Summary of the foreign policy of Alexander 2. Foreign policy of Alexander II

Trends in foreign policy were dictated by the Crimean War, which introduced huge contradictions into the international relations of the Russian Empire. The military confrontation, which lasted virtually a century, brought not only military defeat to Russia, but also the loss of positions in the international political arena.

During the reign of Alexander II, the state was opposed by three powerful empires at that time: Ottoman, French and British. The Austrian Empire tried to maintain diplomatic neutrality.

European policy of Alexander II

The Russian emperor had the primary task of initiating a revision of the provisions of the Treaty of Paris. To do this, it was necessary to break the political blockade and restore dialogue with European states. Alexander II's foreign policy towards Europe was unusually subtle and flexible. Realizing that after the Polish uprising it would be very difficult to get out of isolation, Russian diplomacy, led by the emperor, played on the internal contradictions of the European empires.

Alexander II managed to improve relations with France and Prussia and even maintain neutrality during the war of these states. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the Russian Empire lost its main enemy, who limited the influence of the Russian crown on Crimean peninsula. A major success in diplomatic relations was achieved thanks to the efforts of Gorchakov: Russia gained access to the Black Sea, the waters of which were declared neutral.

In 1873, the rapprochement between Europe and Russian Empire was consolidated as a result of the creation of the “Union of Three Emperors” - German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian. The end of European isolation allowed Alexander II to take a closer look at the Turkish issue, which by 1873 had become unusually acute.

Confrontation in the Balkans

In April 1877, hostilities were unleashed between the Russian Empire and Turkey, the reason for which was the infringement of the rights of the Slavic peoples by the Ottoman authorities. In comparatively short term, the Russian army was able to win a number of victories and capture the main military bases of the Turks.

The result of the war was the signing of the San Stefano Peace Agreement, according to which states Balkan Peninsula received political independence from Turkey, and the Russian Empire returned the Crimean coast, Bessarabia and the Caucasian military fortresses under its crown.

Selling Alaska

Plans for the possible sale of Alaska to the United States arose among Alexander II during the period Crimean War. Such a bold step was logically justified: the territory was very remote from the center, supreme authority belonged to the Governor General, who could practically carry out his own policies in Alaska without control.

This situation did not suit the emperor. Ultimately, in the spring of 1867, an agreement was signed in the US capital, according to which the Russian Empire transferred the lands of Alaska into state ownership. The cost of the territory was symbolic at that time - $7 million.

To the question Alexander 2 internal and foreign policy? given by the author Vadim Zasoba the best answer is
Domestic policy:







Foreign policy:

Reply from skinny[newbie]
After the end of the Crimean War, Alexander II's main focus was on carrying out internal reforms. Their success depended to a large extent on the external situation: new war could disrupt the transformation. The Emperor appointed consistent supporters of his course as ambassadors to the largest states of the world. Prince A. M. Gorchakov was appointed head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1856. In a letter to Alexander II, he defined the main foreign policy goal of the country as follows: “With current situation of our state and Europe in general, Russia’s main attention must be persistently directed towards the implementation of the cause of our internal development, and all foreign policy must be subordinated to this task.”
Based on this goal, the main directions of foreign policy were identified: breaking out of international isolation and restoring Russia’s role as a great power, repealing the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty that prohibited having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. In addition, it was necessary to secure borders with neighboring states in Central Asia and the Far East through treaties. These complex tasks were resolved peacefully, largely thanks to the brilliant diplomatic talent of A. M. Gorchakov.

Reply from Request[active]
Domestic policy of Alexander II
Alexander II gained power in the difficult situation of the Crimean War. The inevitable defeat largely predetermined his future policy. The war showed the backwardness of Russia not only in the military, but also in almost all areas of life. By overcoming this backwardness, by promoting Russia to leading place and the reforms of Alexander II were imbued.
One of the main brakes Russian development was serfdom. Serfdom was a relic, a form of slavery, but retained its dominant position in Russia. agriculture. Economic development was impossible under such conditions. The abolition of serfdom in 1861 is one of the central reforms of the domestic policy of Alexander II. The peasants, although still subject to economic coercion, finally received personal freedom. In an agricultural country, the prerequisites were created for the formation of the main classes of a new society: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Further modernization was expressed in a series of reforms in the 60-70s, subordinated to the same goal - successful development Russia in new historical conditions. The transformations were complex and collectively significantly enhanced their effect. Zemstvo, city, military, financial, and judicial reforms were carried out. Changes have occurred in the education system.
In Russia, a system of local self-government was created in the form of zemstvos and city dumas. The nobility were granted significant privileges, but the foundations were also laid for its further weakening, mainly in front of the emerging bourgeoisie. The emergence of advanced institutions of the judicial system raised the prestige of Russia and gave a feeling of equality before a single law to the entire population, regardless of class.
The Russian treasury was experiencing difficulties due to the emerging crisis, complicated by the eternal Russian misfortune - embezzlement. Alexander II carried out a number of measures that strengthened and improved financial system. Great value had a change tax system(separation of direct and indirect taxes).
In the military sphere, the main event was the introduction of universal conscription. Measures were taken to increase military education and improve military production.
Great place In the domestic policy of Alexander II, he took up the issue of creating and improving universal education. The agrarian rural population of Russia was completely illiterate, which was unacceptable under the conditions of that time. A whole network of primary and secondary schools was created educational institutions.
In general, the internal policy of Alexander II was focused on creating a new type of society in Russia. Breaking the existing autocratic system was a painful and long process. Numerous concessions made by the nobility were inevitable. The merit of Alexander II is that he found strength in himself, did not succumb to reactionary pressure and was able to begin to realize his goals.
Many believe that without the Crimean War there would have been no reforms, that they were insufficient and inconsistent. However, Alexander II, popularly called the Liberator, earned his place in Russian history precisely as a great reformer.
Foreign policy of Alexander II
The main task of Alexander II upon his accession was a more or less worthy completion of the shameful Crimean War, during which the monstrous backwardness of Russia was revealed. The loss of the fleet and bases on the Black Sea as a result of the war, a significant blow to Russia’s positions in the eastern question, determined further foreign policy in terms of revising the results of the Crimean War.
Alexander II adhered to the tactics of accumulating and gathering forces before the decisive performance. Carrying out the necessary internal reforms along with military reforms allowed him to declare war on Turkey in 1877, under the pretext of protecting the Slavic population. Started new stage in permission

Reply from Yergey Yarchuk[newbie]
During the reign of Alexander II, liberal measures were carried out in Russia.
reforms affecting all parties public life. However, the emperor did not have time to complete economic and political transformations. **************************************** *************************************************
Domestic policy:
**1857: Alexander II formed the Secret Committee to discuss ways to free peasants from serfdom.
**1861, February 19: cancelled. serfdom.
1864, January: Local government reform passed. The country has established zemstvos - elected bodies governing the economic life of counties and provinces. Only men had the right to vote.
**1864, November: New judicial statutes were introduced, on the basis of which global judicial reform took place. It was the most consistent transformation of Alexander II. Two systems of courts were created - world and general.
**60-70s: Gone military reform. Instead of conscription, conscription was introduced. Persons of all classes from the age of 20 were subject to conscription. Canceled in the army corporal punishment, nutrition was improved, and the network of soldiers' schools was expanded. The army was rearmed. The combat training system has been changed. As a result of the reform, Russia received a modern mass army.
**1881, February 28: The head of the Supreme Administrative Commission M.T. Loris-Melikov presented the tsar with a draft reform, which was called the “Loris-Melikov Constitution”.
**1881, March 1: Alexander II approved the Loris-Melikov project and scheduled a meeting of the Council of Ministers for March 4 for its final approval. But a few hours later the emperor was killed by terrorists.
Foreign policy:
The main task of Russian foreign policy in the 50-70s of the 19th century was to ensure favorable external conditions for the successful implementation of internal reforms in Russia. Based on this goal, the main directions of foreign policy were identified:
1) get out of the international isolation in which Russia found itself after the Crimean War;
2) destroy the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria, and find allies in Europe;
3) restore Russia's role as a great power;
4) achieve the abolition of the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, which prohibited having a fleet in the Black Sea after the Crimean War.
5) consolidate Russia’s borders in Central Asia and the Far East by agreements with neighboring countries.
Domestic and foreign policy of Alexander II

Alexander II is one of the most prominent Russian monarchs. Alexander Nikolaevich was popularly nicknamed Alexander the Liberator.

People really have a reason to call Alexander II that way. The emperor carried out a number of important life reforms. The course of his policy was distinguished by a liberal tint.

Alexander II initiated many liberal initiatives in Russia. The paradox of his historical personality is that the monarch, who gave the people unprecedented freedom before the village, was killed by revolutionaries.

They say that the draft constitution and convocation State Duma, literally was on the emperor’s desk, but his sudden death put an end to many of his endeavors.

Alexander II was born in April 1818. He was also the son of Alexandra Feodorovna. Alexander Nikolaevich was purposefully prepared for accession to the throne.

The future Emperor received a very decent education. The prince's teachers were the smartest people of its time.

Among the teachers were Zhukovsky, Merder, Kankrin, Brunov. As you can see, science was taught to the future emperor by the ministers of the Russian Empire themselves.

Alexander Nikolaevich was a gifted man, he had equal abilities, he was a good-natured and sympathetic person.

Alexander Nikolaevich was well acquainted with the structure of affairs in the Russian Empire, as he actively worked for public service. In 1834 he became a member of the Senate, a year later he began working in the Holy Synod.

In 1841 he became a member of the State Council. In 1842 he began working on the Committee of Ministers. Alexander traveled a lot around Russia, so the poet was well acquainted with the state of affairs in the Russian Empire. During the Crimean War, he was the commander of all armed forces of St. Petersburg.

Domestic policy of Alexander II

Domestic policy was aimed at modernizing the country. Alexander II was largely pushed towards a policy of reform, the results of which were disappointing. In the period from 1860 to 1870, Zemstvo reform, Judicial reform and military reform were carried out.

History considers the most important achievement of the reign of Alexander II (1861). The significance of the reforms carried out over the decade is difficult to underestimate.

The reforms created the opportunity for the rapid development of bourgeois relations and rapid industrialization. New industrial regions are being formed, both heavy and light industry are developing, and wage labor is becoming widespread.

Foreign policy of Alexander II

Foreign policy had two distinct directions. The first is the restoration of Russia's shaky authority in Europe after the defeat in the Crimean War. The second is expanding the boundaries by Far East and Central Asia.

During his reign, Gorchakov showed himself excellently. He was a talented diplomat, thanks to whose skills Russia was able to break the Franco-Anglo-Austrian alliance.

Thanks to France's defeat in the war with Prussia, Russia abandoned the article of the Paris Peace Treaty prohibiting it from having a navy on the Black Sea. Russia also fought with Turkey, and military talent shone on the battlefields of this war.

Attempts were made on Alexander II more than once. The revolutionaries longed to kill the Russian monarch and they nevertheless succeeded. More than once, by the will of fate, he remained alive and well. Unfortunately, on March 1, 1881, Narodnaya Volya members threw a bomb at the carriage of Alexander II. The emperor died from his wounds.

Alexander II forever inscribed his name in Russia and entered Russian history as an undeniably positive personality. Not without sin, of course, but which one historical figures, and from ordinary people Can you call it ideal?

They were timely and gave a powerful impetus to the development of Russia. The Emperor could have done more for Russia, but fate decreed otherwise.

Reign: 1855-1881

From the biography

• Alexander II went down in history as Liberator, since it was under him that serfdom was abolished and Russia took the capitalist path.
• The Emperor came to power in quite difficult time— the Crimean War, which was unsuccessful for Russia, was going on, Russia was weakened by the tough policies of Nicholas I, and in the world the country had an unpopular name — “the gendarme of Europe.” Alexander II needed to end the war, restore the strength and power of the country, and raise the authority of the state on the world stage. For this purpose, large-scale reforms were carried out, which affected literally all aspects of society.
• The activities of Alexander II were controversial. Advanced reforms were combined with tough management methods. However, in general, it was during his reign that the country stepped far forward along the path of progressive development, standing on par with the leading countries of the West.
• Alexander II was prepared for the throne from childhood. He received an excellent education and knew several languages. One of his teachers was the poet V. Zhukovsky.
• By character he was a kind, sociable, noble, gentle person.
• Nicholas I early introduces his son to the highest authorities - the Senate, the Synod, he is a member of military service and during the Crimean War he was responsible for the combat effectiveness of the militia in St. Petersburg. Thus, having come to power, Alexander II already had considerable experience in governing the country.
• It was during his reign that Russia celebrated the millennium of Rus', which was opened in Novgorod famous monument M. Mikeshina. Alexander II was worthy of the glory of many of his predecessors, who brought glory to great Russia.

Historical portrait of Alexander II

Areas of activity

1.Domestic policy

2. Foreign policy

RESULTS OF ACTIVITY

• Alexander II carried out large-scale reforms in literally all spheres of public life, which led to a significant strengthening of statehood, the economy, and an increase in Russia’s authority in the world. His reign is called the “period of Great Reforms.”
• The creation of the Council of Ministers, projects for transforming the State Council with the involvement of elected representatives - all this testifies to the emperor’s desire to find the most acceptable forms state power, corresponding to the new time.
• A significant step has been taken in the development of local self-government. And although in many ways local governments were limited in their rights, this was a big step forward, since they replaced the previous class local authorities authorities.
• It was Alexander I who took a decisive step to free the peasants from serfdom. Despite a number of contradictory aspects, it should be noted that this was the greatest event in the life of Russia - peasants received personal freedom, a labor market appeared, and industry began to develop much faster. Russia confidently followed the path of capitalism.
• The reform of the army, the introduction of universal conscription, and rearmament led to a significant increase in Russia's combat capability.
• The judicial reform, which introduced the classlessness of courts, became the greatest achievement of Alexander II. To this day, many of the features of the judicial system established during his reign continue to operate successfully.
• Alexander II did a lot for the development of education and culture in general. This is the time of activity of the greatest scientists, poets, writers, artists, architects and sculptors. What was created during his reign is still a treasury of Russian culture.
• The foreign policy of Alexander II was also successful: he managed to end the Crimean War, regain access to the Black Sea, annex large territories in the south, east, and Asia, establish diplomatic relations with many countries, and significantly increase Russia’s international authority.

Thus, Alexander II is one of the most prominent rulers of Russia, who increased its strength, power and authority.

Chronology of Alexander's activitiesII you can find on my websitepoznaemvmeste.ru in the “Dates” section.

This material can be used when preparing

Without knowledge of the peculiarities of Russia’s relations with other states during the reign of Alexander II, it is impossible to imagine productive preparation for passing the Unified State Exam on history. 1855—1881 are a landmark period.

Alexander the Second Liberator

The foreign policy of Alexander 2 was multifaceted, and the same person sat in the chair of the Minister of Foreign Affairs for the entire indicated time period - Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov. It was his diplomatic skills that forged the successes of the Fatherland at the international level.

Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov

Relations with Europe

In 1855-1881. The country's foreign policy was divided into a number of main directions. One of the most important was the European direction. Alexander 2 “inherited” from his father the end of the Crimean War and the signing of a peace treaty as the losing side. The most shameful condition was the ban on the construction of fortresses on the Black Sea, as well as on the presence of the military fleet there. Russia found itself in international isolation. The main efforts of A.M. were aimed at overcoming it. Gorchakova.

The main European ally of the Russian Empire in the mid-1860s. became Prussia. Russia managed to regain the right to have a Black Sea navy through the Franco-Prussian campaign of 1870-1871. After France suffered a crushing defeat from Prussia, our country announced the termination of the implementation of the terms of the Paris Peace of 1856. England, France and Turkey, although they were dissatisfied with this statement, did not resist, fearing our new powerful ally. Close relations with Prussia were strengthened by the conclusion of the Alliance of the Three Emperors, to which Austria also joined.

Far Eastern direction and sale of Alaska

To mid-19th centuries, the empire did not have clear borders with China and Japan. The improvement of relations with China was facilitated by the refusal of the domestic authorities to support Western powers during the “Opium Wars.” Thanks to the actions of the Governor General Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov in 1858, the Aigun Treaty was concluded, according to which the border was drawn along the Amur River to the place where the Ussuri River flows into it. However, after 2 years, according to the Beijing Treaty, the Ussuri region also passed to us. In the same year, 1860, Vladivostok was founded by Russian sailors.

In 1855, the Treaty of Shimoda was signed with Japan. It stated that the chain of the Kuril Islands was recognized for us, and Sakhalin Island was declared a sphere of joint interests. The influx of Japanese settlers to Sakhalin lands and the fear of ruining relations with the “country” rising sun“forced our authorities to conclude a new agreement. Thus, since 1875, Sakhalin began to be completely controlled by the Russian government, and the Kuril Islands - by the Japanese.

In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to the United States. Quite a lot of people have the erroneous knowledge that “Russian America” was transferred to the United States by Catherine II. But this happened during the reign of her great-grandson. The reason for the sale was the excess of expenses for these territories over income. There was a catastrophic lack of money for the protection and development of Alaska. The final amount of the transaction was $7.2 million. By selling lands, Alexander 2 showed England and France that he was on the side of the United States. So the king saved the American side from a possible war.

By the way, in Russia itself there were so-called bourgeois reforms, with which you can.

Politics in Central Asia and the Caucasus

At the beginning of the reign of Alexander 2, the final entry of Kazakh territories into Russian citizenship took place. However, these lands were still subject to raids from neighboring Central Asian states: Khiva, Bukhara and Kokand. At first they wanted to solve the problem by building border fortifications, but this did not help. Then the governors-general of adjacent regions decided to cope with the problem by organizing military expeditions. Central Asia was seen as a source of cotton needed for textile production, as well as a place to sell domestic goods.

Central Asia

The authorities of the khanates called on their population to a “holy war” against the Russian troops, but the resistance they organized was suppressed. The Semirechensk Cossacks, who settled along the border with China, played a significant role in the military successes. The Turkestan Governor-General was formed on the conquered lands. Its first head was General K.P. Kaufman.

Although these territories lost their independence, slavery was abolished here, civil strife ceased, and the lands of particularly rebellious landowners were distributed for peasant use. began to appear railways, the process of mining has been improved, and sericulture and cotton growing have acquired a more accelerated round of development. To appease the local population, central authorities did not interfere with traditional cultural and religious relations.

The first years of the reign of Alexander 2 saw the end Caucasian War, which has been ongoing since 1817. Thanks to the efforts of A.I. Baryatinsky in 1859, the center of resistance of Imam Shamil, the village of Vedeno, fell. The leader himself was captured a few months later in the village of Gunib. Shamil and his family were settled in Kaluga as an honorary prisoner. His sons were allowed to serve in the Russian army. The last peoples Those who resisted were the Circassians and Abkhazians. The end of hostilities is considered to be May 1864.

War with the Ottoman Empire 1877-1878

Under Alexander 2 another happened Russian-Turkish war. The reasons for this were Russia’s desire to regain its status as an important European foreign policy player, as well as the desire to help the Balkan Slavic peoples get rid of Ottoman oppression.

The fighting took place on two fronts: the Balkan and the Caucasus. On westward The central episodes were the siege of the Bulgarian city of Plevna, occupied by Turkish troops, and the defense of the Shipka Pass. The first military event lasted from July to December 1877.

During this period, the Russian army organized three assaults, but success was achieved only after the systematic blockade of Plevna. The Shipka Pass was captured in July 1877, and from August to December our troops heroically held it. On the eastern front, combat operations were carried out with great success. Fortresses such as Kars, Bayazet, and Ardahan were captured.

The result of the conflict was the signing of the San Stefano Peace Treaty, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were declared independent states. Bulgaria was supposed to receive full autonomy. Türkiye was obliged to pay a significant indemnity and transfer Bessarabia and a number of lands to Armenia into the possession of our country.

However, the concluded peace caused dissatisfaction among the leading European countries. A congress was convened in Berlin. The amount of indemnity was reduced, Bulgaria was divided into two parts: independent and subject to Turkey. England won the right to occupy Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary - Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russia went for a review achieved successes, fearing being drawn into a new large-scale campaign.

Thus, the era of Alexander II was a liberation not only for Russia, but also an attempt to free the Balkan peoples from the oppression of Turkey, and Asia from barbarism. How successful this was is up to you to judge. And this could be a great takeaway for .