The Middle Ages in the history of Western Europe span more than a millennium - from the 5th to the 16th centuries. In this period, the stages of the early (V-IX centuries), mature, or classical (X-XIII centuries) and late (XIV-XVI centuries) Middle Ages are usually distinguished. From the point of view of socio-economic relations, this period corresponds to feudalism.
Until recently, the Middle Ages was often perceived as something dark and gloomy, filled with violence and cruelty. bloody wars and passions. It was associated with a certain savagery and backwardness, stagnation or failure in history, with a complete absence of anything bright and joyful.
Creating an image "Dark Middle Ages" The representatives of this era themselves contributed in many ways, and above all writers, poets, historians, religious thinkers and statesmen. In their works, writings and testimonies, they often painted a rather gloomy picture of their contemporary life. In their descriptions there is no optimism and joy of being, no satisfaction from life, no desire to improve the existing world, no hope for the possibility of achieving happiness, peace and well-being in it.
On the contrary, there is deep pessimism, complaints are constantly heard about life, which brings only disasters and suffering, the motive of fear of it and fatigue prevails, a feeling of defenselessness and deprivation is expressed, a feeling of the approaching end of the world, etc. Hence special attention to the theme of death, which acts as a way to get rid of the unbearable hardships of life. Medieval authors write about a sincere desire to quickly leave this mortal earthly world and go to the other world, where only it is possible to achieve happiness, bliss and peace.
In yet to a greater extent Poets, writers, philosophers and thinkers contributed to the creation of the image of the “dark Middle Ages” . It was they who declared the Middle Ages a “dark night” in the history of mankind, and the Renaissance that followed it as a “dawn”, a “bright day”, an awakening to life after a thousand years of hibernation.
The Middle Ages for them appeared as completely fruitless, wasted centuries. They also accused the Middle Ages of only destroying and not preserving anything of the great achievements of ancient culture. From here followed logical conclusion about the complete rejection of the Middle Ages and the revival of Antiquity, about the restoration of the interrupted connection of times.
In fact, everything was much more complicated, not so simple, unambiguous and monochromatic. Recently, views and assessments of the Middle Ages have become more and more adequate and objective, although some authors go to the other extreme, idealizing the Middle Ages.
In the Middle Ages, as in other eras, complex and contradictory processes took place on the European continent, one of the main results of which was the emergence of European states and the entire West in its modern form. Of course, the leader of world history and culture in this era was not the Western world, but semi-eastern Byzantium and eastern China, however, events also occurred in the Western world. important events. As for the relationship between ancient and medieval cultures, in certain areas (science, philosophy, art) the Middle Ages were inferior to Antiquity, but overall it meant undoubted progress.
It turned out to be the most difficult and stormy stage of the early Middle Ages, when the new, Western world was born. Its emergence was due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (5th century), which in turn was caused by its deep internal crisis, as well as the Great Migration of Peoples, or the invasion of barbarian tribes - the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, etc. From IV to IX centuries. there was a transition from the “Roman world” to the “Christian world”, with which Western Europe arose.
The Western, “Christian world” was born not as a result of the destruction of the “Roman world”, but in the process of merging the Roman and barbarian worlds, although it was accompanied by serious costs - destruction, violence and cruelty, the loss of many important achievements of ancient culture and civilization. In particular, the previously achieved level of statehood was seriously damaged, since those that arose in the 6th century. barbarian states - the kingdoms of the Visigoths (Spain), the Ostrogoths (northern Italy), the Franks (France), the Anglo-Saxon kingdom (England) - were fragile and therefore short-lived.
The most powerful of them was the Frankish state, founded at the end of the 5th century. King Clovis and transformed under Charlemagne (800) into a huge empire, which, however, by the middle of the 9th century. also broke up. However, at the stage of the mature Middle Ages (X-XI centuries) all the main European states took shape - England, Germany, France, Spain, Italy - in their modern form.
Many ancient cities were also seriously damaged: some of them were destroyed, while others faded away due to the decline of trade or due to changes in the directions of trade routes. At the early stage of the Middle Ages, the level of development of many crafts dropped noticeably, and the entire economy became agrarian, in which the subsistence type of economy predominated. A certain stagnation was observed in the development of science and philosophy.
At the same time, in some areas of life, already at the early stage of the Middle Ages, there were progressive changes. IN social development The main positive change was the abolition of slavery, which eliminated the unnatural situation in which a huge part of people were legally and actually excluded from the category of people.
If theoretical knowledge successfully developed in Antiquity, the Middle Ages opened up more scope for applications of machines and technical inventions. This was a direct consequence of the abolition of slavery. In Antiquity, the main source of energy was the muscular power of slaves. When this source disappeared, the question arose about searching for other sources. Therefore, already in the 6th century. Water energy begins to be used thanks to the use of a water wheel, and in the 12th century. A windmill using wind energy appears.
Water and windmills made it possible to carry out the most different types works: grinding grain, sifting flour, raising water for irrigation, felting and beating cloth in water, sawing logs, using a mechanical hammer in a forge, drawing wire, etc. The invention of the steering wheel accelerated the progress of water transport, which in turn led to a revolution in trade. The development of trade was also facilitated by the construction of canals and the use of sluices with gates.
Positive changes occurred in other areas of culture. Most of them were somehow related to , which formed the foundation of the entire way of medieval life and permeated all its aspects. It proclaimed the equality of all people before God, which greatly contributed to the elimination of slavery.
Antiquity strove for the ideal of a person in which soul and body would be in harmony. However, the body was much more fortunate in realizing this ideal, especially if we keep in mind Roman culture. Taking into account the bitter lessons of Roman society, in which a peculiar cult of physical pleasures and pleasures had developed, Christianity gave clear preference to the soul, the spiritual principle in man. It calls a person to self-restraint in everything, to voluntary asceticism, to suppress the sensual, physical attractions of the body.
Proclaiming the unconditional primacy of the spiritual over the physical, placing emphasis on the inner world of man, Christianity did a lot to form a person’s deep spirituality and his moral elevation.
The basic moral values of Christianity are faith, hope and love. They are closely related to each other and transform into one another. However, the main one among them is Love, which means, first of all, a spiritual connection and love for God and which is opposed to physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and base. At the same time, Christian love extends to all “neighbors,” including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: “Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you.”
Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, not requiring any effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally turns into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of salvation, which is central to many religions.
In Christianity, this idea has several meanings: salvation from evil in earthly life in this world, deliverance from the fate of going to hell at the future Last Judgment, stay in heaven in other world as a fair reward for faith and love. Not everyone will be worthy of salvation, but only the righteous. who strictly follows the commandments of Christ. Among commandments - suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil by violence, demands not to kill, not to take someone else’s, not to commit adultery, to honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torment of hell.
The dominance of religion did not make the culture completely homogeneous. On the contrary, one of the important features of medieval culture is precisely the emergence in it of very specific subcultures, caused by the strict division of society into three classes: the clergy, the feudal aristocracy and the third estate.
Clergy was considered the highest class, it was divided into white - the priesthood - and black - monasticism. He was in charge of “heavenly matters”, caring for faith and spiritual life. It was precisely this, especially monasticism, that most fully embodied Christian ideals and values. However, it was also far from unity, as evidenced by the differences in the understanding of Christianity between the orders that existed in monasticism.
Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order, opposed the extremes of hermitage, abstinence and asceticism, was quite tolerant of property and wealth, highly valued physical wealth, especially agriculture and gardening, believing that the monastic community should not only fully provide itself with everything necessary, but also help in this entire district, showing an example of active Christian charity. Some communities of this order highly valued education and encouraged not only physical, but also mental work, in particular the development of agronomic and medical knowledge.
On the contrary, Francis of Assisi - the founder of the Franciscan Order, the order of mendicant monks - called for extreme asceticism, preached complete, holy poverty, because the ownership of any property requires its protection, i.e. use of force, which is contrary moral principles Christianity. He saw the ideal of complete poverty and carelessness in the life of birds.
The second most important layer was aristocracy, which acted mainly in the form of chivalry. The aristocracy was in charge of “earthly affairs,” and, first of all, state tasks to preserve and strengthen peace, protect the people from oppression, maintain the faith and the Church, etc. Although the culture of this layer is closely related to Christianity, it differs significantly from the culture of the clergy.
Like monastics, in the Middle Ages there were knightly orders. One of the main tasks facing them was the struggle for faith, which more than once took the form of crusades. Knights also carried out other duties, to one degree or another related to faith.
However, a significant part of knightly ideals, norms and values were secular in nature. For a knight, such virtues as strength, courage, generosity and nobility were considered mandatory. He had to strive for glory by performing feats of arms or achieving success in knightly tournaments. He was also required to have external physical beauty, which was at odds with the Christian disdain for the body. The main knightly virtues were honor, fidelity to duty and noble love for the Beautiful Lady. Love for a Lady presupposed refined aesthetic forms, but it was not at all platonic, which was also condemned by the Church and the clergy.
The lowest stratum of medieval society was third estate, which included peasants, artisans, and the trading and usurious bourgeoisie. The culture of this class also had a unique originality that sharply distinguished it from the culture of the upper classes. It was in it that the elements of barbaric paganism and idolatry were preserved for the longest time.
Ordinary people were not too scrupulous in observing strict Christian frameworks; quite often they mixed the “divine” with the “human.” They knew how to sincerely and carefreely rejoice and have fun, giving themselves to this with all their soul and body. The common people created a special laughter culture, the originality of which was especially clearly manifested during folk holidays and carnivals, when the seething streams of general fun, jokes and games, bursts of laughter leave no room for anything official, serious and lofty.
Along with religion, other areas of spiritual culture existed and developed in the Middle Ages, including philosophy and science. The highest medieval science was theology, or theology. It was theology that possessed the truth, which rested on Divine Revelation.
Philosophy was declared the handmaiden of theology. But even under these conditions, philosophical thought moved forward. Two trends can be distinguished in its development.
The first sought to bring together as much as possible and even dissolve philosophy in theology. This philosophy is called scholastics, since its main task was not the search and increment of new knowledge, but the “school” development of what had already been accumulated. However, this approach also brought tangible benefits; thanks to it, the heritage of ancient thinkers was preserved, it contributed to the improvement and deepening of logical thinking. At the same time, theology itself became more and more rational: it was not content with simple faith in the dogmas of religion, but sought to logically substantiate and prove them. One of the main representatives of this trend was the Dominican Thomas Aquinas (13th century). who developed the Christian concept of Aristotle's philosophy, formulated five proofs of the existence of God.
The second tendency, on the contrary, sought to take philosophy beyond the scope of theology, to assert the independence and intrinsic value of science in general and natural science in particular. A prominent representative of this trend was the Franciscan Roger Bacon (13th century). who made significant contributions to the development of philosophy, mathematics and natural science. We can say that he did the same thing three centuries earlier than his more famous namesake Francis Bacon, who became the founder of modern science and philosophy.
Fine artistic culture achieved greater success in the Middle Ages, where architecture was the leading and synthesizing art.
The evolution of medieval art marked by profound changes. IN early Middle Ages The leading position is occupied by the art of the Franks, since the Frankish state occupied almost the entire territory of Europe during this period. Art of the V-VIII centuries. often called Merovingian art, since the Merovingian dynasty was in power at that time.
By its nature, this art was still barbaric, pre-Christian, for elements of paganism and idolatry clearly predominated in it. Greatest development during this period receives naturalart associated with the manufacture of clothing, weapons, horse harness and other products decorated with buckles, pendants, patterns and ornaments. The style of such jewelry is called animalistic, since its peculiarity is that images of strange animals are woven into intricate patterns.
Also becoming widespread miniature - book illustrations. The monasteries had special workshops - “scriptoria”, where books - liturgical books and Gospels - were written and decorated. Books of secular content were rare. The miniatures were primarily ornamental rather than pictorial in nature.
As for architecture, little has survived from the Frankish architects of this time: several small churches on the territory of modern France. In general, among the earliest surviving monuments of barbarian architecture, the tomb of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric (520-530), built in Ravenna, stands out. It is a small two-story round building in which laconicism and simplicity of appearance are combined with severity and majesty.
The art of the early Middle Ages reached its greatest flowering under the Carolingians (8th-9th centuries), who replaced the Merovingian dynasty, and especially under Charlemagne, the legendary hero of the epic poem “The Song of Roland.”
During this period, medieval art actively turned to the ancient heritage, consistently overcoming the barbaric character. That's why this time is sometimes called "Carolingian Revival". Special role Charlemagne played a role in this process. He created a real cultural and educational center at his court, calling it Academy, surrounded himself with outstanding scientists, philosophers, poets and artists, with whom he mastered and developed science and art. Karl contributed in every possible way to the restoration of strong ties with ancient culture.
A significant number of architectural monuments have been preserved from the Carolingian era. One of them is the wonderful Charlemagne Cathedral in Aachen (800), which is an octagonal structure covered with an octagonal dome.
In this era, it is still developing successfully book miniature. which is distinguished by decorative pomp and bright colors, generous use of gold and purple. The content of the miniatures remains mainly religious, although at the end of the early Middle Ages narrative subjects are increasingly encountered: hunting, plowing, etc. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the formation of England and France. In Germany and Italy, as independent states, medieval art entered a new era.
Start mature period of the Middle Ages- The 10th century turned out to be extremely difficult and difficult, which was caused by the invasions of the Hungarians, Saracens and especially the Normans. Therefore, the emerging new states experienced a deep crisis and decline. Art was in the same situation. However, by the end of the 10th century. the situation is gradually normalizing, feudal relations are finally winning, and revival and growth are observed in all spheres of life, including art.
In the XI-XII centuries. The role of monasteries, which become the main centers of culture, increases significantly. It is under them that schools, libraries and book workshops are created. Monasteries are the main customers of works of art. Therefore, all the culture and art of these centuries is sometimes called monastic.
In general, the stage of the new rise of art received the conventional name "Romanesque period". It occurs in the 11th-12th centuries, although in Italy and Germany it also occurs in the 13th century, and in France in the second half of the 12th century. Gothic already reigns supreme. In this period architecture finally becoming the leading form of art - with a clear predominance of religious, church and temple buildings. It develops on the basis of the achievements of the Carolingians, being influenced by ancient and Byzantine architecture. The main type of building is the increasingly complex basilica.
The essence of the Romanesque style is geometricism, the dominance of vertical and horizontal lines, the simplest figures of geometry in the presence of large planes. Arches are widely used in buildings, and windows and doors are made narrow. Appearance the buildings are distinguished by clarity and simplicity, majesty and severity, which are complemented by severity and sometimes gloom. Columns without stable orders are often used, which also perform a decorative rather than constructive function.
The Romanesque style was most widespread in France. Here, the most outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Church of Cluny (11th century), as well as the Church of Notre-Dame du Port in Clermont-Ferrand (12th century). Both buildings successfully combine simplicity and grace, severity and splendor.
Secular architecture of the Romanesque style is clearly inferior to church architecture. Its shape is too simple and there are almost no decorative ornaments. Here the main type of building is a castle-fortress, which serves both as a home and a defensive shelter for the feudal knight. Most often this is a courtyard with a tower in the center. The appearance of such a structure looks warlike and wary, gloomy and threatening. An example of such a building is the castle of Chateau Gaillard on the Seine (XII century), which has reached us in ruins.
In Italy, a wonderful monument of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XII-XIV centuries). It includes a grandiose five-nave basilica with a flat roof, the famous "Falling tower", as well as a baptistery intended for baptisms. All buildings of the ensemble are distinguished by their severity and harmony of forms. Another magnificent monument is the Church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which has a simple yet impressive façade.
IN Germany Romanesque architecture develops under the influence of French and Italian. Its peak flourished in the 12th century. The most remarkable cathedrals were concentrated in the cities of the Middle Rhine: Worms. Mainz and Speyer. Despite all the differences, their appearance has many common features, and above all, the upward direction created by the high towers located on the western and eastern sides. The cathedral in Worms stands out in particular; it looks like a ship: in the center there is the largest tower, in the east it has a protruding semicircle of the apse, and in the western and eastern parts there are four more tall towers.
By the beginning of the 13th century. the Romanesque period of medieval culture ends and gives way Gothic period. The term “Gothic” is also conventional. It arose during the Renaissance and expressed a rather contemptuous attitude towards Gothic as the culture and art of the Goths, i.e. barbarians.
In the 13th century. the city, and with it the entire culture of the urban burghers, began to play a decisive role in the life of medieval society. Scientific and creative activity moves from monasteries to secular workshops and universities, which already exist in almost all European countries. By this time, religion begins to gradually lose its dominant position. In all areas of social life, the role of the secular, rational principle is increasing. This process did not pass by art, in which two important features emerged - the increasing role of rationalistic elements and the strengthening of realistic tendencies. These features were most clearly manifested in the architecture of the Gothic style.
Gothic architecture represents an organic unity of two components - design and decor. The essence of the Gothic design is to create a special frame, or skeleton, that ensures the strength and stability of the building. If in Romanesque architecture the stability of a building depends on the massiveness of the walls, then in Gothic architecture it depends on the correct distribution of gravity forces. The Gothic design includes three main elements: 1) a vault on ribs (arches) of a lancet shape; 2) a system of so-called flying buttresses (half-arches); 3) powerful buttresses.
The originality of the external forms of the Gothic structure lies in the use of towers with pointed spiers. As for decoration, it took a variety of forms. Since the walls in Gothic style ceased to be load-bearing, this made it possible to widely use windows and doors with stained glass windows, which allowed free access of light into the room. This circumstance was extremely important for Christianity, because it gives light a divine and mystical meaning. Colored stained glass windows evoke an exciting play of colored light in the interior of Gothic cathedrals.
Along with stained glass windows, Gothic buildings were decorated with sculptures, reliefs, abstract geometric patterns, floral ornament. To this should be added the skillful church utensils of the cathedral, beautiful items of applied art donated by wealthy townspeople. All this turned the Gothic cathedral into a place of genuine synthesis of all types and genres of art.
Became the cradle of Gothic France. Here she was born in the second half of the 12th century. and then for three centuries it developed along the path of increasing lightness and decorativeness. In the 13th century. she has reached her true peak. In the XIV century. the increase in decorativeness comes mainly due to the clarity and clarity of the constructive principle, which leads to the appearance of a “radiant” Gothic style. The 15th century gives birth to “flaming” Gothic, so named because some decorative motifs resemble flames.
Notre Dame Cathedral(XII-XIII centuries) became a true masterpiece of early Gothic. It is a five-nave basilica, which is distinguished by a rare proportionality of structural forms. The cathedral has two towers in the western part, decorated with stained glass windows, sculptures on the facades, and columns in the arcades. It also has amazing acoustics. What was achieved in Notre Dame Cathedral is developed by the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), as well as the Upper Church of Sainte-Chapelle (XIII century), which served as a church for the French kings and is distinguished by its rare perfection of form.
IN Germany Gothic style became widespread under the influence of France. One of the most famous monuments here is Cathedral in Cologne(XI11-XV. XIX centuries). In general, he develops the concept of Amiens Cathedral. At the same time, thanks to the pointed towers, it most clearly and fully expresses the verticalism and skyward thrust of Gothic structures.
English Gothic also largely continues French models. The recognized masterpieces here are Westminster Abbey(XIII-XVI centuries), where the tomb of English kings and prominent people of England is located: as well as the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (XV-XVI centuries), representing late Gothic.
Late Gothic, like the entire culture of the late Middle Ages, contains an ever-increasing number of features of the next era - the Renaissance. There are disputes about the work of such artists as Jan van Eyck, K. Sluter and others: some authors attribute them to the Middle Ages, others to the Renaissance.
The culture of the Middle Ages - with all the ambiguity of its content - occupies a worthy place in the history of world culture. The Renaissance gave the Middle Ages a very critical and harsh assessment. However, subsequent eras made significant amendments to this assessment. Romanticism of the 18th-19th centuries. drew his inspiration from medieval chivalry, seeing in it truly human ideals and values. Women of all subsequent eras, including ours, experience an inescapable nostalgia for real male knights, for knightly nobility, generosity and courtesy. The modern crisis of spirituality encourages us to turn to the experience of the Middle Ages, to decide again and again eternal problem relationship between spirit and flesh.
While the eastern regions of the former Roman Empire prospered, the western
were falling into disrepair. The Western Roman Empire, starting in V B., experienced
endless invasions of their territory by barbarian tribes: the Ostrogoths,
Visigoths, Sueves, Alans, Huns, Vandals, Scythians, Franks, Celts, Lombards.
The Visigoths took over Spain, invaded England and founded the kingdom of
Gly and Saxons, the Normans settled in Scandinavia, disturbing the Europeans for a long time.
European countries with their raids, the kingdom of the Burgundians strengthened in Gaul
and the influx of Franks into its northern provinces increased.
In 410, the Visigoths, led by Alaric, sacked Rome. The impression from this co-
existence was stunning, and he most clearly reflected it in his treatise “On
city of God" Aurelius Augustine, Christian theologian and philosopher, one of the "fathers
churches". “The earthly city” - the sinful pagan world, the embodiment of which
was the Roman Empire, St. Augustine opposed the “city of God” - the common
well, the chosen ones, united by the love of God, i.e. Church. Historical process
Augustine viewed it as a struggle between dark and light forces, evil and good, paganism
and Christianity. The concept of the Divine City, replacing the earthly kings
stivs, caused an unusually powerful resonance in all cultural layers of the Mediterranean
nomoria, determining the understanding of the doom of the Western Roman Empire, its cult
tours, the entire social structure.
In 455, the Vandals attacked Rome and subjected it to something unprecedented in history.
defeat.
They destroyed all cultural values that could not be taken with them.
A logical epilogue to the collapsing Western Roman statehood
there was an endless succession of emperors on the Ravenna throne. He was deposed in 476
last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus. This year in world history
became the end of the ancient world, the end of the slave-owning socio-economic
formation and the beginning of the medieval period. Art history
culture
medieval Europe is usually divided into three stages: pre-Romanesque (VI-X centuries),
Romanesque (XI-XII centuries) and Gothic (XIII-XV centuries),
Pre-Romanesque art
The development of medieval art in Western Europe began with primitive
forms, since barbarian peoples could not perceive ancient traditions
due to its hostility to Ancient Rome, on the one hand, and due to its complete
a different level of their own artistic culture - on the other.
And although the ancient traditions did not die out immediately, their influence was not decisive.
even in the territory of the former Roman Empire. Externally built by the Romans
reminded
tomb of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric in Ravenna. It's centric
a two-story building, decagonal on the lower tier and round on the second, produced
impression of squatness and heaviness. The peculiarity of the construction was
an unusual ceiling that has no analogues and is a hollowed-out
like a dome stone. The Roman dome design proved to be
barbarians inaccessible.
Intensive Christianization of Europe
in the VI-VII centuries. caused widespread
construction of churches, mostly
its basilica type.
Let us remember that the basilica represents
an elongated rectangular
building divided inside by a colonnade
into three or five parts, called
naves(by ships). And myself
the church was likened to a ship. Overlap
made flat out of wood, and
columns were used as supports,
often transferred from ancient
buildings. The middle nave is usually
was higher and wider than the side ones. To the top
There were windows on some of its walls. Entrance
to the basilica was on one of its narrow
sides - western. Opposite the entrance
the middle nave ended with an apse.
Arch connecting the apse with the central one
nave, was called triumphant,
behind it was an altar.
Parishioners were not allowed into the apse.
The entire altar part is medieval
the church was called in unison, because the
during services in the eastern
part of the temple there was a choir of singers.
With the growth and stratification of the Christian community, the increase in the number of clergy,
With the complication of the ritual of worship, it became necessary to delimit the space
temple. Between the apse and nave appeared transept- transverse nave
Protruding somewhat beyond the main part of the building, it gave the church its shape.
Church of Saint-Germain des Pres in Paris, claimed that the shape of the cross was given
her, in order to put the most important Christian symbol at the basis of the temple.
In the V-VIII centuries. architects of Merovingian France (Merovingians - first dynasty
Frankish kings) other innovations were introduced into church buildings. In the eastern
parts of the temple raised the floor and formed an underground room - crypto,
being a funeral church. The crypt with the burial of the saint was located
significantly below floor level, but its vaults rose above it, amounting to
singing for choir. Above the crosshairs of the central nave and transept appeared
Tiburius- hipped tower with windows. Thus, the vertical section of the church
The space at the level of the altar also turned out to be a cross in plan. At
At the entrance to the basilica on the western side, a small transverse room was formed
in the form of a closed gallery - narthex, where there could be persons who do not have
the right to enter the temple during worship, and where the baptismal ceremony was eventually moved
font. Towers were erected near the church, serving as bell towers, or
special buildings for baptism - baptistery. Over time the towers merged
with the building, forming the western end of the basilica.
The architectural features of the basilica church did not allow covering the entire
painting with a single look. Therefore, in the central nave, above the colonnade, on Church
Saint-Germain des Pres. Paris
board to the altar, placed biblical scenes, arranging them in the same sequence,
as in Holy Scripture. However, there were no subjects in the selection
strictly established canon. The main emphasis was on painting triumphal
noah arch and central apse. On the triumphal arch, painters preferred
depict angels, apostles, allegorical figures. An image was placed in the apse
Christ in “glory”, less often - the figure of the Mother of God.
Secular buildings, which were built during the early Middle Ages
vines made of wood and other fragile materials disappeared without a trace. Artistic
new creativity barbarian peoples most fully represented by objects
applied
art(caskets, bowls, cups) and jewelry (yarn-
ki, pendants,
brooches - clasps on a cloak, bracelets, necklaces). In its development
traceable
several stages. Initially it spread like this
called
filigree style. Metal products were decorated with applied
onto the surface with thin gold or silver threads, grains1. In the peri-
ode to the "great
migration of peoples" to Europe from the East, multi-colored
ny polychrome style. Silver and gold items of polychrome style in
abundance
decorated with inserts of enamel, colored glass, precious stones -
mi, which were placed in the form of cabochons2 or polished plates between
gold
intricately patterned partitions.
Masters of the polychrome style extracted artistic effect from natural
properties of the material - the shine of gold, the glow of stones, which conveyed a stylized
images of birds and animals character of the magical sign. It was
sang in tune with the barbarian art of the 6th-8th centuries. - not only decorate, but also oh-
injure a person from forces hostile to him. Favorite motives were
1 Grain- small gold and silver balls that are soldered onto jewelry.
2 Cabochon- a form of processing stone giving it a rounded convex surface.
Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance. Divided into 3 periods: 1. 5-10 in the Early Middle Ages; 2. 11th-13th century – Classical; 3. 14-16 – Later.
The essence of it is Christianity, human self-improvement. The birthplace of Christianity is Palestine. Originated in the 1st century AD. This is the teacher's religion - Jesus Christ. The symbol is a cross. The struggle between light and dark forces is constant, with man at the center. He was created by the Lord to manifest his created image, to live with him in unity, to rule the whole world, fulfilling the role of high priest in it.
The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, new type political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.
The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones. The social structure had three main groups: peasants, clergy and warriors.
The peasants were the bearers and exponents of folk culture, which was formed on the basis of a contradictory combination of pre-Christian and Christian worldviews. Secular feudal lords monopolized the right to military affairs. The concept of a warrior and a noble person merged in the word “knight”. Chivalry turned into a closed caste. But with the advent of the fourth social stratum - the townspeople - chivalry and knightly culture fell into decline. The key concept of knightly behavior was nobility. The activities of monasteries brought exceptional value to medieval culture as a whole.
The development of medieval art includes the following three stages:
pre-Romanesque art (V-X centuries),
Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries),
Gothic art (XII-XV centuries).
Ancient traditions provided impetus for the development of medieval art, but in general the entire medieval culture was formed in polemics with ancient tradition.
The Dark Ages of the 5th-10th century - the destruction of the ancient world, writing was lost, the church put pressure on life. If in antiquity man was a hero, a creator, now he is a lower being. The meaning of life is serving God. Science is scholastic, connected with the church, it is proof of the existence of God. The Church dominated the minds of people and fought against dissent. Urban literature has a special place in satirical everyday scenes. The heroic epic “The Song of Roland”, “Beowulf”, “The Saga of Eric the Red”, the novel “Tristan and Isolde”. Poetry: Bertrand Deborn and Arnaud Daniel. A TV of jugglers and traveling actors is born. The main genres are theaters: drama, comedy, morality plays. Architecture main styles: A. Romanesque - stylization, formalism, narrow windows, example - Notre Damme Cathedral in Poitiers, B. Gothic - high lancet windows, stained glass windows, high columns, thin walls, buildings reaching into the sky, example - Westmines Abbey in London. Flaming Gothic (in France) is the finest stone carving. Brick Gothic is typical for the North. Europe.
General characteristics of the culture of Byzantium.
Byzantium is the eastern Roman Empire. Initially, the main center was the colony of Byzantium, then Constantinople became it. Byzantium included the territories of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, India and Palestine, etc. This empire existed from the 4th century BC. - mid 15th century, until it was destroyed by the Seljuk Turks. She is the heir of the Greco-Roman culture. The culture is contradictory, because... tried to combine the ideals of antiquity and Christianity.
Periods 4-7 centuries. - early period (formation of Byzantine culture and its flourishing); 2nd floor 7th century - 12th century middle (iconoclasm); 12-15 late (began with the invasion of the Crusaders, ended with the fall of Constantinople). V. is the heiress of Greco-Roman culture. However, Byzantine culture also developed under the influence of the Hellenistic culture of the Mediterranean, oriental cultures. Greek dominated. All this was based on the Christian religion.
The culture continued to remain faithful to traditions, canons determined by religious traditions. In education, ancient forms were preserved.
The ancient tradition prevailed in the art of the early period; Christianity was just beginning to develop its own symbolism and iconography, to form its own canons. The architecture inherited Roman traditions. The predominance of painting over sculpture, perceived as pagan art.
CVIv. In fact, a medieval culture arose. BVI century Under Emperor Justinian, Byzantine culture flourished.
New traditions of temple construction - combining the basilica with a centric building. In parallel, the idea of multiple chapters. In fine art, mosaics, frescoes, and icons predominated.
The turning point and turn are associated with the period of iconoclasm (8th century). There was a certain ambivalence regarding the image of God. The imperial power supported the iconoclasts (for the sake of power). During this period, damage was caused to the visual arts. Iconoclasm went far beyond the scope of the problem of Christian representation. 19th century icon veneration was restored. After this, the second flowering begins.
Cultural influence on other nations is increasing. Rus. The cross-domed architecture of churches is taking shape. In the X century. the art of enamel reaches its highest level.
X-XI centuries characterized by duality. The flourishing of culture and the decline of statehood. Byzantium loses its territories. Church split, crusades. After this, the Byzantine revival begins.
Byzantium and Western Europe: two paths of cultural development. Catholicism and Orthodoxy.
Let's consider differences between Catholicism and Orthodoxy.
general characteristics
Ecumenical Orthodoxy (Orthodoxy - that is, “right” or “correct”, which has come down without distortion) is a collection local Churches who have the same dogmas and a similar canonical structure, recognize each other’s sacraments and are in communion. Orthodoxy consists of 15 autocephalous and several autonomous Churches.
Unlike Orthodox churches, Roman Catholicism is distinguished primarily by its monolithic nature. The principle of organization of this Church is more monarchical: it has a visible center of its unity - the Pope. The apostolic power and teaching authority of the Roman Catholic Church is concentrated in the image of the Pope.
The very name of the Catholic Church literally means “conciliar” in Greek, however, in the interpretation of Catholic theologians, the concept of conciliarity, so important in the Orthodox tradition, is replaced by the concept of “university”, that is, the quantitative breadth of influence (indeed, the Roman Catholic confession is widespread not only in Europe, but also North and South America, Africa and Asia).
Christianity, which arose as a religion of the lower classes, by the end of the 3rd century. spread quite widely throughout the empire.
All aspects of life were determined by Orthodoxy, which was formed in the 4th – 8th centuries. AD Christianity was born as a single universal teaching. However, with the division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern (Byzantium) in 395, Christianity gradually became divided into two directions: Eastern (Orthodoxy) and Western (Catholicism). Popes already from the end of the 6th century. did not submit to Byzantium. They were patronized by the Frankish kings, and later by the German emperors. Byzantine and Western European Christianity diverged further and further, ceasing to understand each other. The Greeks completely forgot Latin, and Western Europe did not know Greek. Gradually, the rituals of worship and even the basic tenets of the Christian faith began to differ. Several times the Roman and Greek churches quarreled and reconciled again, but it became increasingly difficult to maintain unity. In 1054 Roman Cardinal Humbert arrived in Constantinople for negotiations on overcoming differences. However, instead of the expected reconciliation, a final split occurred: the papal envoy and Patriarch Michael Kirularius anathematized each other. Moreover, this split (schism) remains in force to this day. Western Christianity was constantly changing; it is characterized by the presence of different directions (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, Baptistism, etc.) and an orientation towards social reality.
Orthodoxy proclaimed fidelity to antiquity, the immutability of ideals. The basis of the Orthodox faith is the Holy Scripture (Bible) and Holy Tradition.
The true head of the Byzantine church was the emperor, although formally he was not one.
The Orthodox Church lived an intense spiritual life, which ensured an unusually vibrant flowering of Byzantine culture. Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture. Byzantium managed to spread the Orthodox faith and bring the message of Christianity to other peoples, especially to the Slavs. The enlighteners Cyril and Methodius, brothers from Thessaloniki, who created the first Slavic alphabet - Cyrillic and Glagolitic, based on the Greek alphabet - became famous in this righteous deed.
The main reason for the division of the general Christian church into the western (Roman Catholic) and eastern (Eastern Catholic, or Greek Orthodox) was the rivalry between the popes and the patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in the Christian world. The first break occurred around 867 (liquidated at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries), and occurred again in 1054 (see. Division of churches
) and was completed in connection with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 (when the Polish patriarch was forced to leave it).
As a type of Christian religion, Catholicism recognizes its basic dogmas and rituals; at the same time, it has a number of features in its doctrine, cult, and organization.
The organization of the Catholic Church is characterized by strict centralization, monarchical and hierarchical character. According to religion Catholicism, the Pope (Roman high priest) is the visible head of the church, the successor of the Apostle Peter, the true vicar of Christ on earth; his power is higher than that of power Ecumenical Councils
.
The Catholic Church, like the Orthodox Church, recognizes seven sacraments
, but there are some differences in their dispatch. Thus, Catholics perform baptism not by immersion in water, but by pouring it over; Confirmation (confirmation) is not performed simultaneously with baptism, but for children no younger. 8 years and, as a rule, a bishop. Catholics have unleavened communion bread, not leavened bread (like the Orthodox). A lay marriage is indissoluble, even if one of the spouses is convicted of adultery.
Pre-Christian culture of the Eastern Slavs. Russia's adoption of Christianity. Paganism and Christianity in Rus'.
At the end of the 5th - mid-6th centuries, the great migration of the Slavs to the south began. The territory developed by the Slavs was an open space between the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, through which waves of nomadic peoples poured into the southern Russian steppes in a continuous stream.
Before the formation of the state, the life of the Slavs was organized according to the laws of patriarchal or tribal life. All matters in the community were governed by a council of elders. The typical form of Slavic settlements were small villages - one, two, three courtyards. Several villages united into unions (“verves” of “Russian Pravda”). The religious beliefs of the ancient Slavs represented, on the one hand, the worship of natural phenomena, and on the other, the cult of ancestors. They had neither temples nor a special class of priests, although there were magi and magicians who were revered as servants of the gods and interpreters of their will.
The main pagan gods: Rain-god; Perun - god of thunder and lightning; Mother Earth was also revered as a kind of deity. Nature was imagined to be animate or inhabited by many small spirits.
The places of pagan cult in Rus' were sanctuaries (temples), where prayers and sacrifices took place. In the center of the temple there was a stone or wooden image of the god, and sacrificial fires were burned around it.
Belief in the afterlife forced everyone to put into the grave with the deceased everything that could be useful to him, including sacrificial food. At the funerals of people belonging to the social elite, their concubines were burned. The Slavs had an original writing system - the so-called knotted writing.
The agreement concluded by Igor with Byzantium was signed by both pagan warriors and “Baptized Rus'”, i.e. Christians occupied high positions in Kiev society.
Olga, who ruled the state after the death of her husband, also received baptism, which is considered by historians to be a tactical move in a complex diplomatic game with Byzantium.
Gradually Christianity acquired the status of a religion.
Around 988, the Kiev prince Vladimir was baptized himself, baptized his squad and boyars, and, under pain of punishment, forced the people of Kiev and all Russians in general to be baptized. Formally, Rus' became Christian. The funeral pyres went out, the lights of Perun faded, but for a long time remnants of paganism were still found in the villages.
Rus' began to adopt Byzantine culture.
The Russian church adopted the iconostasis from Byzantium, but it changed it by increasing the size of the icons, increasing their number and filling all the voids with them.
The historical significance of the Baptism of Rus' lies in introducing the Slavic-Finnish world to the values of Christianity, creating conditions for cooperation between Rus' and other Christian states.
The Russian Church has become a force uniting different lands of Rus', cultural and political communities.
Paganism- a phenomenon of the spiritual culture of ancient peoples, which is based on belief in many gods. A striking example of paganism is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign. Christianity- one of the three world religions (Buddhism and Islam), named after its founder Christ.
Old Russian art.
The most important event of the 9th century. is the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Before the adoption of Christianity, in the second half of the 9th century. was created by the brothers Cyril and Methodius - Slavic writing based on the Greek alphabet. After the baptism of Rus', it became the basis of Old Russian writing. They translated the Holy Scripture into Russian.
Russian literature was born in the first half of the 11th century. The church played the leading role. Secular and ecclesiastical literature. It existed within the framework of a manuscript tradition. The parchment material is calfskin. They wrote with ink and cinnabar using goose feathers. In the 11th century Luxurious books with cinnabar letters and artistic miniatures appeared in Rus'. Their binding was bound in gold or silver, decorated with precious stones (Gospel (XI century) and Gospel (XII century). Books of the Holy Scripture were translated into Old Church Slavonic by Cyril and Methodius. All Old Russian literature is divided into translated and original. The first original works include by the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries (“The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”). Genre diversity - chronicle, life and word. The central place was the chronicle, it was carried out by monks specially trained in the “Tale of Bygone Years”. "Another genre of life - biographies of famous bishops, patriarchs, monks - "hagiography", Nestor "2 lives of the first Christian martyrs Boris and Gleb", "life of Abbot Theodosius" Another genre of Teaching - "Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh -". “the word on law and grace” by Hilarion.
Architecture. With the advent of Christianity, the construction of churches and monasteries began (the Kiev-Pechersk monastery in the mid-11th century by Anthony and Fedosy of the Pechersk, the Ilyinsky underground monastery in the thickness of Boldinskaya Mountain). Underground monasteries were centers of hesychia (silence) in Rus'.
At the end of the 10th century. Stone construction began in Rus' (989 in Kyiv, the Tithe Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary). In the 30s of the 11th century. The stone Golden Gate with the Gate Church of the Annunciation was built. An outstanding work of architecture of Kievan Rus was the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1045 - 1050).
Crafts were highly developed in Kievan Rus: pottery, metalworking, jewelry, etc. In the 10th century, Potter's wheel. By the middle of the 11th century. refers to the first sword. Jewelry technology was complex, Russian products were in great demand on the world market. Painting - Icons, frescoes and mosaics. Musical art- church singing, secular music. The first ancient Russian buffoon actors appeared. There were epic storytellers, they told epics to the sound of the gusli.
Russian culture: characteristic features. Features of the Russian national mentality.
The Russian nation has experienced the greatest historical trials, but also the greatest upsurges of spirituality, the reflection of which has become Russian culture. During the 16th-19th centuries, the Russians had the opportunity to create the greatest power in the history of the planet, which included the geopolitical core of Eurasia.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the Russian Empire occupied a vast territory, including 79 provinces and 18 regions, inhabited by dozens of peoples of various religions.
But for the contribution of any people to the treasury of world culture decisive role It is not the number or role in political history that play, but the assessment of its achievements in the history of civilization, determined by the level of material and spiritual culture. “We can speak about the global character of a people’s culture if it has developed a system of values that have universal significance... Undoubtedly, Russian culture also has a global character in the form in which it was developed before the Bolshevik revolution. To agree with this, one only has to remember the names of Pushkin, Gogol, Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, or the names of Glinka, Tchaikovsky, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, or the value of Russian stage art in drama, opera, ballet. In science, it is enough to mention the names of Lobachevsky, Mendeleev, Mechnikov. The beauty, richness and sophistication of the Russian language give it the undoubted right to be considered one of the world languages.”
For the building of any national culture, the main supporting support is the national character, spirituality, and intellectual makeup (mentality) of a given people. The character and mentality of an ethnic group are formed in the early stages of its history under the influence of the nature of the country, its geopolitical position, a certain religion, and socio-economic factors. However, once formed, they themselves become decisive for the further development of national culture and national history. This was the case in Russia as well. It is not surprising that disputes about the national character of Russians, about the Russian mentality are primary in discussions both about the fate of our Fatherland and about the nature of Russian culture.
The main features of the Russian mentality:
Russian people are gifted and hardworking. He is characterized by observation, theoretical and practical intelligence, natural ingenuity, ingenuity, and creativity. The Russian people are great workers, creators and creators, and have enriched the world with great cultural achievements.
Love of freedom is one of the main, deep-seated properties of the Russian people. The history of Russia is the history of the struggle of the Russian people for their freedom and independence. For the Russian people, freedom is above all.
Possessing a freedom-loving character, the Russian people repeatedly defeated the invaders and achieved great success in peaceful construction.
The characteristic features of Russian people are kindness, humanity, a penchant for repentance, cordiality and spiritual gentleness.
Tolerance is one of the characteristic features of the Russian people, which has become literally legendary. In Russian culture, patience and the ability to endure suffering are the ability to exist, the ability to respond to external circumstances, this is the basis of personality.
Russian hospitality It is well known: “Even though he is not rich, he is glad to have guests.” The best treat is always ready for the guest.
A distinctive feature of the Russian people is their responsiveness, the ability to understand another person, the ability to integrate with the culture of other peoples, to respect it. Russians pay special attention to their attitude towards their neighbors: “It’s a bad thing to offend a neighbor,” “A close neighbor is better than distant relatives.”
One of the deepest features of the Russian character is religiosity; this has been reflected since ancient times in folklore, in proverbs: “To live is to serve God,” “God’s hand is strong - these proverbs say that God is omnipotent and helps believers in everything. In the minds of believers, God is the ideal of perfection; he is merciful, selfless, and wise: “God has much mercy.” God has a generous soul, he is glad to accept any person who turns to him, his love is immeasurably great: “Whoever is to God, to him is God,” “Whoever does good, God will repay him.”
Medieval art. Christianity and art.
In Western artistic culture, the first two significant trends differ in the Middle Ages.
1) The first direction is Romanesque art (10th-12th centuries). The concept “Romanesque” comes from the word “Roman”; in the architecture of religious buildings, the Romanesque era borrowed the fundamental principles of civil architecture. Romanesque art was distinguished by its simplicity and majesty.
The main role in the Romanesque style was given to harsh, fortress-like architecture: monastery complexes, churches, castles were located on elevated places, dominating the area. Churches were decorated with paintings and reliefs, expressing the power of God in conventional, expressive forms. At the same time, semi-fairy tales, images of animals and plants went back to folk art. Metal and wood processing, enamel, and miniatures have reached a high level of development.
In contrast to the Eastern centric type, a type of temple called a basilica developed in the West. The most important feature of Romanesque architecture is the presence of a stone vault. Its characteristic features are also thick walls cut through by small windows designed to absorb the thrust from the dome, if any, the predominance of horizontal divisions over vertical ones, mainly circular and semi-circular arches. (Liebmurg Cathedral in Germany, Abbey Maria Laach, Germany, Romanesque churches in Val-de-Boy)
2) The second direction is Gothic art. The concept of Gothic comes from the concept of barbarian. Gothic art was distinguished by its sublimity; Gothic cathedrals were characterized by a desire to rise upward and were characterized by rich external and internal decorum. Gothic art was distinguished by its mystical character and rich and complex symbolism. External wall system, a large area of the wall was occupied by windows, fine detailing.
Gothic architecture originated in France in the 12th century. In an effort to unload the interior space as much as possible, Gothic builders came up with a system of flying buttresses (inclined support arches) and buttresses placed outside, i.e. Gothic frame system. Now the space between the grasses was filled with thin walls covered with “stone lace” or colored stained glass windows in the form of pointed arches. The columns that now support the vaults have become thin and clustered. Main facade(a classic example is the Cathedral in Amiens) was usually framed on the sides by 2 towers, not symmetrical, but slightly different from each other. Above the entrance, as a rule, there is a huge stained glass rose window. (Cathedral in Chartres, France; Cathedral in Reims, France; Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris)
The influence of the church, which tried to subjugate the entire spiritual life of society, determined the appearance of medieval art in Western Europe. The main examples of medieval fine art were monuments of church architecture. The main task the artist was the embodiment of the divine principle, and of all human feelings, preference was given to suffering, for, according to the teachings of the church, this is a fire that purifies the soul. With unusual brightness, medieval artists depicted scenes of suffering and disaster. During the period from the 11th to the 12th centuries. In Western Europe, two architectural styles changed - Romanesque and Gothic. Romanesque monastic churches in Europe are very diverse in their structure and decoration. But they all retain the same architectural style; the church resembles a fortress, which is natural for the turbulent, troubled times of the early Middle Ages. Gothic style in architecture is associated with the development of medieval cities. The main phenomenon of Gothic art is the ensemble of the city cathedral, which was the center of the social and ideological life of the medieval city. Not only were religious rituals performed here, but public debates took place, the most important state acts were performed, lectures were given to university students, and cult dramas and mysteries were played out.
Romanesque and Gothic are two styles, two stages in the development of European architecture.
The architecture of the Middle Ages was dominated by two main styles: Romanesque (during the early Middle Ages) and Gothic - from the 12th century.
Gothic, Gothic style (from Italian gotico-Goths) is an artistic style in Western European art of the 12th-15th centuries. It arose on the basis of the folk traditions of the Germans, the achievements of Romanesque culture and the Christian worldview. It manifested itself in the construction of cathedrals with pointed roofs and the associated art of stone and wood carving, sculpture, stained glass, and became widespread in painting.
Romanesque style (French) gotap from lat. romanus - Roman) - a style direction in Western European art of the 10th-12th centuries, originating in ancient Roman culture; in architecture, the R. style is characterized by the use of vaulted and arched structures in buildings; simple strict and massive forms of serf character. The decor of large cathedrals used expressive multi-figure sculptural compositions on themes from the New Testament. It is distinguished by a high level of development in the processing of metal, wood, and enamel.
Romanesque architecture. In feudal agrarian Europe of that time, the knight's castle, monastery ensemble and temple were the main types of architectural structures. The emergence of the fortified dwelling of the ruler was a product of the feudal era. Wooden citadels began to be replaced by stone dungeons in the 11th century. These were tall rectangular towers that served the lord both as a home and a fortress. The leading role began to be played by towers connected by walls and grouped in the most vulnerable areas, which allowed even a small garrison to fight. Square towers were replaced by round ones, which provided a better firing radius. The castle included utility buildings, water supply and water collection tanks.
A new word in the art of the Western Middle Ages was spoken in France in the middle of the 12th century. Contemporaries called the innovation “French style”; descendants began to call it Gothic. The time of the rise and flowering of Gothic - the second half of the 12th and 13th centuries - coincided with the period when feudal society reached the apogee of its development.
Gothic as a style was the product of a combination of social changes of the era, its political and ideological aspirations. Gothic was introduced as a symbol of the Christian monarchy. The cathedral was the most important public place in the city and remained the personification of the “divine universe.” In the relationship of its parts there is a similarity with the construction of scholastic “sums”, and in the images there is a connection with knightly culture.
The essence of Gothic is the juxtaposition of opposites, the ability to unite abstract ideas and life. Major achievement gothic architecture became the allocation of a building frame in the building. In Gothic, the ribbed vault laying system changed. The ribs no longer completed the construction of the vault, but preceded it. The Gothic style rejects the ponderous, fortress-like Romanesque cathedrals. The attributes of the Gothic style were pointed arches and slender towers rising to the sky. Gothic cathedrals are grandiose structures.
Gothic architecture was a single whole with sculpture, painting, and applied arts subordinate to it. Particular emphasis was placed on the numerous statues. The proportions of the statues were greatly elongated, the expressions on their faces were spiritual, and their poses were noble.
Gothic cathedrals were intended not only for worship, but also for public meetings, holidays, and theatrical performances. The Gothic style extends to all areas of human life. This is how shoes with curved toes and cone-shaped hats become fashionable in clothing.
Medieval science and education in Western Europe.
Educational schemes in medieval Europe were based on the principles of ancient school tradition and academic disciplines.
2 stages: the initial level included grammar, dialectics and rhetoric; Level 2 - study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.
At the beginning of the 9th century. Charlemagne ordered the opening of schools in every diocese and monastery. They began to create textbooks, and opened access to schools for the laity.
In the 11th century parish and cathedral schools appeared. Due to the growth of cities, non-church education became an important cultural factor. It was not controlled by the church and provided more opportunities.
In the 12-13th century. universities are emerging. They consisted of a number of faculties: aristocratic, legal, medical, theological. Christianity determined the specifics of knowledge.
Medieval knowledge is not systematized. Theology or theology was central and universal. The mature Middle Ages contributed to the development of natural science knowledge. Interest in medicine appears, chemical compounds, instruments and installations are obtained. Roger Bacon - English philosopher and natural scientist, considered it possible to create flying and moving vehicles. In the later period, geographical works, updated maps and atlases appeared.
Theology, or theology- a set of religious doctrines on the essence and existence of God. Theology arises exclusively within the framework of such a worldview
Christianity is one of the three world religions (along with Buddhism and Islam), named after its founder Christ.
Inquisition - in the Catholic Church of the XIII-XIX centuries. church-police institution to combat heresy. The proceedings were conducted in secret, with the use of torture. Heretics were usually sentenced to be burned at the stake. The Inquisition was especially rampant in Spain.
Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system for constructing planets, according to which the center of the Universe was not the Earth (which corresponded to church canons), but the Sun. In 1530, he completed his work “On the Conversion of the Heavenly Spheres,” in which he outlined this theory, but, being a skilled politician, did not publish it and thus avoided accusations of heresy from the Inquisition. For more than a hundred years, Copernicus’s book was secretly circulated in manuscript, and the church pretended not to know about its existence. When Giordano Bruno began to popularize this work of Copernicus at public lectures, she could not remain silent.
Until the beginning of the 19th century, inquisitorial tribunals intervened in literally all areas of human activity.
In the 15th century, the Spanish Inquisition executed the mathematician Valmes just because he solved an equation of incredible complexity. And this, according to church authorities, was “inaccessible to human reason.”
The actions of the Inquisition set medicine back thousands of years. For centuries, the Catholic Church opposed surgery.
The Holy Inquisition could not ignore historians, philosophers, writers and even musicians. Cervantes, Beaumarchais, Molière, and even Raphael Santi, who painted numerous Madonnas and, at the end of his life, was appointed architect of St. Peter's Cathedral, had certain problems with the church.
The culture of the Western European Middle Ages covers more than twelve centuries of the difficult, extremely complex path traversed by the peoples of this region. During this era, the horizons of European culture were significantly expanded, the historical and cultural unity of Europe was formed, despite all the heterogeneity of processes in its individual parts, viable nations and states were formed, modern European languages were formed, works were created that enriched the history of world culture , significant scientific and technical progress has been achieved. The culture of the Middle Ages is an integral and natural part of global cultural development, which at the same time has its own deeply original content and original appearance.
The beginning of the formation of medieval culture. The early Middle Ages are sometimes called the “Dark Ages,” putting a certain pejorative connotation into this concept. Decline and barbarism into which the West was rapidly plunging at the end of the 5th-7th centuries. as a result of conquests and incessant wars, they were opposed not only to the achievements of Roman civilization, but also to the spiritual life of Byzantium, which did not survive such a tragic turning point during the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. But it was during the early Middle Ages that the cardinal problems that determined the future of Europe were solved. The first and most important of them is laying the foundations of European civilization, because in ancient times there was no “Europe” in the modern understanding as a kind of cultural and historical community with a common destiny in world history. It began to really take shape - ethnically, politically, economically and culturally - in the early Middle Ages as the fruit of the life of many peoples who had inhabited Europe for a long time and those who came again: the Greeks, Romans, Celts, Germans, Slavs, etc.
Paradoxically, it was the early Middle Ages, which did not produce achievements comparable to the heights of ancient culture or the mature Middle Ages, that marked the beginning of the European cultural history, which grew out of the interaction between the heritage of the decaying civilization of the Roman Empire, the Christianity it generated, and, on the other hand, the tribal, folk cultures of the barbarians. It was a process of painful synthesis, born from the merging of contradictory, sometimes mutually exclusive principles, the search for not only new content, but also new forms of culture, passing the baton of cultural development to its new carriers.
Even in late antiquity, Christianity became the unifying shell that could accommodate a variety of views, ideas and moods - from subtle theological doctrines to pagan superstitions and barbaric rituals. In essence, Christianity during the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages was a very receptive (to certain limits) form that met the needs of the mass consciousness of the era. This was one of the most important reasons for its gradual strengthening, its absorption of other ideological and cultural phenomena and their combination into a relatively unified structure. In this regard, the activity of the father of the church, the greatest theologian, Bishop of Hippo Aurelius Augustine, whose multifaceted work essentially outlined the boundaries of the spiritual space of the Middle Ages until the 13th century, when the theological system of Thomas Aquinas was created, was of great importance for the Middle Ages. . Augustine owns the most consistent substantiation of the dogma of the church, which played an important role in the formation of medieval Catholicism, Christian philosophy of history, developed by him in the essay “On the City of God,” and Christian psychology. The philosophical and pedagogical works of Augustine were of significant value for medieval culture. To understand the genesis of medieval culture, it is important to take into account that it was primarily formed in the region where, not long ago, there was the center of a powerful Roman civilization, which could not disappear historically at once, at a time when social relations, institutions, and culture continued to exist. , generated by her, the people fed by her were alive. Even in the most difficult time for Western Europe, the Roman school tradition was not stopped. The Middle Ages perceived its most important element as a system of seven liberal arts, divided into two levels: the lower, initial - trivium, which included grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, and the highest - quadrivium, which included arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. One of the most widespread textbooks in the Middle Ages was created by an African Neoplatonist of the 5th century. Marcian Capella. It was his essay “On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury.” The most important means of cultural continuity between antiquity and the Middle Ages was the Latin language, which retained its significance as the language of the church and state office-work, international communication and culture and served as the basis for the subsequently formed Romance languages.
The most striking phenomena in the culture of the late 5th - first half of the 7th century. associated with the assimilation of the ancient heritage, which became a breeding ground for revitalization cultural life in Ostrogothic Italy and Visigothic Spain.
Master of the Office (first minister) of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric, Severinus Boethius (c. 480-525) is one of the most revered teachers of the Middle Ages. His treatises on arithmetic and music, works on logic and theology, translations of Aristotle’s logical works became the foundation of the medieval system of education and philosophy. Boethius is often called the “father of scholasticism.” Boethius's brilliant career was suddenly interrupted: following a false denunciation, he was thrown into prison and then executed. Before his death, he wrote a short essay in verse and prose, “On the Consolation of Philosophy,” which became one of the most widely read works of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
The idea of combining Christian theology and rhetorical culture determined the direction of the activities of the quaestor (secretary) and master of the office of the Ostrogothic kings, Flavius Cassiodorus (c. 490 - c. 585). He hatched plans to create the first university in the West, which, however, were not destined to come true. He is the author of “Varia,” a unique collection of documents, business and diplomatic correspondence, which has become an example of Latin style for many centuries. In the south of Italy, on his estate, Cassiodorus founded the Vivarium monastery - a cultural center that united a school and a book copying workshop. (scriptorium), library. The vivarium became a model for Benedictine monasteries, which, starting from the second half of the 6th century. turn into guardians of cultural tradition in the West until the era of the developed Middle Ages. Among them, the most famous was the Montecassino monastery in Italy.
Visigothic Spain nominated Isidore of Seville (c. 570-636), who became the first medieval encyclopedist. His main work, “Etymology,” in 20 books, is a collection of what has been preserved from ancient knowledge.
One should not, however, think that the assimilation of the ancient heritage was carried out unhindered and on a large scale. The continuity in the culture of that time was not and could not be a complete continuity of the achievements of classical antiquity. The struggle was to preserve only a small part of the cultural values and knowledge of the previous Shokha. But this was also extremely important for the formation of medieval culture, for what was preserved formed an important part of its foundation and concealed within itself the possibilities of creative development, which were realized later.
At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century. Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) sharply opposed the idea of admitting pagan wisdom into the world of Christian spiritual life, condemning vain worldly knowledge. His position triumphed in the spiritual life of Western Europe for several centuries, and subsequently found adherents among church leaders until the end of the Middle Ages. The name of Pope Gregory I is associated with the development of Latin hagiographic literature, which perfectly met the needs of the mass consciousness of people in the early Middle Ages. The lives of saints have long become a favorite genre in these centuries of social upheaval, famine, disasters and wars, and the saint has become a new hero, thirsty for a miracle, tormented by the terrible reality of man.
From the second half of the 7th century. cultural life in Western Europe is in complete decline, it barely glimmers in monasteries, somewhat more intensely in Ireland, from where monastic teachers “came” to the continent (see Chapter 7).
The extremely scarce data from sources does not allow us to recreate any complete picture of the cultural life of the barbarian tribes that stood at the origins of medieval civilization in Europe. However, it is generally accepted that by the time of the Great Migration of Peoples, in the first centuries of the Middle Ages, the beginning of the formation of the heroic epic of the peoples of Western and Northern Europe (Old German, Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, Irish), which replaced their history, dates back.
The barbarians of the early Middle Ages brought a unique vision and feeling of the world, still full of primitive power, nourished by the ancestral ties of man and the community to which he belonged, warlike energy, a sense of inseparability from nature, the indivisibility of the world of people and gods.
The unbridled and gloomy fantasy of the Germans and Celts populated the forests, hills and rivers with evil dwarfs, werewolf monsters, dragons and fairies. Gods and human heroes wage a constant struggle against evil forces. At the same time, the gods are powerful sorcerers and wizards. These ideas were reflected in the bizarre ornaments of the barbaric animal style in art, in which animal figures lost their integrity and definition, as if “flowing” into one another in arbitrary combinations of patterns and turning into unique magical symbols. But the gods of barbarian mythology are the personification of not only natural, but also social forces. The head of the German pantheon Wo-tan (Odin) is the god of the storm, the whirlwind, but he is also a warrior leader standing at the head of the heroic heavenly army. The souls of the Germans who fell on the battlefield rush to him in bright Valhalla in order to be accepted into Wotan’s squad. During the Christianization of the barbarians, their gods did not die; they were transformed and merged with the cults of local saints or joined the ranks of demons.
The Germans also brought with them a system of moral values, formed in the depths of the patriarchal clan society, where special importance was attached to the ideals of fidelity, military courage with a sacred attitude towards the military leader, and ritual. The psychological make-up of the Germans, Celts and other barbarians was characterized by open emotionality and unrestrained intensity in the expression of feelings. All this also left its mark on the emerging medieval culture.
The early Middle Ages was a time of growing self-awareness of barbarian peoples who came to the forefront of European history. It was then that the first written “histories” were created, covering the actions not of the Romans, but of the barbarians: “Getica” by the historian of the Goths Jordan (VI century), “History of the Franks” by Gregory of Tours (second half of the 6th century), “History of the Kings of the Goths , Vandals and Sueves" by Isidore of Seville (first third of the 7th century), "Ecclesiastical History of the People of the Angles" by Bede the Venerable (late 7th - beginning of the 8th century), "History of the Lombards" by Paul the Deacon (8th century).
The formation of culture in the early Middle Ages was a complex process of synthesis of late antique, Christian and barbarian traditions. During this period, a certain type of spiritual life of Western European society crystallized, the main role in which began to belong to the Christian religion and church.
Carolingian revival. The first tangible fruits of this interaction were obtained during the Carolingian Renaissance - the rise of cultural life that took place under Charlemagne and his immediate successors. For Charlemagne, the political ideal was the empire of Constantine the Great. In cultural and ideological terms, he sought to consolidate a multi-tribal state based on the Christian religion. This is evidenced by the fact that reforms in the cultural sphere began with the comparison of various copies of the Bible and the establishment of its single canonical text for the entire Carolingian state. At the same time, a reform of the liturgy was carried out, its uniformity and compliance with the Roman model was established.
The reformist aspirations of the sovereign coincided with the deep processes taking place in society, which needed to expand the circle of educated people capable of contributing to the practical implementation of new political and social tasks. Charlemagne, although he himself, according to the testimony of his biographer Einhard, was never able to learn to write, was constantly concerned about the development of education in the state. Around 787, the “Capitulary on Sciences” was published, obliging the creation of schools in all dioceses, at each monastery. Not only clergy, but also the children of lay people were supposed to study there. Along with this, a writing reform was carried out, and textbooks were compiled for various school disciplines.
Manuscripts of the Carolingian period were decorated with miniatures, very diverse in style - reminiscent of the Hellenistic tradition (Aachen Gospel), emotionally rich, executed in an almost expressionist manner (Ebo's Gospel), light and transparent (Utrecht Psalter). The main center of education was the court academy in Aachen. The most educated people of the then Europe were invited here. The largest figure in the Carolingian Renaissance was Alcuin, a native of Britain. He called not to despise “human (i.e., non-theological) sciences” and to teach children literacy and philosophy so that they could reach the heights of wisdom. Most of Alcuin's works were written for pedagogical purposes; their favorite form was a dialogue between a teacher and a student or two students; he used riddles and answers, simple periphrases and complex allegories. Among Alcuin's students were prominent figures of the Carolingian Renaissance, in particular, the encyclopedist writer Rabanus the Maurus. At the court of Charlemagne, a unique historical school developed, the most prominent representatives of which were Paul the Deacon, the author of the “History of the Lombards,” and Einhard, who compiled the “Biography” of Charlemagne.
After the death of Charles, the cultural movement that he inspired quickly declined, schools were closed, secular trends gradually faded away, and cultural life again concentrated in monasteries. In the monastery scriptoria, the works of ancient authors were rewritten and preserved for future generations, but the main occupation of the learned monks was still not ancient literature, but theology.
Completely apart from the culture of the 9th century. stands a native of Ireland, one of the greatest philosophers of the European Middle Ages, John Scotus Eriugena. Relying on Neoplatonic philosophy, in particular on the writings of the Byzantine thinker Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, he came to original pantheistic conclusions. What saved him from reprisals was that the radicalism of his views was not understood by his contemporaries, who had little interest in philosophy. Only in the 13th century. Eriugena's views were condemned as heretical.
9th century gave very interesting examples of monastic religious poetry. The secular line in literature is represented by “historical poems” and “doxologies” in honor of kings, and squad poetry. At that time, the first recordings of German folklore and its translation into Latin were made, which later served as the basis for the German epic “Valtarius” compiled in Latin.
At the end of the early Middle Ages in the north of Europe - in Iceland and Norway, the poetry of the skalds, which had no analogues in world literature, flourished, who were not only poets and performers at the same time, but also Vikings and warriors. Their laudatory, lyrical or “topical” songs are a necessary element in the life of the king’s court and his squad.
A response to the needs of the mass consciousness of the era was the dissemination of literature such as the lives of saints and visions. They bore the imprint of popular consciousness, mass psychology, their inherent figurative structure, and system of ideas.
By the 10th century The impulse given to the cultural life of Europe by the Carolingian revival dries up due to incessant wars and civil strife, and the political decline of the state. A period of “cultural silence” ensues, lasting almost until the end of the century and giving way to a brief period of upsurge, the so-called Ottonian Renaissance. After him, in the cultural life of Western Europe there will no longer be periods of such deep decline as from the middle of the 7th century. until the beginning of the 9th century. and for several decades in the 10th century. The 19th and 19th centuries will be the time when medieval culture takes on its classical forms.
Worldview. Theology, scholasticism, mysticism. Christianity was the ideological core of culture and the entire spiritual life of the Middle Ages. Theology, or religious philosophy, became the highest form of ideology, intended for the elite, educated people, while for the huge mass of illiterate people, for the “professionals,” ideology acted primarily in the form of a “practical,” cult religion. The fusion of theology and other levels of religious consciousness created a single ideological and psychological complex covering all layers of feudal society.
Medieval philosophy, like the entire culture of feudal Western Europe, from the first stages of its development reveals a gravitation towards universalism. It is formed on the basis of Latin Christian thought, revolving around the problem of the relationship between God, the world and man, discussed in patristics - the teachings of the church fathers of the 2nd-8th centuries. The specifics of medieval consciousness dictated that not even the most radical thinker objectively denied or could deny the primacy of spirit over matter, of God over the world. However, the interpretation of the problem of the relationship between faith and reason was by no means unambiguous. In the 11th century the ascetic and theologian Peter Damiani categorically stated that reason is insignificant before faith, philosophy can only be “the servant of theology.” He was opposed by Berengary of Tours, who defended the human mind and, in his rationalism, went so far as to openly mock the church.
The 11th century is the time of the birth of scholasticism as a broad intellectual movement. This name is derived from the Latin word schola (school) and literally means “school philosophy,” which rather indicates the place of its birth than its content. Scholasticism is a philosophy that grows out of theology and is inextricably linked with it, but not identical to it. Its essence is the understanding of the dogmatic premises of Christianity from a rationalistic position and with the help of logical tools. This is due to the fact that the central place in scholasticism was occupied by the struggle around the problem universals - general concepts. In her interpretation, three main directions were identified: realism, nominalism And conceptualism. Realists argued that universals exist from eternity, residing in the divine mind. Connecting with matter, they are realized in specific things. Nominalists believed that general concepts are extracted by reason from the comprehension of individual, concrete things. An intermediate position was occupied by conceptualists, who considered general concepts as something existing in things. This seemingly abstract philosophical dispute had very specific implications for theology, and it was no coincidence that the church condemned nominalism, which sometimes led to heresy, and supported moderate realism.
The 12th century is sometimes called the century of “medieval humanism”, “medieval renaissance”. Such definitions may cause justified objections, but they capture the special significance of this time in the spiritual life and culture of the Western European Middle Ages. It was then that interest in the ancient heritage grew, rationalism strengthened, European secular literature emerged, mass religiosity changed towards the individualization of faith; a special culture of rising cities is emerging. And all these processes are permeated by the search for human personality.
In the 12th century. Out of the confrontation between different trends in scholasticism, open resistance to the authority of the church grew. Its exponent was Peter Abelard (1079-1142), whom his contemporaries called “the most brilliant mind of his century.” A student of the nominalist Roscelin of Compiegne, Abelard, in his youth, defeated the then popular realist philosopher Guillaume of Champeaux in a debate, leaving no stone unturned in his arguments. The most inquisitive and most daring students began to gather around Abelard; he became famous as a brilliant teacher and an invincible speaker in philosophical debates. Abelard rationalized the relationship between faith and reason, making understanding a mandatory precondition for faith. In his work “Yes and No,” Abelard developed the methods of dialectics, which significantly advanced scholasticism. Abelard was a supporter of conceptualism. However, although in a philosophical sense he did not always draw the most radical conclusions, he was often overwhelmed by the desire to bring the interpretation of Christian dogmas to its logical conclusion, which sometimes led him to heretical statements.
Abelard's opponent was Bernard of Clairvaux, who during his lifetime gained the glory of a saint, one of the most prominent representatives of medieval mysticism. In the 12th century. mysticism became widespread and became a powerful movement within the framework of scholasticism. It expressed an exalted attraction to God the savior; the limit of mystical meditation was the merging of man with the creator. The philosophizing mysticism of Bernard of Clairvaux and other philosophical schools found a response in secular literature, in various heresies of a mystical kind. However, the essence of the clash between Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux is not so much in the dissimilarity of their philosophical positions, but in the fact that Abelard embodied the opposition to the authority of the church, and Bernard acted as its defender and major figure, as an apologist for church organization and discipline. As a result, Abelard's views were condemned at church councils in 1121 and 1140, and he himself ended his life in a monastery.
In philosophy, growing interest in the Greco-Roman heritage is expressed in a more in-depth study of ancient thinkers. Their works are beginning to be translated into Latin, primarily the works of Aristotle, as well as treatises by Euclid, Ptolemy, Hippocrates, Galen and other ancient authors preserved in Greek and Arabic manuscripts.
For the fate of Aristotelian philosophy in Western Europe, it was essential that it was, as it were, re-appropriated not in its original form, but through Byzantine and especially Arab commentators, primarily Averroes (Ibn Rushd), who gave it a kind of “materialistic” interpretation. Of course, it is wrong to talk about genuine materialism in the Middle Ages. All attempts at “materialistic” interpretation, even the most radical ones, which denied the immortality of the human soul or affirmed the eternity of the world, were carried out within the framework of theism, i.e. recognition of the absolute existence of God.
Aristotle's teaching quickly gained enormous authority in the scientific centers of Italy, France, England, and Spain. However, at the beginning of the 13th century. it met with sharp resistance in Paris from theologians who relied on the Augustinian tradition. A number of official bans on Aristotelianism followed, and the views of supporters of the radical interpretation of Aristotle - Amaury of Vienna and David of Dinan - were condemned. However, Aristotleism in Europe was gaining strength so rapidly that by the middle of the 13th century. the church turned out to be powerless against this onslaught and faced the need to assimilate Aristotelian teaching. The Dominicans were involved in this task. Albert the Great began to develop it, and the synthesis of Aristotelianism and Catholic theology was attempted by his student Thomas Aquinas (1125/26-1274), whose activity became the pinnacle and result of the theological-rationalistic searches of mature scholasticism. Thomas's teaching was initially greeted by the church rather warily, and some of its provisions were even condemned. But already from the end of the 13th century. Thomism becomes the official doctrine of the Catholic Church.
The ideological opponents of Thomas Aquinas were the Averroists - followers of the Arab thinker Averroes, who taught at the Faculty of Arts at the University of Paris. They demanded the liberation of philosophy from the interference of theology and dogma. Essentially, they insisted on the separation of reason from faith. Central to the Averroist doctrine was the idea of a single universal mind, common to the entire human race. Averroists Siger of Brabant and Boethius of Dacia also came to conclusions about the eternity and uncreatedness of the world and the denial of the immortality of the individual human soul. Their teaching was condemned by the Catholic Church.
In the 13th century. The mystical line in philosophy was developed by Thomas Aquinas’ contemporary Bonaventure, who opposed Thomistic rationalism, relying on the Augustinian-Platonic tradition. Then in the 14th century. The basic postulates of medieval Neoplatonism were given a sharpened form by the Dominican from Germany Meister Eckhart, who absolutized the impersonality and lack of qualitative characteristics of the creative principle. The pantheistic tendencies of Eckhart's teachings were especially clearly manifested in the assertion that the human soul is consubstantial with God and is an instrument of his eternal generation of himself. Eckhart's follower N. Ruysbroeck in the Netherlands (14th century) attached decisive importance to a person's internal religious experiences in ascent to God. German mysticism either locked itself in the depths of the human spirit, cutting it off from the world and the church, or, returning to the world, drew closer to pantheism and also devalued the church and cult.
In the XIV century. Orthodox scholasticism, which asserted the possibility of reconciling reason and faith on the basis of the former’s subordination to revelation, was criticized by the radical English philosophers Duns Scotus and William Ockham, who defended the position of nominalism. Duns Scotus, and then Ockham and his students demanded a decisive distinction between the spheres of faith and reason, theology and philosophy. Theology was denied the right to interfere in the field of philosophy and experimental knowledge. Ockham spoke about the eternity of motion and time, about the infinity of the Universe, and developed the doctrine of experience as the foundation and source of knowledge. Occamism was condemned by the church, Occam's books were burned.
The church’s struggle against Ockhamism contributed to the development and spread of the religion in the 15th century. his other direction was formal-logical, the focus of which was the study of signs-“terms” as independent logical categories. Scholasticism degenerated into an abstract play on words. The verbal balancing act, which had lost its positive meaning, completely compromised her.
The largest thinker who influenced the formation of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance was Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), a native of Germany who spent the end of his life in Rome as vicar general at the papal court. He tried to develop a universal understanding of the principles of the world and the structure of the Universe, based not on orthodox Christianity, but on its dialectical-pantheistic interpretation. Nicholas of Cusa insisted on separating the subject of rational knowledge (the study of nature) from theology, thereby dealing a significant blow to orthodox scholasticism.
Education. Schools and universities. The Middle Ages inherited from antiquity the basis on which education was built. These were the seven liberal arts. Grammar was considered the “mother of all sciences,” dialectics provided formal logical knowledge, the foundations of philosophy and logic, rhetoric taught how to speak correctly and expressively. “Mathematical disciplines” - arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy were thought of as sciences about numerical relationships that underlay world harmony.
From the 11th century The steady rise of medieval schools begins, the education system is improved. Schools were divided into monastic, cathedral (at city cathedrals), and parish. With the growth of cities, the emergence of an ever-increasing layer of townspeople and the flourishing of guilds, secular, city private, as well as guild and municipal schools, not subject to the jurisdiction of the church, are gaining strength. The students of church schools were itinerant schoolchildren - vagantes, or goliards, who came from an urban, peasant, knightly environment, and the lower clergy.
Education in schools was conducted in Latin, only in the 14th century. schools teaching in national languages appeared. The Middle Ages did not know a stable division of schools into primary, secondary and higher, taking into account the specifics of children's and youth's perception and psychology. Religious in content and form, education was verbal and rhetorical in nature. The beginnings of mathematics and natural sciences were presented fragmentarily, descriptively, often in a fantastic interpretation. Centers for teaching craft skills in the 12th century. become workshops.
In the XII-XIII centuries. Western Europe was experiencing economic and cultural growth. The development of cities as centers of crafts and trade, the expansion of European horizons, and acquaintance with the culture of the East, primarily Byzantine and Arab, served as incentives for improving medieval education. Cathedral schools in the largest urban centers of Europe turned into universal schools, and then into universities, received their name from the Latin word universitas - totality, community. In the 13th century. such higher schools existed in Bologna, Montpellier, Palermo, Paris, Oxford, Salerno and other cities. By the 15th century There were about 60 universities in Europe.
The university had legal, administrative, and financial autonomy, which was granted to it by special documents of the sovereign or pope. The external independence of the university was combined with strict regulation and discipline of internal life. The university was divided into faculties. The junior faculty, compulsory for all students, was artistic (from the Latin artes - arts), in which the “seven liberal arts” were fully studied, followed by legal, medical, theological (the latter did not exist in all universities) . The largest university was the University of Paris. Students from Western and Central Europe also flocked to Spain and Italy to receive education. The schools and universities of Cordoba, Seville, Salamanca, Malaga and Valencia provided more extensive and deeper knowledge in philosophy, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, astronomy, and Bologna and Padua rightfully so.
In the XIV-XV centuries. The geography of universities is expanding significantly. Get development collegium(hence the colleges). Initially, this was the name of the student dormitories, but gradually the colleges are turning into centers for classes, lectures, and debates. Founded in 1257 by the confessor of the French king, Robert de Sorbon, the college, called the Sorbonne, gradually grew and strengthened its authority so much that the entire University of Paris began to be named after it.
Universities accelerated the process of formation of a secular intelligentsia in Western Europe. They were real nurseries of knowledge and played a vital role in the cultural development of society. However, by the end of the 15th century. There is a certain aristocratization of universities; an increasing number of students, teachers (masters) and university professors come from privileged strata of society. For some time, conservative forces gained the upper hand in universities.
With the development of schools and universities, the demand for books is expanding. In the early Middle Ages, a book was a luxury item. Books were written on parchment, a specially woven calfskin. Sheets of parchment were sewn together using thin strong ropes and placed in a binder made of boards covered with leather, sometimes decorated with precious stones and metals. The text was decorated with hand-drawn capital letters - initials, headers, and later - magnificent miniatures. From the 12th century books become cheaper, city workshops for copying books are opened, in which not monks, but artisans work. Since the 14th century Paper began to be widely used in the production of books. The book production process is simplified and unified, which was especially important for the preparation of book printing, the appearance of which in the 40s of the 15th century. (its inventor was the German master Johannes Gutenberg) made the book truly widespread in Europe and entailed significant changes in cultural life.
Until the 12th century. books were mainly concentrated in church libraries. In the XII-XV centuries. Numerous libraries appeared at universities, royal courts, large feudal lords, clergy and wealthy citizens.
Knowledge about nature. By the 13th century. The origin of interest is usually attributed to experimental knowledge in Western Europe. Until then, abstract knowledge based on pure speculation, which was often very fantastic in content, prevailed here. Between practical knowledge and philosophy lay a gulf that seemed insurmountable. Natural scientific methods of cognition were not developed. Grammatical, rhetorical and logical approaches prevailed. It is no coincidence that the medieval encyclopedist Vincent of Beauvais wrote: “The science of nature has as its subject the invisible causes of visible things.” Communication with the material world was carried out through cumbersome, often fantastic abstractions. A unique example of this is alchemy. To medieval man, the world seemed knowable, but full of unusual things, inhabited by strange creatures, like people with dog heads. The line between the real and the higher, supersensible world was often blurred.
However, life required not illusory, but practical knowledge. In the 12th century. Some progress has been made in the field of mechanics and mathematics. This aroused the fears of orthodox theologians, who called the practical sciences “adulterous.” At Oxford University, natural science treatises of ancient and Arab scientists were translated and commented on.
Robert Grosseteste made an attempt to apply a mathematical approach to the study of nature. In the 13th century. Oxford professor Roger Bacon, starting with scholastic studies, ultimately came to the study of nature, to the denial of authorities, strongly preferring experience over purely speculative argumentation. Bacon achieved significant results in optics, physics, and chemistry. His reputation as a magician and wizard was strengthened. It was said about him that he created a talking copper head or a metal man, and put forward the idea of building a bridge by condensing air. He made statements that it was possible to make self-propelled ships and chariots, vehicles flying through the air or moving unhindered along the bottom of the sea or river. Bacon's life was full of vicissitudes and hardships; he was condemned by the church more than once and was imprisoned for long periods of time.
His work was continued by William of Ockham and his students Nikolai Hautrecourt, Buridan and Nikolai Orezmsky (Oresme), who did a lot for the further development of physics, mechanics, and astronomy. Thus, Oresme, for example, came close to the discovery of the law of falling bodies, developed the doctrine of the daily rotation of the earth, and substantiated the idea of using coordinates. Nikolai Hautrecourt was close to atomism.
“Educational enthusiasm” captured various layers of society. In the Kingdom of Sicily, where various sciences and arts flourished, the activity of translators who turned to the philosophical and natural science works of Greek and Arab authors developed widely. Under the patronage of the Sicilian sovereigns, the medical school in Salerno flourished, from which the famous “Salerno Codex” of Arnold da Villanova came out. It gave various instructions on maintaining health, descriptions of the medicinal properties of various plants, poisons and antidotes, etc.
Alchemists, engaged in the search for the “philosopher’s stone”, capable of turning base metals into gold, made a number of important discoveries - the properties of various substances were studied, numerous ways of influencing them, various alloys and chemical compounds, acids, alkalis, mineral paints, instruments and installations for experiments were created and improved: alembic, chemical furnaces, apparatus for filtration and distillation, etc.
The geographical knowledge of Europeans was significantly enriched. Back in the 13th century. The Vivaldi brothers from Genoa tried to go around the West African coast. The Venetian Marco Polo made a many-year journey to China and Central Asia, describing it in his “Book,” which was distributed in Europe in many copies in various languages. In the XIV-XV centuries. quite numerous descriptions of various lands made by travelers appear, maps are improved, and geographic atlases are compiled. All this was of no small importance for the preparation of the Great Geographical Discoveries.
The place of history in the medieval worldview. Historical ideas played an important role in the spiritual life of the Middle Ages. In that era, history was not considered as a science or as entertaining reading; it was an essential part of the worldview.
Various kinds of “histories”, chronicles, chronicles, biographies of kings, descriptions of their deeds and other historical works were favorite genres of medieval literature. This was largely due to the fact that Christianity attached great importance to history. The Christian religion originally claimed that its basis was the Old and New Testament- fundamentally historical. Human existence unfolds in time, has its beginning (the act of creation) and its end - the second coming of Christ, when the Last Judgment takes place and the goal of history is realized. History itself was presented as God's way of saving humanity.
In feudal society, the historian, chronicler, chronicler was thought of as “a person who connects times.” History was a means of self-knowledge of society and a guarantor of its ideological and social stability, because it affirmed its universality and regularity in the change of generations, in the world-historical process. This is especially clearly seen in such “classical” works of the historical genre as the chronicles of Otgon of Freisingen, Guibert of Nojan, etc. Perhaps the largest historical work of the European Middle Ages was “Heimskringla” (“Circle of the Earth”) by the Icelander Snorri Sturluson, dedicated to the history of Norway.
Universal “historicism” was combined with a surprising, at first glance, lack of a sense of specific historical distance among medieval people. They represented the past in the appearance and costumes of their era, seeing in it not what distinguished people and events of ancient times from themselves, but what seemed to them common, universal. The past seemed to become part of their own historical reality. Alexander the Great was portrayed as a medieval knight, and the biblical kings ruled in the manner of feudal sovereigns.
In the 13th century. In medieval historiography, new trends emerged related to the development of cities. They, in particular, were reflected in the “Chronicle” of the Italian Franciscan Salimbene, which was distinguished by a keen interest in the events of worldly life, subtle observation and rationalism in explaining the causes and consequences of events, and the presence of an autobiographical element.
Heroic epic. The keeper of history, collective memory, a kind of life and behavioral standard, a means of ideological and aesthetic self-affirmation was the heroic epic, which concentrated in itself the most important aspects of spiritual life, ideals and aesthetic values, and the poetics of medieval peoples. The roots of the heroic epic of Western Europe go deep into the barbarian era. This is primarily evidenced by the plot outline of many epic works; it is based on the events of the time of the Great Migration of Peoples.
Questions about the origin of the heroic epic, its dating, the relationship between collective and authorial creativity in its creation are still controversial in science. The first records of epic works in Western Europe date back to the 8th-9th centuries. The early stage of epic poetry is associated with the development of early feudal war poetry - Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, Old Norse - which has survived in a few fragments.
The epic of the developed Middle Ages was folk-patriotic in nature; at the same time, it reflected not only general human values, but also specific feudal ones. It idealizes ancient heroes in the spirit of knightly-Christian ideology, and the motive of the struggle “for the right faith” arises, as if reinforcing the ideal of defending the fatherland.
Epic works, as a rule, are structurally holistic and universal. Each of them is the embodiment of a certain picture of the world and covers many aspects of the heroes’ lives. Hence the displacement of the real and the fantastic. The epic was probably familiar to every member of medieval society in one form or another.
In Western European epic, two layers can be distinguished: historical (heroic tales with a real historical basis) and fairy tales, closer to folklore.
The recording of the Anglo-Saxon epic “The Tale of Beowulf” dates back to approximately 1000. It tells the story of a young warrior from the Gaut people who performs heroic deeds, defeats monsters and dies in a fight with a dragon. Fantastic adventures unfold against a real historical background, reflecting the process of feudalization among the peoples of Northern Europe.
The Icelandic sagas are among the famous monuments of world literature. The Elder Edda includes nineteen Old Icelandic epic songs that preserve the features of the most ancient stages in the development of verbal art. "Younger Edda", belonging to the skald poet of the 13th century. Snorri Sturluson is a kind of guide to the poetic art of the skalds with a vivid presentation of Icelandic pagan mythological legends, rooted in ancient common Germanic mythology.
The French epic work “The Song of Roland” and the Spanish “Song of My Cid” are based on real historical events: the first is the battle of a Frankish detachment with enemies in the Roncesval Gorge in 778, the second is one of the episodes of the Re-Conquest . These works have very strong patriotic motives, which allows us to draw certain parallels between them and the Russian epic work “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” The patriotic duty of idealized heroes turns out to be above all else. The real military-political situation in epic tales acquires the scale of a universal event, and through such hyperbolization, ideals are affirmed that outgrow the framework of their era and become human values “for all time.”
The heroic epic of Germany “The Song of the Nibelungs” is much more mythologized. In it we also meet heroes who have historical prototypes— Etzel (Attila), Dietrich of Berne (Theodoric), Burgundian King Gunther, Queen Brunnhilde, etc. The story about them is intertwined with plots in which Siegfried (Sigurd) is the hero; his adventures are reminiscent of ancient heroic tales. He defeats the terrible dragon Fafnir, who guards the treasures of the Nibe-lungs, and accomplishes other feats, but ultimately dies.
Associated with a certain type of historical understanding of the world, the heroic epic of the Middle Ages was a means of ritually symbolic reflection and experience of reality, which is characteristic of both the West and the East. This revealed a certain typological similarity of medieval cultures from different regions of the world.
Knightly culture. A striking and often romanticized page in the cultural life of the Middle Ages was the knightly culture. Its creator and bearer was the military-aristocratic class, which originated in the early Middle Ages and reached its peak in the 11th-14th centuries. The ideology of chivalry has its roots, on the one hand, in the depths of self-awareness of barbarian peoples, and on the other hand, in the concept of service developed by Christianity, which was initially interpreted as purely religious, but in the Middle Ages acquired a much wider meaning and spread to the area of purely secular relations, up to serving the lady of the heart.
Loyalty to the lord formed the core of the knightly ethos (standards of conduct). Betrayal and perfidy were considered the gravest sin for a knight and entailed exclusion from the corporation. War was the profession of a knight, but gradually knighthood began to consider itself generally a champion of justice. In fact, justice was understood in a very unique way and extended only to a very narrow circle of people, having a clearly expressed estate-corporate character. Suffice it to recall the frank statement of the troubadour Bertrand de Born: “I love to see people starving, naked, suffering, not warmed.”
The code of chivalry required many virtues from those who must follow it, for a knight, in the words of Raymond Lull, the author of a famous instruction, is one who “acts nobly and leads a noble lifestyle.” The emergence of courtly (court) culture, a special style of behavior, way of life, and expression of feelings is associated with knighthood. The cult of the lady has become the most important element of courtliness. The chosen one of the heart was worshiped as a goddess, she was sung in beautiful poetry, and knightly deeds were performed in her honor.
In the knight's life, much was deliberately exposed. Bravery, generosity, nobility, which few people knew about, had no price. The knight constantly strived for primacy, for glory. The whole Christian world should have known about his exploits and love. Hence the external brilliance of knightly culture, its special attention to ritual, paraphernalia, symbolism of color, objects, and etiquette. Knightly tournaments, imitating real battles, acquired special pomp in the 13th-14th centuries, when they brought together the flower of knighthood from different parts of Europe.
At the end of the 11th century. Troubadours—poet-knights—appear in Provence. They not only composed poems, mainly about love, but also often sang them with musical accompaniment. One of the first troubadours was Duke of Aquitaine William IX. In the 12th century. The troubadour Bernard de Ventadorn gained great fame, in whose work courtly lyrics found their most complete expression as the poetry of the feudal court and the ceremonial light associated with it. Giraut de Borneil was called “Master of Poets” (last third of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century). In courtly poetry one can hear the voices of not only male troubadours, but also women - Beatrice de Dia, Marie of Champagne. Like the brave heroes of chivalric novels, they resolutely declare their rights to equality with the stronger sex.
In the 12th century. poetry truly becomes the “master” of European literature. The passion for it spreads in the north of France, where trouvères appear, in Germany, and on the Iberian Peninsula. In Germany, poet-knights were called minnesingers, among them the most famous were Wolfram von Eschenbach, Hartmann von Aue, Walter von der Vogelweide.
Knightly literature was not only a means of expressing the self-consciousness of chivalry and its ideals, but also actively shaped them. The feedback was so strong that medieval chroniclers, when describing battles or exploits of real people, did so in accordance with models from chivalric romances, which, having emerged in the mid-12th century, became a central phenomenon of secular culture over several decades. They were created in vernacular languages, the action developed as a series of adventures of the heroes. One of the main sources of Western European knightly (courtly) romance was the Celtic epic about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. From it was born the most beautiful story about love and death - the story of Tristan and Isolde, which will forever remain in the treasury of human culture. The heroes of this Breton cycle are Lancelot and Perceval, Palmerin and Amidis and others, according to the creators of the novels, among whom the most famous was the French poet of the 12th century. Chrétien de Troyes, embodied the highest human virtues, which belonged not to the otherworldly, but to earthly existence. This was especially clearly expressed in the new understanding of love, which was the center and driving force of any chivalric romance. One of the common motifs of the chivalric romance is the search for the Holy Grail - the cup in which, according to legend, the blood of Christ was collected. The Grail has become a symbol of higher spirituality.
In the XIV century. in the ideology of chivalry, a painful gap between dream and reality begins to grow. The courtly novel is gradually declining. As the importance of the military class diminished, chivalric romances increasingly lost touch with real life. Their plots became more fantastic and implausible, their style became more pretentious, and religious motifs intensified. An attempt to revive the chivalric romance with its heroic pathos belongs to the English nobleman Thomas Malory. The novel “The Death of Arthur,” written by him on the basis of ancient tales about the Knights of the Round Table, is an outstanding monument of English prose of the 15th century. However, trying to glorify chivalry, the author unwittingly reflected in his work the features of the decomposition of the class system and the tragic hopelessness of his generation.
Caste isolation was manifested in the creation in the XIV-XV centuries. various knightly orders, entry into which was accompanied by magnificent ceremonies. The game replaced reality. The decline of chivalry was expressed in deep pessimism, uncertainty about the future, and the glorification of death as deliverance.
Urban culture. From the 11th century Cities are becoming centers of cultural life in Western Europe. The anti-church freedom-loving orientation of urban culture, its connections with folk art, were most clearly manifested in the development of urban literature, which from its very inception was created in folk dialects in contrast to the dominant church Latin-language literature. In turn, urban literature contributed to the process of transforming folk dialects into national languages, which developed in the 11th–13th centuries. in all Western European countries.
In the XII-XIII centuries. the religiosity of the masses ceased to be predominantly passive. The huge “silent majority” began to transform from an object of church influence into a subject of spiritual life. The defining phenomena in this area were not the theological disputes of the church elite, but the seething, fraught with heresies, popular religiosity. The demand for “mass” literature increased, which at that time included the lives of saints, stories of visions and miracles. Compared to the early Middle Ages, they became more psychologized and their artistic elements intensified. Beloved " folk book"became compiled in the 13th century. The “Golden Legend” of the Bishop of Genoa, Jacob of Voraginsky, the plots of which European literature turned to until the 20th century.
Poetic short stories, fables, and jokes (fabliaux in France, schwanks in Germany) are becoming popular genres of urban literature. They were distinguished by a satirical spirit, crude humor, and vivid imagery. They ridiculed the greed of the clergy, the sterility of scholastic wisdom, the arrogance and ignorance of feudal lords and many other realities of medieval life that contradicted the sober, practical view of the world that was developing among the townspeople.
Fabliau and the Schwanks put forward a new type of hero - cheerful, roguish, smart, always finding a way out of any difficult situation thanks to his natural intelligence and abilities. Thus, the hero of the widely known collection of schwanks “Pop Amis”, which left a deep mark on German literature, feels confident and at ease in the world of city life, in the most incredible circumstances. With all his tricks and resourcefulness, he asserts that life belongs to the townspeople no less than to other classes, and that the place of the townspeople in the world is strong and reliable. Urban literature castigated vices and morals, responded to the topic of the day, and was extremely “modern.” The wisdom of the people was clothed in it in the form of apt proverbs and sayings. The Church persecuted poets from the urban lower classes, in whose work it saw a direct threat. For example, the writings of the Parisian Rutbeuf at the end of the 13th century. were condemned by the pope to be burned.
Along with short stories, fabliaux and schwanks, an urban satirical epic took shape. It was based on fairy tales that originated in the early Middle Ages. One of the most beloved among the townspeople was “The Romance of the Fox,” which was formed in France, but translated into German, English, Italian and other languages. The resourceful and daring Fox Renard, in whose image a wealthy, intelligent and enterprising city dweller is depicted, invariably defeats the stupid and bloodthirsty Wolf Isengrin, the strong and stupid Bear Bren - they were easily seen as a knight and a large feudal lord. He also fooled Leo Noble (the king) and constantly mocked the stupidity of Donkey Baudouin (the priest). But sometimes Renard plotted against chickens, hares, snails, and began to persecute the weak and humiliated. And then the common people destroyed his plans. Even sculptures were created based on the plots of “The Romance of the Fox” in the cathedrals of Autun, Bourges, and others.
Another work of urban literature became widespread - “The Romance of the Rose”, written successively by two authors - Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun. The hero of this philosophical and allegorical poem, a young poet, strives for the ideal embodied in the symbolic image of the Rose. In “The Romance of the Rose” the ideas of free thought, Nature and Reason, and the equality of people are glorified.
The carriers of the spirit of protest and free-thinking were wandering schoolchildren and students - vagantas. Among the vagants there were strong oppositional sentiments against the church and the existing order, characteristic of the urban lower classes as a whole. The Vagantes created a kind of poetry in Latin. The witty, flagellating vices of society and glorifying the joy of life poems and songs of the Vagants were known and sung by all of Europe from Toledo to Prague, from Palermo to London. These songs especially hit the church and its ministers.
Development of urban literature in the XIV-XV centuries. reflected the further growth of social self-awareness of the burghers. In urban poetry, drama and the new genre of urban literature that arose during that period - the prose short story - the townspeople are endowed with such traits as worldly wisdom, practical acumen, and dislike of life. The burghers are opposed to the nobility and clergy as the support of the state. These ideas permeate the creativity of the two largest French poets that time by Eustache Duchesne and Alain Chartier.
In the XIV-XV centuries. in German literature, Meistersang (the poetry of representatives of the craft and guild environment) is gradually replacing the knightly minnesang. Creative competitions of Mastersingers, held in many cities in Germany, are becoming very popular.
A remarkable phenomenon of medieval poetry was the work of Francois Villon. He lived a short but stormy life, full of adventures and wanderings. He is sometimes called “the last vagante,” although he wrote his poems not in Latin, but in his native language French. These poems, created in the middle of the 15th century, amaze with their surprisingly sincere human intonation, exuberant sense of freedom, and tragic search for oneself, which allows us to see in their author one of the predecessors of the Renaissance and new romantic poetry.
By the 13th century. refers to the emergence of urban theatrical art. Church mysteries, which were known much earlier, under the influence of new trends associated with the development of cities, become more vibrant and carnival-like. Secular elements penetrate them. Urban "games", i.e. theatrical performances, from the very beginning, were of a secular nature, their plots were borrowed from life, and their means of expression were from folklore, the work of wandering actors - jugglers, who were also dancers, singers, musicians, acrobats, and magicians. One of these city “games” was “The Game of Robin and Marion” (13th century), an ingenuous story of a young shepherdess and shepherdess, whose love defeated the machinations of a treacherous and rude knight. Such theatrical performances took place right in city squares, and the townspeople present took part in them.
In the XIV-XV centuries. Farces became widespread - humorous scenes in which the life of townspeople was realistically depicted. The closeness of the compilers of farces to the poor strata is evidenced by their frequent condemnation of the callousness, dishonesty and greed of the rich. The organization of large theatrical performances - mysteries - moves from the clergy to craft workshops and trading corporations. Mysteries are played out in city squares and, despite the biblical stories, are topical in nature, including comedic and everyday elements.
XIV-XV centuries - the heyday of medieval civil architecture. Large, beautiful houses are being built for rich townspeople. The castles of the feudal lords also became more comfortable, gradually losing their significance as military fortresses and turning into country residences. The interiors of castles are transformed, they are decorated with carpets, objects of applied art, and exquisite utensils. Jewelry art and the production of luxury goods are developing. The clothes of not only the nobility, but also wealthy townspeople are becoming more varied, rich and colorful.
New trends. Dante Alighieri. Crowning the Middle Ages and at the same time rising at the origins of the Renaissance is the majestic figure of the Italian poet and thinker, the Florentine Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). Expelled from his hometown by political opponents, condemned to wandering for the rest of his life, Dante was an ardent champion of the unification and social renewal of Italy. His poetic and worldview synthesis - “The Divine Comedy” - is the result of the best spiritual aspirations of the mature Middle Ages, which at the same time carries an insight into the coming cultural and historical era, its aspirations, creative possibilities and insoluble contradictions.
The highest achievements of philosophical thought, political doctrines and natural science knowledge, the deepest understanding of the human soul and social relations, melted in the crucible of poetic inspiration, create in Dante’s “Divine Comedy” a grandiose picture of the universe, nature, the existence of society and man . Mystical images and motifs of “holy poverty” also did not leave Dante indifferent. A whole gallery of outstanding figures of the Middle Ages, the rulers of the thoughts of that era, passes before the readers of The Divine Comedy. Its author takes the reader through the fire and icy horror of hell, through the crucible of purgatory to the heights of paradise, in order to gain the highest wisdom here, to affirm the ideals of goodness, bright hope and the heights of the human spirit.
The call of the coming era is also felt in the works of other writers and poets of the 14th century. The outstanding statesman of Spain, warrior and writer Infante Juan Manuel left a large literary heritage, but a special place in it, due to its pre-humanistic sentiments, is occupied by the collection of instructive stories “Count Lucanor”, in which some motives characteristic of his younger contemporary are discerned Juan Manuel - Italian humanist Boccaccio, author of the famous "Decameron".
The work of the Spanish author is typologically close to the “Cantebury Tales” of the great English poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400), who largely adopted the humanistic impulse coming from Italy, but at the same time was the largest writer of the English Middle Ages. His work is characterized by democratic and realistic tendencies. The variety and richness of images, the subtlety of observations and characteristics, the combination of drama and humor, and a refined literary form make Chaucer’s works truly literary masterpieces.
New trends in urban literature, which reflected the people’s aspirations for equality and their rebellious spirit, are evidenced by the significance that the figure of the peasant acquires in it. This is revealed in the German story “The Peasant Helmbrecht,” written by Werner Sadovnik at the end of the 13th century. But the quest of the people was reflected with the greatest force in the work of the English poet of the 14th century. William Langland, especially in his essay “William’s Vision of Peter the Plowman,” imbued with sympathy for the peasants, in whom the author sees the basis of society, and in their work the key to the improvement of all people. Thus, urban culture throws off the framework that limited it and merges with folk culture as a whole.
Medieval mentality and folk culture. The creativity of the working masses is the foundation of the culture of every historical era. First of all, the people are the creator of language, without which the development of culture is impossible. Folk psychology, imagery, stereotypes of behavior and perception are the breeding ground of culture. But almost all written sources of the Middle Ages that have come down to us were created within the framework of “official” or “high” culture. Folk culture was unwritten and oral. It can be detected only by collecting data from sources that provide them in a specific refraction, from a certain angle of view. The “lower” layer is clearly visible in the “high” culture of the Middle Ages, in its literature and art, and is latently felt in the entire system of intellectual life, in its folk origins. This lower layer was not only “carnival-funny”, it presupposed the presence of a certain “picture of the world”, which in a special way reflected all aspects of human and social existence, the world order.
Each historical era has its own worldview, its own ideas about nature, time and space, the order of everything that exists, about the relationships of people to each other. These ideas do not remain unchanged throughout the entire era; they have their differences among different social groups, but at the same time they are typical, indicative precisely for this period of historical time. Christianity was the basis of the worldview and mass ideas of the Middle Ages.