the successfully started topic, significantly expanding the area. Already in the story from this collection “On How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich,” Gogol moves away from romance, showing the dominance of vulgarity and petty interests in modern Russian life.
“Petersburg Tales” depicts the big city of Gogol’s time with its social contrasts. One of these stories, “The Overcoat” (1842), had a particular influence on subsequent literature. By sympathetically depicting the fate of a downtrodden and powerless petty official, Gogol opened the way for all democratic Russian literature from Turgenev, Grigorovich and early Dostoevsky to Chekhov.
In the comedy “The Inspector General” (1836), Gogol gives a deep and merciless exposure of the bureaucratic camarilla, its lawlessness and arbitrariness that permeated all aspects of the life of Russian society. Gogol discarded the traditional love affair in comedies and based his work on the depiction of social relations.
The novel by Nikolai Chernyshevsky (1828 - 1889) “What is to be done?” was associated with the ideas of socialist utopias. (1863). In it, Chernyshevsky showed representatives of the intelligentsia striving to change life in Russia for the better.
In the person of Nikolai Nekrasov (1821 - 1878), Russian literature brought forward a poet of enormous ideological depth and artistic maturity. In many poems, such as “Frost, Red Nose” (1863), “Who Lives Well in Russia” (1863 - 1877), the poet showed not only the suffering of people from the people, but also their physical and moral beauty, revealed their ideas about life, their tastes. Nekrasov's lyrical poems reveal the image of the poet himself, an advanced citizen writer who feels the suffering of the people, chivalrously devoted to him.
Alexander Ostrovsky (1823 - 1886) raised Russian drama to the heights of world fame. The main “heroes” of his works are merchant-entrepreneurs born of new capitalist relations, who came from the bottom of society, but remained the same ignorant, entangled in prejudices, prone to tyranny, absurd and funny whims (plays “The Thunderstorm”, “Dowry”, “Talents and fans", "Forest", etc.). However, Ostrovsky also does not idealize the nobility - an obsolete class; it also constitutes the “dark kingdom” of Russia.
In the 40s and 50s, the talent of such wordsmiths as Ivan Turgenev (1818 - 1883) and Ivan Goncharov (1812 - 1891) was revealed. Both writers show life in their works " extra people» society. However, if in Turgenev this is a person who denies everything sublime in life (the novels “Fathers and Sons”, “Ru”din").
LITERATURE OF THE PEOPLES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
The Russian Empire by the beginning of the 70s of the XIX century. was a huge multinational country. It is clear that the culture of the dominant nation, expressed mainly by noble literature and art, had a significant impact on the cultural development of other peoples of Russia.
The Russian cultural factor for Ukrainians and Belarusians played the same role that the Polish factor played in the period after the unification of the lands of the Crown of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth under the Union of Lublin in 1569 - the most talented representatives of these peoples contributed to the growth of the art of the neighboring nation, occupying society, a dominant position, for example, the main figures of Polish culture of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. came from Belarus and Ukraine (F. Bogomolets, F. Knyazkin, A. Narushevich, A. Mitskevich, Y. Slovatsky, I. Krasitsky, V. Syrokomlya, M. K. Oginsky, etc.). After the annexation of Ukraine and Belarus to the Russian Empire, people from these places began to raise Russian culture (N. Gogol, N. Kukolnik, F. Bulgarin, M. Glinka, N. Kostomarov, etc.).
Despite the enormous impact of the Russian language, in Ukraine at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century,the emergence of nationally minded nobles who realized that original works could be created in the Ukrainian language, which was spoken exclusively by uneducated common people. At this time, the study of the history of the Ukrainian people and their oral creativity began to acquire significant scope. “The History of Little Russia” by N. Bantysh-Kamensky appeared, and “The History of the Russes” was circulated in handwritten copies, where an unknown author considered the Ukrainian people separately from the Russians and argued that it was Ukraine, and not Russia, that was the direct heir of Kievan Rus.
An important factor in the growth of national consciousness among Ukrainians was the opening of the University in Kharkov in 1805. An important indicator of the vitality of the Ukrainian language was the quality and diversity of literature created in it. Ivan Petrovich Kotlyarevsky (1769 - 1838) was the first to turn to the living folk Ukrainian language, making extensive use of the oral creativity of his native people. Virgil's "Aeneid" (1798), which he reworked in burlesque style, and the plays "Natalka-Poltavka" and "Soldier-Sorcerer" (in the original - "Moskal-charivnik") were distinguished by their masterful depiction of Ukrainian folk life.
First prose works The sentimental stories of Kharkov resident Grigory Kvitka (1778 - 1843), who appeared under the pseudonym “Gritsko Osnovyanenko” (the story “Marusya”, the comedy “Shelmenko the Batman”, etc.), appeared in the modern Ukrainian language in 1834. Another Kharkov resident Levko Borovikovsky laid the foundation for the Ukrainian ballad.
The process of becoming new Ukrainian literature and the formation of Ukrainian literary language completed the work of the great national poet, thinker and revolutionary Taras ShevchenkoO. The poet began to write his poems not for the nobles in Russian, as many of his compatriots did, but exclusively for his people.
Shevchenko’s biography has become a symbol of a tragic national destiny for his compatriots. Born a serf, by force of circumstances he ended up with his owner in St. Petersburg, where several representatives of the aristocratic circle helped the talented young artist in 1838.buy outto freedom. Shevchenko receives an excellent education. Communication with many Ukrainian and Russian artists and writers broadened the young man’s horizons, and in 1840 he published his first book of poems, “Kobzar,” in which he addressed the history of Ukraine.
Shevchenko angrily denounces the Cossack hetmans who collaborated with Moscow, and Khmelnitsky also gets the blame (for Shevchenko, this is both a “brilliant rebel” and the culprit of the fatal alliance with Russia for Ukraine, which cost it the loss of independence). The poet denounces the arbitrariness of the serf owners and, polemicizing with Pushkin, who glorified the monarchs Peter I and Catherine II, reveals despotism Russian tsars, responsible for the deplorable state of his homeland, and openly calls them tyrants and executioners (poems “Naimichka”, “Caucasus”, “Dream”, “Katerina”, etc.), glorifies popular uprisings (poem “Haydamaky”) and the exploits of the people's avengers (poem “Varnak”).
Shevchenko viewed Ukraine’s desire for freedom as part of the struggle for justice not only for his people, but also for other peoples under national and social oppression.
Processes of awakening national self-awareness also took place in Belarus. Thanks to the efforts of representatives of the nationally minded intelligentsia (who called themselves both Litvinians and Belarusians), who realized the identity of the people in Belarus, already in the first half of the 19th century. significant material was collected on history and ethnography (publications of oral monuments, myths, legends, rituals, and ancient documents). In the western regions, historians and ethnographers writing in Polish (Syrokomlya, Borshchevsky, Zenkevich) were active, and in the eastern regions - in Russian (Nosovich).
In 1828 for reading poems in Belarusian language During a peasant revolt, Pavlyuk Bagrim (1813 - 1890), the author of the first poem in the modern Belarusian language “Play, lad!” is taken into the army.
By the 40s of the 19th century. dates back to the beginning of the work of the writer Vincent Dunin-Martsinkevich (1807 - 1884), who reflected the flavor of the Belarusian village (“Selyanka”, “Gapon”, “Karal Letalsky” in sentimental didactic poems and comedies written in the spirit of European classicism). Writes in Belarusian andsome of the famous Polish poets came from these places.
In 1845, the anonymous burlesque poem “The Reverse Aeneid” was published, written in the spirit of the Ukrainian “Aeneid” by Kotlyarevsky, the authorship of which is attributed to V. Ravinsky. Later, another anonymous poem “Taras on Parnassus” appears, which describes the fairy-tale story of the forest worker Taras, who ended up with the Greek gods on Mount Parnassus, who speak a simple language and represent ordinary villagers.
Later, a national-patriotic and democratic trend emerged in Belarusian literature, most vividly represented in the 60s by the journalism of a brave fighter for people's happiness, national Belarusian hero Kastus Kalinovsky, editor of the first illegal Belarusian newspaper “Muzhitskaya Pravda”.
The development of the national culture of Latvia and Estonia took place in the struggle against the feudal-clerical ideology of the German-Swedish barons. In 1857 - 1861 the founder of Estonian literature Friedrich Kreutzwald (1803 - 1882) publishes national epic"Kalevipoeg" and Estonian folk tales. Among the Latvian intelligentsia, a national movement of “Young Latvians” arose, whose organ was the newspaper “Petersburg Bulletin”. The majority of the “Young Latvians” took liberal-reformist positions. The poetry of the Latvian patriot Andrei Pumpurs (1841 - 1902) became famous at this time.
In Lithuania, or as it was also called then, Samogitia, a collection of poems by Antanas Strazdas (1763 - 1833) “Secular and Spiritual Songs” appeared.
The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia, despite the protracted nature of the war, increased the penetration of European cultural values and progress into the life of the peoples of the Caucasus through Russian culture, which was expressed in the emergence of a secular school, the emergence of newspapers and magazines, and a national theater. The work of Georgian poets Nikolai Baratashvili (1817 - 1845) and Alexander Chavchavadze (1786 - 1846) was influenced by Russian romanticism. These poets, who created in the 30s of the XIX century. romantic school Georgian literature was characterized by freedom-loving aspirations and deep patriotic feelings. By the 60s of the XIX century. refers to the beginning of the socio-political and literary activity of Ilya Chavchavadze (1837 - 1907).
to develop an accusatory tendency, which was first clearly manifested in the story “The Suram Fortress” (1859) by Daniel Chonkadze (1830 - 1860). Protest against feudal tyranny and sympathy for the oppressed peasantry attracted progressive Georgian youth to Chavchavadze, among whom stood out the group of “those who drank the waters of the Terek” (“tergdaleuli”).
The founder of new Armenian literature, Khachatur Abovyan, due to the lack of higher educational institutions in Armenia, received his education in Russia. He deeply embraced the humanistic ideas of advanced Russian culture. His realistic novel “The Wounds of Armenia” was permeated with the idea of the significance of the annexation of Armenian lands to Russia. Abovyan rejected the dead language of ancient Armenian writing (grabar) and based on oral folk speech developed the modern literary Armenian language.
Poet, publicist and literary critic Mikael Nalbandyan, laid the foundation for the national-patriotic trend in Armenian literature. His poems (“Song of Freedom” and others) were an example of civic poetry that inspired Armenian youth to patriotic and revolutionary deeds.
The outstanding Azerbaijani educator Mirza Fatali Akhundov, rejecting and at the same time using the traditions of old Persian literature, in his stories and comedies laid a solid foundation for new, secular Azerbaijani literature and national Azerbaijani theater.
In the folklore of the peoples and nationalities of the North Caucasus and Asia that recently became part of Russia, patriotic motives and motives of social protest have intensified. The Kumyk poet Irchi Kazak (1830 - 1870), Lezgin Etim Emin (1839 - 1878) and other folk singers of Dagestan called on their fellow tribesmen to fight against the oppressors. However, in the culture of these peoples it is precisely in mid-19th V. The educational activities of local natives who received education in Russia were of great importance. Among them, the Abkhaz ethnographer S. Zvanba (1809 - 1855) stood out; compiler of the first grammar of the Kabardian language and author of “History Adyghe people» Sh. Nogmov (1801 - 1844); teacher U. Bersey, who created the first “Primer of the Circassian Language” in 1855; Ossetian poet I. Yalguzidze, who compiled the first Ossetian alphabet in 1802.
In the first half of the century, their own enlighteners appeared and Kazakh people. Ch. Valikhanov boldly opposed the Russian colonialists and the local feudal-clerical nobility, who betrayed the interests of their people. At the same time, arguing that the Kazakhs will forever live in the neighborhood of Russia and cannot escape its cultural influence, he connected the historical fate of the Kazakh people with the fate of Russia.
RUSSIAN THEATER ART
Under the influence of European culture in Russia from the end of the 18th century. appears and modern theater. At first, it was still developing on the estates of large magnates, but gradually the troupes, gaining independence, became independent on a commercial basis. In 1824, an independent drama troupe of the Maly Theater was formed in Moscow. In St. Petersburg in 1832, the dramatic Alexandria Theater appeared; the patrons of the arts were still large landowners, nobles and the emperor himself, who dictated their repertoire.
Leading value in the Russian theater it acquires educational sentimentalism. The attention of playwrights was attracted by the inner world of man, his spiritual conflicts (dramas by P. I. Ilyin, F. F. Ivanov, tragedies by V. A. Ozerov). Along with sentimental tendencies, there was a desire to smooth out life’s contradictions, traits of idealization, and melodrama (works by V. M. Fedorov, S. N. Glinka, etc.).
Gradually, themes characteristic of European classicism are being developed in dramaturgy: an appeal to the heroic past of one’s homeland and Europe, to an ancient plot (“Martha the Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novagorod” by F. F. Ivanov, “Velzen, or Liberated Holland” by F. N. Glinka, “Andromache” by P. A. Katenin, “Argives” by V. K. Kuchelbecker, etc.). At the same time, such genres as vaudeville (A. A. Shakhovskoy, P. I. Khmelnitsky, A. I. Pisarev) and family play (M. Ya. Zagoskin) developed.
During the first quarter of the XIX V. In the Russian national theater, the struggle for the creation of a new, nationally original theater is unfolding. This task was accomplished by the creation of a truly national, original comedy by A. Griboedov “Woe from Wit.” A work of innovative significance was Pushkin’s historical drama “Boris Godunov,” the author of which grew out of the forms of the court tragedy of classicism and the romantic drama of Byron. However, the production of these works was held back for some time by censorship. The dramaturgy of M. Yu. Lermontov, imbued with freedom-loving ideas, also remains outside the theater: his drama “Masquerade” in 1835 - 1836. prohibited three times by censorship (excerpts from the play were first staged thanks to the persistence of the actors in 1852, and it was performed in full only in 1864).
The stage of the Russian theater of the 30s and 40s was mainly occupied by vaudeville, pursuing mainly entertainment purposes (plays by P. A. Karatygin, P. I. Grigoriev, P. S. Fedorov, V. A. Sollogub, N. A. Nekrasov, F.A. Koni and others). At this time, the skill of talented Russian actors M.S. Shchepkin and A.E. Martynov grew, who knew how to identify the contradictions of real life behind comic situations and give the created images genuine drama.
The plays of A. N. Ostrovsky, which appeared in the 50s and raised Russian drama to a very high level, played a huge role in the development of Russian theater.
FINE ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE
At the beginning of the 19th century. In Russia, under the influence of social and patriotic upsurge, classicism received new content and fruitful development in a number of areas of art. In the style of mature classicism with its powerful, strong and monumentally simple forms, the best public, administrative, and residential buildings in St. Petersburg, Moscow and a number of cities are built: in St. Petersburg - the Admiralty of A. D. Zakharov, the Kazan Cathedral and the Mining Institute - A. N. . Voronikhin, Exchange - Thomas de Tomon and a number of buildings by K.I. Russia; and Moscow - complexes of buildings by O. I. Bove, D. I. Gilardi and other masters (the new facade of the University, Manege, etc.). In the process of intensive construction in the first decades of the 19th century. the classic look finally takes shapePetersburg.
The patriotic upsurge of the people was to be facilitated by the installation in 1818 on Red Square in Moscow of a monument to the liberators Minin and Pozharsky by the sculptor I.P. Martos, who personified the finalRussia's new victory over Poland and Lithuania.
The influence of classicism in architecture does not disappear in the middle of the century. However, the buildings of this time are distinguished by some violation of the previous harmonious relationship of forms and in some cases are overloaded with decorative decoration. Everyday features are noticeably enhanced in the sculpture. The most significant monuments - the monuments to Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly by V. I. Orlovsky and the sculptures of P. K. Klodt (figures of horses on the Anichkov Bridge) - combine features of classical severity and monumentality with new romantic images.
Almost all fine art of the early 19th century. distinguished by classical clarity, simplicity and scale of forms. However, painters and graphic artists of this time, breaking the old, conventional and limited framework of artistic creativity established by classicist aesthetics, gradually approached a freer and broader perception and comprehension of the surrounding nature and man, sometimes colored by emotional excitement. The everyday genre received fruitful development during this period. An example of all this is the work of O. A. Kiprensky (1782 - 1836), S. F. Shchedrin (1751 - 1830), V. A. Tropinin (1776 - 1857), A. G. Venetsianov (1780 - 1847).
In the art of the 30s and 40s, historical painting came to the fore. In the painting by K. P. Bryullov (1799 - 1852) “The Last Day of Pompeii”, the influence of the classicist school is still evident in the composition and plasticity of people’s figures, however, by showing the experiences of people who were hit by a blind, all-destroying element, the artist already goes beyond the boundaries of classicism. This clearly manifested itself in Bryullov’s subsequent works (especially in portraiture and landscape sketches).
Alexander Ivanov (1806 - 1858) reflected the exciting ideas of modernity in his painting. For more than 20 years, the artist worked on his monumental painting “The Phenomenon Christ to the people", the main theme of which was the spiritual rebirth of people mired in suffering and vices.
The works of Pavel Fedotov (1815 - 1852) marked new stage in the development of Russian painting. By depicting the life of officials, merchants, impoverished nobles, although they had not lost their claims, Fedotov made theart, images and themes that were not previously touched upon by genre painting. He showed the arrogance and stupidity of officials, the naive complacency and cunning of the new rich - merchants, the hopeless emptiness of the existence of officers in the provinces in the era of the Nicholas reaction, the bitter fate of his fellow artist.
Vasily Perov (1834 - 1882), I. M. Pryanishnikov (1840 - 1894), N. V. Nevrev (1830 - 1904) and a number of other painters who began their creative life in the 60s became the creators of revealing genre paintings, reflecting the phenomena of modern reality. The creations of these artists show the ignorance of the priests, the arbitrariness of officials, the cruel and rude morals of merchants - the new masters of society, the hard lot of the peasantry and the downtroddenness of the little “humiliated and insulted” people of the lower social classes.
In 1863G. 14 students who graduated from the Academy, led by I.N. Kramskoy (1837 - 1887), refusing to carry out programs on a given topic, united in an artel of artists in order to be able to serve the interests of society with their art. In 1870, the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions arose, grouping around itself the best creative forces. In contrast to the official Academy of Arts, which developed salon art in painting and sculpture, the Wanderers supported new artistic endeavors in Russian painting, which prepared the ground for the rise of art in the 70s and 80s.
RUSSIAN MUSIC
In the 19th century Russian music, which did not yet have strong traditions, reflected the general trends in the development of all art, and, having absorbed the song traditions of many peoples of Russia, gave impetus to the emergence of world-famous composers at the end of the century.
At the beginning of the century, under the influence of the events of the Patriotic War of 1812, the heroic-patriotic theme, embodied in the works of S.A., received widespread development. Degtyarev - author of the first Russian oratorio “Minin and Pozharsky”, D.N. Kashina, SI. Davydova, I.A. Kozlovsky - the author of the first Russianhymn "Thunder of Victory!"
Based on the folk melodies of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, a rich and diverse song lyric grows, deeply expressing the world of feelings of the common man (romances by A. A. Alyabyev, lyrical songs by A. E. Varlamov and A. L. Gurilev, romantic operas by A. N. . Verstovsky).
Most famous composer In the first half of the 19th century, whose work brought Russian music into the circle of phenomena of world significance was Mikhail Glinka (1804 - 1857). In his art, he expressed the fundamental features of the national character of the Russian person, who, despite any adversity and oppression, remains a patriot of his homeland.
Already Glinka’s first opera “Life for the Tsar” (“Ivan Susanin”, 1836) became a phenomenon in cultural life not only Russia, but also Europe. Glinka created a high patriotic tragedy, the like of which the opera stage has never known. With another opera - “Ruslan and Lyudmila” (1842) - the composer continues the themes of glorification of Russian antiquity, but using fairy-tale-epic, epic material. Glinka's historical drama and opera-fairy tale determined the future path of Russian opera classics. The significance of Glinka's symphony is also great. His orchestral fantasy “Kamarinskaya”, two Spanish overtures on folk song themes, and the lyrical “Waltz-Fantasy” served as the basis for the Russian symphonic school of the 19th century.
Glinka also distinguished himself in the field of chamber lyrics. Glinka's romances are inherent typical features his style: plasticity and clarity of a wide, sing-song melody, completeness and harmony of the composition. The composer turns to Pushkin's lyrics, and poetic thought finds in him a uniquely beautiful, harmonious, clear expression of Pushkin's stanza.
Alexander Dargomyzhsky (1813 - 1869) continued the traditions of Glinka. Dargomyzhsky's work reflected new trends in all art that matured during the critical period of the 40s and 50s. The theme of social inequality and lack of rights acquires great importance for the composer. Does he paint the drama of a simple peasant girl in the opera “Rusalka” or tragic death soldier in “The Old Corporal” - everywhere he appears as a sensitive artist-humanist, striving to bring his art closer to the needs of the democratic strata of Russian society.
Dargomyzhsky's opera "Rusalka" (1855) marked the beginning of a new genre of psychological drama in Russian music. The composer created images of suffering, disadvantaged people from the people - Natasha and her miller father - remarkable in their depth. In the musical language of opera with its wide development of dramatically expressive recitative and in dramatic scenes Dargomyzhsky's inherent skill and sensitivity in conveying emotional experiences emerged.
Dargomyzhsky's innovative quests find their greatest expression in his latest opera, The Stone Guest, based on the plot of Pushkin's drama. Having preserved Pushkin's entire text, the composer builds the opera on the basis of a continuous recitative, without division into complete parts, and subordinates the vocal parts to the principles of speech expressiveness and flexible intonation of verse. Dargomyzhsky consciously abandons the traditional forms of opera - ensembles and arias, turning it into a psychological musical drama.
A new upsurge in musical and social life in Russia began in the 60s. M.A. Balakirev, A.G. and N.G. Rubinstein created musical organizations of a new type, the first conservatories in Russia. The works of major art scholars V.V. Stasov and A.N. Serov lay the solid foundations of classical musicology. All this predetermined the rise of Russian music in the next period, which was carried out by such outstanding composers as Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov.
Second half of the 19th century. - a special period in the development of Russian culture. The years of the reign of Alexander II, who attached great importance to “independence” in cultural life folk spirit”, were a time of searching for a national path in art and pressing topical social issues. In the 60s, new socio-political forces emerged in Russia - commoners, people from democratic strata, and revolutionary-minded intelligentsia. Revolutionary democratic ideas of A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogareva, A.F. Pisemsky, N.A. Nekrasova, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N.G Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, who stigmatized social vices, significantly influenced the fine arts. Critical analysis became the method of advanced Russian literature, and after it the visual arts. surrounding reality and its realistic representation. Chernyshevsky laid the foundations of aesthetics with his works. His treatise “Aesthetic Relations of Art to Reality” directly states that “beauty is life”, that “the greatest beauty is precisely the beauty encountered by a person in the world of reality, and not the beauty created by art.” They began to demand from the artist “content,” “explanation of life,” and even “a verdict on the phenomena depicted.” The main thing in Russian painting the predominance of moral and social principles over the artistic began. This feature in the brightest way manifested itself in the work of democratically minded artists.
In 1863, the Academy of Arts set a program for a gold medal with a plot from Scandinavian mythology. All thirteen applicants, among them I.N. Kramskoy, K.G Makovsky, A.D. Litovchenko, who did not agree with this program and with programs in general, refused to participate in the competition and left the Academy. Having defiantly left the Academy, the rebels organized the “Artel of Artists”, and in 1870, together with Moscow painters, the “Association of Traveling Artists” art exhibitions" Starting with Perov and ending with Levitan, all outstanding representatives of Russian painting were participants in these exhibitions - Itinerants.
For the Russian public, the importance of the Peredvizhniki was enormous - they interested them and taught them to stop in front of the paintings; with their appearance, the connection between Russian society and Russian artists began. Their creativity, consistent with the basic principles of realism, taught the Russian public to see life in art and distinguish truth from lies in it. Here it is worth mentioning two Russian people to whom the Wanderers owe their success and influence: o P.M. Tretyakov and V.V. Stasov. Tretyakov supported Comrade
through purchases and orders, creating the world's only Museum of National Art. “The all-crushing colossus” Stasov, who led the national movement in Russian art, was the herald aesthetic views Peredvizhniki, and many artists are indebted to him creative advice, choosing subjects for paintings and passionately promoting their activities in the press.
Among the first Russian artists who, in the spirit of the progressive press of the 60s, turned their paintings into flagellating sermons, was Vasily Grigorievich Perov(1834-1882). Already in his first painting, “Sermon in a Village,” released in the year of the peasants’ liberation, not a trace of Fedotov’s harmless ridicule remained: the obese landowner, indifferent to the priest’s words, fell asleep on a chair; his young wife, seizing the moment, whispers with her admirer, thereby demonstrating disdain for spiritual values on the part of the “enlightened” society. The next picture, “Procession on Easter,” was quite “Bazarov-esque” in its sharpness and consonant with the darkest accusatory novels of that time.
A procession in full force with banners and icons leaves the tsesovalnik, having just had a great meal there: drunken pilgrims tumble out of the tavern in disarray and splash through the spring slush; the priest, barely moving his feet, leaves the porch with great difficulty; the deacon with the censer stumbled and fell.
On the art of the first half of the 19th century. influenced by the Great French Revolution (1789–1799), the war with Napoleon, and the war with Spain. During this period there was great progress in science. Main styles: Empire style, romanticism, French realism.
In the architecture of the first half XIX century Neoclassicism experienced its last heyday. By the middle of the century, the main problem of European architecture was the search for style. As a result of the romantic fascination with antiquity, many masters tried to revive the traditions of the architecture of the past - this is how neo-Gothic, neo-Renaissance, and neo-Baroque arose. The efforts of architects often led to eclecticism - a mechanical combination of elements of different styles, old and new. The architecture is dominated by the construction of factories, offices, residential buildings, department stores, exhibition halls, libraries, train stations, covered markets, banks, etc. Banks are decorated with ancient Greek porticoes, department stores - with Gothic lancet windows and towers. Factories are given the appearance of castles.
19.1.1 Art of France
Architecture. During the Great French Revolution, not a single durable structure was built in France. This was the era of temporary buildings, usually wooden. At the beginning of the revolution, the Bastille was destroyed and monuments to kings were demolished. In 1793, the royal academies, including the Academy of Architecture, were closed. Instead, the National Jury of Arts and the Republican Club of Arts appeared, whose main tasks were the organization of mass celebrations and the design of Parisian streets and squares.
A pavilion was erected on the Place de la Bastille with the inscription: “They dance here.” Place Louis XV was named the Place de la Revolution and was complemented by triumphal arches, statues of Liberty, and fountains with emblems. The Champs de Mars became a place of public gatherings with the Altar of the Fatherland in the center. The Invalides and its Cathedral have become a temple of humanity. The streets of Paris were decorated with new monuments.
Also during the years of the French Revolution, the Commission of Artists was formed, which was engaged in the improvement of the city and planned changes in its appearance. He played significant role in the history of architecture.
The Empire style dominated the art of Napoleonic France. Napoleon's main architectural undertaking was the reconstruction of Paris: it was intended to connect the medieval quarters with a system of avenues crossing the city along an east-west axis. The following were built: Avenue des Champs Eysées, Rue de Rivoli, triumphal column on Place Vendôme (1806–1810, architects Jean Baptiste Leper, Jacques Gondoin), entrance gates of the Tuileries Palace (1806–1807, architects C. Percier, P. F. . L. Fontaine), triumphal arch of the Grand Army (1806–1837, architects Jean François Challen and others).
Painting. In the first half of the 19th century. The French school of painting strengthened its primacy in the art of Western Europe. France was ahead of other European countries in the democratization of artistic life. Since 1791, any authors received the right to participate in exhibitions at the Louvre Salon, regardless of their membership in academies. Since 1793, the halls of the Louvre were opened to the general public. State academic education was replaced by training in private workshops. The authorities resorted to more flexible methods of artistic policy: the distribution of large orders for the decoration of public buildings acquired a special scope.
Representatives of French romanticism painting are David, Ingres, Gericault, Delacroix, Gros.
Jacques Louis David (1748–1825) - the most consistent representative of neoclassicism in painting. Studied at the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture, 1775–1779. visited Italy. In 1781, David was accepted as a member of the Royal Academy and received the right to participate in its exhibitions - the Louvre Salons. In 1792, David was elected to the Convention, the highest legislative and executive body of the First Republic.
As early as 1776, a government program was developed that encouraged the creation of large paintings. David received an order for a painting about the feat of three brothers from the noble Horatii family - "The Oath of the Horatii" (1784). The action of the picture takes place in the courtyard of an ancient Roman house: a stream of light pours from above onto the heroes of the picture, with olive-gray twilight around them. The whole composition is based on the number three: three arches (one or more figures are inscribed in each of the arches), three groups of characters, three sons, a sword range, three women. The smooth outlines of the female group are contrasted with the chased lines of the warrior figures.
In 1795–1799 David worked on the painting with his students "Sabine women stopping the battle between the Romans and the Sabines". The artist again chose a plot consonant with modern times: the legend of women who stopped the war between the Romans (their husbands) and the Sabines (their fathers and brothers) sounded in France at that time as a call for civil peace. However, the huge picture, overloaded with figures, caused only ridicule from the audience.
In 1812 he left for Brussels, where he lived until his death. He painted portraits and works on ancient subjects - “The Death of Marat” (1793), “Portrait of Madame Recamier” (1800). The painting “The Death of Marat” was completed by the artist in less than three months and hung in the meeting room of the Convention. Marat was stabbed to death in his apartment by a noblewoman named Charlotte Corday. At the time of his death, Marat was sitting in the bath: due to a skin disease, he was forced to work and receive visitors. The patched sheets and the simple wooden box that replaced the table are not the artist’s invention. However, Marat himself, whose body was disfigured by illness, under the brush of David turned into a noble athlete, like an ancient hero. The simplicity of the setting gives the spectacle a special tragic solemnity.
In a grand picture "Coronation of Napoleon I and Empress Josephine in the Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris December 2, 1804" (1807) David created another myth - the shine of the altar and the splendor of the clothes of the courtiers affect the viewer no worse than the wretched furniture and old sheets of Marat.
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres(1780–1867) was a supporter of classical ideals, an original artist, alien to any falsehood, boredom and routine. In 1802 he was awarded the Rome Prize and received the right to travel to Italy. In 1834 he became director of the French Academy in Rome. Achieved the highest mastery in the genre of portraiture - "Portrait of Riviera".
Ingres tried to convey in painting the decorative possibilities of various types of old art, for example, the expressiveness of the silhouettes of ancient Greek vase painting - "Oedipus and the Sphinx" (1808) And "Jupiter and Thetis" (1811).
In a monumental canvas "Vow of Louis XIII, asking the protection of Our Lady for the Kingdom of France" (1824), he imitated the painting style of Raphael. The picture brought Ingres his first major success. In the picture "Odalisque and the Slave" (1839) chose a composition close to Delacroix’s “Algerian Women in Their Chambers” and solved it in his own way. The motley, multicolored coloring of the canvas arose as a result of the artist’s passion for oriental miniatures. In 1856 Ingres completed the painting "Source", conceived by him back in the 20s. in Italy. The graceful blooming girl's body embodies the purity and generosity of the natural world.
Theodore Gericault(1791–1824) - founder of revolutionary romanticism in French painting. The first work exhibited at the Salon is “Officer of the mounted rangers of the imperial guard going on the attack” (“Portrait of Lieutenant R. Dieudonne”, 1812). The dashing horseman on the canvas does not pose, but fights: the rapid diagonal of the composition takes him deep into the picture, into the bluish-purple heat of battle. At this time, it became known about the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte’s army in Russia. The feelings of the French, who knew the bitterness of defeat, were reflected in a new painting by the young artist - "Wounded Cuirassier Leaving the Battlefield" (1814).
In 1816–1817 Gericault lived in Italy. The artist was especially fascinated by the bareback horse racing in Rome. In the pictorial series "Running of Free Horses" (1817) both expressive precision of reporting and restrained heroism in the neoclassical spirit are available. In these works his individual style was finally formed: powerful, rough forms are conveyed by large moving spots of light.
Returning to Paris, the artist created a painting "The Raft of the Medusa" (1818–1819). In July 1816, near the Cape Verde Islands, the ship Medusa, under the command of an inexperienced captain who received a position under patronage, ran aground. Then the captain and his entourage sailed away in boats, leaving the raft with one hundred and fifty sailors and passengers to the mercy of fate, of which only fifteen people survived. In the film, Gericault sought maximum verisimilitude. For two years he searched for people who survived the tragedy in the ocean, made sketches in hospitals and morgues, and painted sketches of the sea in Le Havre. The raft in his painting is raised by a wave, the viewer immediately sees all the people huddled on it. In the foreground are figures of the dead and distraught; they are painted in life size. The views of those who have not yet despaired are turned to the far edge of the raft, where an African, standing on a shaky barrel, waves a red handkerchief to the Argus crew. Either despair or hope fill the souls of the passengers on the Medusa raft.
In 1820–1821 Gericault visited England. Influenced by Constable's works, he wrote "The Races at Epsom" (1821). The picture is permeated with movement: the horses rush, barely touching the ground, their figures merged into one swift line; the low clouds are moving, their shadows moving across the wet field. All contours in the landscape are blurred, the colors are blurred. Gericault showed the world as a jockey sees it on a galloping horse.
Eugene Deacroix(1798–1863) - French painter. The basis of Delacroix's painting is colorful spots that form a harmonious unity; Each spot, in addition to its own color, includes shades of its neighbors.
Delacroix painted his first painting based on the plot of Dante’s “Divine Comedy” - "Dante and Virgil" (Dante's Boat) (1822). Delacroix created a painting "Massacre of Chios" (1824) influenced by the events of the liberation revolution in Greece 1821–1829. In September 1821, Turkish punitive forces destroyed the civilian population of Chios. In the foreground of the picture are the figures of the doomed Chians in colorful rags; the background is the dark silhouettes of armed Turks. Most of the captives are indifferent to their fate, only children vainly beg their parents to protect them. A Turkish horseman dragging a Greek girl behind him looks like a kind of symbol of enslavement. Other figures are no less symbolic: a naked wounded Greek - his blood goes into the dry ground, and a broken dagger and a bag emptied by robbers lie nearby.
After the events of July 1830 in Paris, Delacroix created a painting "Liberty Leading the People (July 28, 1830)". The artist gave a simple episode of street fighting a timeless, epic sound. The rebels rise to the barricade recaptured from the royal troops, and they are led by Liberty herself. Critics saw her as “a cross between a merchant and an ancient Greek goddess.” There is a romantic style here: Liberty is depicted as the goddess of victory, she raises the tricolor banner of the French Republic; An armed crowd follows. Now they are all soldiers of Freedom.
In 1832, Delacroix accompanied a diplomatic mission to Algeria and Morocco. Upon returning to Paris, the artist created a painting "Algerian women in their chambers" (1833). Women's figures are surprisingly flexible. Golden-dark faces are softly outlined, arms are smoothly curved, colorful outfits stand out brightly against the background of velvety shadows.
Antoine Gros (1771–1835) - French painter, portraitist. Gro abandoned classical plots - he was attracted to modern history. Created a series of paintings dedicated to the Egyptian-Syrian expedition of the Napoleonic army (1798–1799) - "Bonaparte visiting the plague-stricken in Jaffa" (1804). Other paintings dedicated to Napoleon - "Napoleon on the Arcole Bridge" (1797), "Napoleon on the Battlefield of Eyau" (1808). Gros completed the painting of the dome of the Pantheon in Paris in 1825, replacing the image of Napoleon with the figure of Louis XVIII.
Russian art of the first half XIX century. The national upsurge associated with the Patriotic War of 1812. The war and the Decembrist uprising in Russian culture of the first third of the century. Acute contradictions of the time in the 40s. Romantic motifs in literature and art, which is natural for Russia, which has been involved in the pan-European cultural process for more than a century. The path from classicism to critical realism through romanticism.
The increased social role of the artist, the significance of his personality, the right to freedom of creativity, in which social and moral problems; Creation art societies and special magazines (“Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts”, “Magazine fine arts", "Society for the Encouragement of Artists", "Russian Museum", "Russian Gallery"), provincial art schools. The dominant style of this time was mature, or high, classicism (Russian Empire style).
The architecture of the first third of the century is a solution to major urban planning problems. In St. Petersburg, the layout of the main squares of the capital: Dvortsovaya and Senate squares is being completed. After the fire of 1812, Moscow was built especially intensively. Antiquity in its Greek (and even archaic) version becomes the ideal. The Doric (or Tuscan) order is used, severe and laconic. Sculpture, which has a certain semantic meaning, plays a huge role in the overall appearance of the building. Color decides a lot; usually the architecture of high classicism is two-color: columns and stucco statues are white, the background is yellow or earrings. Among the buildings, the main place is occupied by public buildings: theaters, departments, educational institutions; palaces and temples are built much less frequently.
A. Voronikhin – the largest architect of this time (Kazan Cathedral). A. Zakharov from 1805 - “chief architect of the Admiralty” (the Admiralty as the main ensemble of St. Petersburg). K. Rossi - leading St. Petersburg architect of the first third of the 19th century. (“Russian Empire style”), “thinking in ensembles”: a palace or theater was transformed into an urban planning hub of squares and new streets (Mikhailovsky Palace, now the Russian Museum; the building of the Alexandria Theater; the Senate building on the famous Senate Square). "The most strict" of all architects late classicism V. Staso V(Pavlovsk barracks on the Field of Mars, the “Stable Department” on the Moika embankment, the regimental cathedral of the Izmailovsky regiment, the triumphal Narva and Moscow Gates, the interiors of the Winter Palace after the fire), which everywhere emphasizes the mass, its plastic heaviness, staticity, impressiveness and heaviness. St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg (A. Montferrand) is one of the last outstanding monuments of religious architecture in Europe XIX century, which united the best forces of architects, sculptors, painters, masons and foundries, an example of classicism losing its harmony, weighting, and complexity.
The connection between sculpture of the first half of the century and the development of architecture: the statues of Barclay de Tolly and Kutuzov at the Kazan Cathedral (B. Orlovsky), which gave the symbols of heroic resistance a beautiful architectural frame. The democracy of Russian sculpture of the 30-40s of the 19th century. (“The Guy Playing Knuckles” by N. Pimenov, “The Guy Playing Pile” by A. Loganovsky). Two directions in mid-century sculpture: one, coming from the classics, but coming to dry academicism; the other reveals a desire for a more direct and multifaceted reflection of reality; it became widespread in the second half of the century, but both directions gradually lost the features of the monumental style.
The true successes of painting in romanticism. In the portrait genre, the leading place is occupied by O. Kiprensky (the painting “Dmitry Donskoy after winning the victory over Mamai”, which gave the right to a pensioner’s trip abroad; portraits of E. Rostopchin, D. Khvostov, the boy Chelishchev, Colonel of the Life Hussars E. Davydov - a collective image of the hero of the war of 1812).
Romanticism finds its expression in the landscape. S. Shchedrin (“View of Naples on a Moonlit Night”) was the first to discover plein air painting for Russia: he painted sketches in the open air and completed the painting (“decorated”) in the studio. In Shchedrin's latest works, his interest in light and shadow effects became more and more apparent. Like the portrait painter Kiprensky and the battle painter Orlovsky, the landscape painter Shchedrin often painted genre scenes.
Refraction everyday genre in portraits V. Tropinina (portrait of his son Arseny, portrait of Bulakhov), an artist who only freed himself from serfdom at the age of 45. The best of Tropinin's portraits are marked by high artistic perfection, sincerity of images, liveliness and spontaneity, which are emphasized by skillful lighting.
Tropinin only introduced a genre element into the portrait. “Father of the Russian everyday genre” - A. Venetsianov (“Reapers”, “Spring. In the Plowed Field”, “Peasant Woman with Cornflowers”, “Morning of the Landowner”), who combined in his work elements of classicism, romanticism, sentimentalism and naturalism, i.e. all “living” artistic movements at the beginning of the 19th century. He did not reveal the acute conflicts in the life of a peasant, did not raise “thorny issues” of our time. He painted patriarchal life, but did not introduce poetry into it from the outside, did not invent it, but drew it from the people’s life itself.
The development of Russian historical painting of the 30-40s under the sign of romanticism. “The genius of compromise” between the ideals of classicism and the innovations of romanticism - K. Bryullov (“Narcissus” is a sketch turned into a painting; “The Last Day of Pompeii” is the artist’s main work, showing the greatness and dignity of man in the face of death). The central figure in mid-century painting is A. Ivanov (the painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People,” reflecting the artist’s passionate faith in the moral transformation of people, in the improvement of man seeking freedom and truth).
Main origins for genre painting second half of the century lie in creativity P. Fedotova , who managed to express the spirit of Russia in the 40s. The path from simple everyday life writing to the implementation in images of the problems of Russian life: “The Major’s Matchmaking” (exposing the marriages of impoverished nobles with merchant “money bags”), “The Picky Bride” (a satire on arranged marriages), “Aristocrat’s Breakfast” (exposing the emptiness of a socialite who throws dust in the eyes), “Anchor, more anchor!” (tragic feeling of the meaninglessness of existence), “Fresh Cavalier”...Fedotov’s art completes the development of painting in the first half of the 19th century. and opens a new stage - the art of critical (democratic) realism.
Russian art of the second half XIX century . Sculpture and architecture developed less rapidly during this period. Means artistic expression classicism contradict the tasks set by the architecture of the second half of the 19th century. Historicism (retrospective stylization, eclecticism) as a reaction to the canonicity of the classicist style. New types of buildings of the capitalist period required new and varied compositional solutions, which architects began to look for in the decorative forms of the past, using Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococo motifs.
1840s: passion for the Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo. Some interiors, including the Nikolaevsky Palace, are designed in the spirit of neo-Baroque and neo-Renaissance. In the 70-80s, classicist traditions in architecture disappeared. The introduction of metal coverings and metal frame structures brought to life rational architecture with its new functional and constructive concepts. Technical and functional feasibility in the construction of new types of buildings: industrial and administrative, stations, passages, markets, hospitals, banks, bridges, theater and entertainment facilities.
The crisis of monumentalism also affected the development of monumental sculpture. Monuments become overly pathetic, fractional in silhouette, detailed (monument to Catherine II in St. Petersburg) or intimate in spirit (monument to Pushkin in Moscow). In the second half of the 19th century. easel sculpture is developing, mainly genre, narrative, looks like a genre painting translated into sculpture (M. Chizhov “A Peasant in Trouble”, V. Beklemishev “Country Love”). The animalistic genre is being developed (E. Lancer and A. Aubert), which played a big role in the development of Russian realistic sculpture of small forms.
In the second half of the 19th century, a critical attitude to reality, pronounced civic and moral positions, and an acute social orientation were also characteristic of painting, in which a new artistic system of vision was formed, expressed in critical realism. Close connection between painting and literature. Artists as illustrators, straightforward interpreters of acute social problems of Russian society.
The soul of the critical movement in painting V.Perov , who picked up Fedotov’s work and managed to simply and poignantly show aspects of simple everyday life: the unsightly appearance of the clergy (“Rural Procession at Easter”), the hopeless life of Russian peasants (“Farewell to the Dead”), the life of the urban poor (“Troika”) and the intelligentsia ( "The Arrival of the Governess to the Merchant's House").
The struggle for the right of art to turn to real, actual life in the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (“the revolt of the 14”). An association of Academy graduates who refused to write a programmatic picture on one theme of the Scandinavian epic (there are so many around modern problems!), V Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (1870-1923). These exhibitions were called traveling because they were organized in St. Petersburg, Moscow, the provinces (“going to the people”). Each exhibition of the “Itinerants” was like a huge event. The ideological program of the Partnership: a reflection of life with all its acute social problems, in all its relevance. The art of the Wanderers as an expression of revolutionary democratic ideas in the artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. The Partnership was created on the initiative of Myasoedov, supported by Perov, Ge, Kramskoy, Savrasov, Shishkin , brothers Makovsky. Later they were joined by young artists; Repin, Surikov, Vasnetsov, Yaroshenko. Since the mid-80s, Serov, Levitan, and Polenov have taken part in exhibitions. Leader and theorist of the Wandering Movement I. Kramskoy.
Battle genre in the 70-80s. V.Vereshchagin (“Apotheosis of War”) as being close in its activities to the Itinerants (organizationally, it did not belong to them). He organized his exhibitions in different parts of the world and implemented the idea of traveling on a very wide scale.
Democracy in the landscape genre. The Central Russian landscape is not very impressive in appearance, the harsh northern nature is the main theme of the painters. A. Savrasov (“The Rooks Have Arrived”, “Rye”, “Country Road”) - the “king of the air”, who knew how to find in the simplest things those deeply piercing, often sad features that are so strongly felt in the native landscape and have such an irresistible effect on the soul... A different concept landscape in creativity F. Vasilyeva (“After the Rain”, “Thaw”, “Wet Meadow”) - a “brilliant boy” who discovered the “living sky” for landscape painting, who showed with his “Mozartian” fate that life is counted not by the years lived, but by the years how ready man see, create, love and be surprised. V. Polenov (“Moscow Yard”, “Christ and the Sinner”) worked a lot with everyday and historical genres, in which the landscape played a huge role. Polenov is a real reformer of Russian painting, developing it along the path of plein airism. His understanding of the sketch as an independent work of art had a great influence on painters of subsequent times. I. Levitan as a successor to the traditions of Savrasov and Vasiliev (“ Birch Grove”, “Evening Ringing”, “At the Pool”, “March”, “Golden Autumn”), “huge, original, original talent”, “the best Russian landscape painter”.
The pinnacle of democratic realism in Russian painting of the second half of the 19th century. The work of Repin and Surikov is rightly considered, who each in their own way created a monumental heroic image of the people. I. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “Religious Procession in the Kursk Province”, “Arrest of the Propagandist”, “Refusal of Confession”, “They Didn’t Expect”) - a “great realist” who worked in a variety of genres, from folklore to portraiture, who was able to express The national characteristics of Russian life are brighter than other painters. His art world is whole because it is “illuminated” by one thought, one love – love for Russia. In creativity V. Surikova (“The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Menshikov in Berezovo”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “The Conquest of Siberia by Ermak”, “The Capture of the Snowy Town”) historical painting acquired its modern understanding. Surikov, as a “witness of the past,” was able to show “the terrible things of the past, presented to humanity in his images the heroic soul of his people.” Next to Surikov in the Russian historical genre of the second half of the 19th century. Other artists also worked. In creativity V. Vasnetsova the fairy-tale, folklore or legendary image prevails (“Alyonushka”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”, “Bogatyrs”).
Russian art of the end XIX -started XX century . With the crisis of the populist movement in the 90s, the “analytical method of 19th century realism” became obsolete. The creative decline of the Peredvizhniki artists, who retreated into the “petty topics” of entertaining genre paintings. Perov's traditions were preserved at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. All types of art - painting, theater, music, architecture stand for the renewal of the artistic language, for high professionalism.
Painters of the turn of the century are characterized by different ways of expression than those of the Itinerants, other forms artistic creativity– in images that are contradictory, complicated and reflect modernity without being illustrative or narrative. Artists painfully search for harmony and beauty in a world that is fundamentally alien to both harmony and beauty. That is why many saw their mission in cultivating a sense of beauty. This time of “eves”, expectations of changes in public life, gave rise to many movements, associations, and groupings.
The role of artists of the association "World of Art" in the popularization of domestic and Western European art. “Miriskusniki” (Benois, Somov, Bakst, Lanceray, Golovin, Dobuzhinsky, Vrubel, Serov, Korovin, Levitan, Nesterov, Bilibin, Ryabushkin, Roerich, Kustodiev, Petrov-Vodkin, Malyavin) contributed to the consolidation of artistic forces, the creation of the “Union of Russian Artists” ". Significance for the formation of the unification of the personality of Diaghilev, philanthropist, organizer of exhibitions, impresario of tours of Russian ballet and opera abroad (“Russian Seasons”). The main provisions of the “Mirskusniki”: autonomy of art, problems of artistic form, main task art - education of the aesthetic tastes of Russian society through acquaintance with works of world art.
The birth of the Art Nouveau style, which affected all plastic arts, from architecture to graphics. This phenomenon is not unambiguous, it also contains decadent pretentiousness, pretentiousness, designed for bourgeois tastes, but there is also a desire for unity of style, which is significant in itself. Features of Art Nouveau: in sculpture - fluidity of forms, special expressiveness of the silhouette, dynamic composition; in painting - the symbolism of images, a predilection for allegories.
The emergence of modernity did not mean the collapse of the ideas of itinerant movement, which develops differently: the peasant theme is revealed in a new way (S. Korovin, A. Arkhipov). The theme of Ancient Rus' is addressed M. Nesterov , but the image of Rus' appears in his paintings as an ideal, enchanted world, in harmony with nature, but disappeared like the legendary city of Kitezh (“Vision to the Youth Bartholomew”).
A different view of the world K.Korovina , who began to paint en plein air early. His French landscapes (“Paris Lights”) are already quite impressionistic writing. Sharp, instant impressions of the life of a big city: quiet streets at different times of the day, objects dissolved in a light-air environment - features reminiscent of the landscapes of Manet and Pissarro. Korovin preserves impressionistic sketches, picturesque maestry, and artistry in portraits and still lifes, in decorative panels, and in theatrical scenery.
Innovator of Russian painting at the turn of the century V. Serov (“Girl with Peaches”, “Girl Illuminated by the Sun”) – a whole stage in Russian painting. Portrait, landscape, still life, everyday, historical painting; oil, gouache, tempera, charcoal - it is difficult to find genres in which Serov would not work. A special theme in his work is peasant art, in which there is no wandering social focus, but there is a feeling of the beauty and harmony of peasant life, admiration for the healthy beauty of the Russian people.
"Messenger of Other Worlds" M.Vrubel , who caused bewilderment as a person and indignation as an artist (“Pan”, “The Swan Princess”, “ Demon sitting", "Fortune Teller", "Lilac"). The first symbolist (?), “universalist in art,” whose searches are compared with the method of Leonardo da Vinci, Vrubel very quickly “falls out” of “traditional” painting, striking with an original style of painting full of mystery and almost demonic power, which turned out to be prophetic for new artistic trends of the 20th century...
"Miriskusnik" N. Roerich . An expert in the philosophy and ethnography of the East, archaeologist-scientist Roerich had in common with the “World of Art” people his love for retrospection, for pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity (“The Messenger”, “The Elders Converge”, “The Sinister Ones”). Roerich was most closely associated with the philosophy and aesthetics of Russian symbolism, but his art did not fit into the framework of existing trends, because, in accordance with the artist’s worldview, it addressed all humanity with a call for a friendly union of all peoples. Later, historical themes give way to religious legends (“Heavenly Battle”). His decorative panel “The Battle of Kerzhenets” was exhibited during the performance of a fragment of the same name from Rimsky-Korsakov’s opera “The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia” in the Parisian “Russian Seasons”.
In the second generation of the “World of Art” one of the most gifted artists was B. Kustodiev , a student of Repin, who is characterized by stylization, but this is a stylization of folk popular prints (“Fairs”, “Maslenitsa”, “Balagans”, “Merchant’s Wife at Tea”).
1903, emergence of the association "Union of Russian Artists" , which includes figures from the “World of Art” - Benois, Bakst, Somov, Dobuzhinsky, Serov, and participants in the first exhibitions were Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov. The initiators of the creation of the association were Moscow artists associated with the “World of Art”, but who were burdened by the programmatic aesthetics of St. Petersburg residents. K. Korovin was considered the leader of the “Union”.
1910, creation of the association "Jack of Diamonds" (P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, A. Lentulov R. Falk, M. Larionov), who spoke out against the vagueness, untranslatability, nuances of the symbolic language of “The Blue Rose” and the aesthetic stylism of “The World of Art”. “Valentine of Diamonds” professed a clear design of the picture, emphasized objectivity of form, intensity, and full-sounding color. Still life as a favorite genre of “Valetovites”.
"Lonely and unique" creativity P. Filonova , who set the goal of comprehending the metaphysics of the universe through the means of painting, creating crystalline forms as the primary elements of the universe (“Feast of Kings”, “Holy Family”). The vitality of national traditions, the great ancient Russian painting in creativity K. Petrova-Vodkina , artist-thinker (“Bathing the Red Horse” as a visual metaphor, “Girls on the Volga” - orientation to the traditions of Russian art).
The era of highly developed industrial capitalism and changes in city architecture. New types of buildings: factories and factories, train stations, shops, banks, cinemas. New building materials - reinforced concrete and metal structures, which make it possible to cover gigantic spaces and create huge shop windows.
The art of the pre-revolutionary years in Russia was marked by the extraordinary complexity and contradictory nature of artistic quests, hence the successive groups with their own programmatic guidelines and stylistic sympathies. But along with experimenters in the field of abstract forms, the “Mir Iskusstiki”, “Goluborozovtsy”, “Allies”, “Bubnovaletovtsy”, artists of the neoclassical movement continued to work in Russian art of this time.