During the years of the first and second five-year plans, a cultural revolution was carried out in the USSR. The most important task cultural construction during the first five-year plan consisted of eliminating illiteracy. In 1926, in the USSR, among the population aged 9 years and older, only 51.1% were literate, and among individual nationalities, literates made up a small proportion: Kazakhs - 9.1%, Yakuts - 7.2, Kyrgyz - 5, 8, Tajiks - 3, Turkmens - 2.7%.
At the call of the Communist Party, a mass movement for the elimination of illiteracy began throughout the country with renewed vigor under the slogan “Literate, educate the illiterate!” Hundreds of thousands of people were involved in this movement. The total number of people who took part in the eradication of illiteracy in 1930 throughout the country was about 1 million people. In 1930 - 1932 Over 30 million people were covered by various literacy schools.
In order to put an end to illiteracy once and for all, it was necessary to stop the flow of illiterates from among the younger generation by introducing universal compulsory education in the country.
Universal compulsory education had enormous economic and political significance. V.I. Lenin pointed out that an illiterate person is outside politics; he cannot master technology and consciously take part in the construction of a socialist society.
According to the decisions of the party and government, universal free education in the amount of 4-year primary school (for children 8, 9, 10 and 11 years old) began to be implemented in 1930/31 academic year. In industrial cities, factory districts and workers' settlements, from 1930/31, compulsory 7-year education was introduced for children who graduated from 4-year school. By the end of the first five-year plan, universal compulsory education was basically implemented throughout the entire territory of the USSR.
During the first two five-year plans, grandiose school construction began throughout the country. In 1929 - 1932 13 thousand new schools were built for 3.8 million student places, and in 1933 - 1937. - 18778 schools.
Introduction of universal primary education and the large scale of school construction made it possible to increase the number of students in primary and secondary schools in 1937 to 29.6 million people (and in 1914 - 8 million people). Enormous successes have been achieved in the development of school education in the Union republics. For example, the number of students in the Tajik SSR by 1938 had increased by 682 times compared to 1914. Hundreds of new pedagogical institutes and technical schools were created in the RSFSR and other republics. Growth of the network of higher and middle educational institutions made it possible to train over 400 thousand specialists with higher and secondary education during the first five-year plan, and about 1 million people during the second five-year plan.
Soviet science achieved significant success during the first and second five-year plans. The tasks of economic construction set in the five-year plans required scientists to establish the closest connection with production, with the practice of socialist construction. The works of I.P. Pavlov, I.V. Michurin, A.E. Fersman, N.D. Zelinsky, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, A.P. Karpinsky, V.A. Obruchev and others received worldwide recognition and fame. During the period of the first two five-year plans, the Academy of Sciences of the Byelorussian SSR, as well as branches of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in the Urals, were created and launched Far East, in the Azerbaijani, Armenian, Georgian, Kazakh, Tajik, Turkmen and Uzbek union republics.
A new intelligentsia arose in the Soviet country, emerging from among the workers and peasants, closely connected with the people, infinitely devoted and faithfully serving them. She provided enormous assistance to the Communist Party and the government in building a socialist society. As for the old specialists, the absolute majority of them finally went over to the side of Soviet power.
Culture of Russian abroad
Cultural life in the USSR in the 1920s–1930s.
In the culture of the 1920–1930s. Three directions can be distinguished:
1. Official culture supported by the Soviet state.
2. Unofficial culture persecuted by the Bolsheviks.
3. Culture of Russian abroad (emigrant).
Cultural Revolution – changes in the spiritual life of society carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, the creation of socialist culture. The term “cultural revolution” was introduced by V.I. Lenin in 1923. in the work “On Cooperation”.
Goals cultural revolution.
1. Re-education of the masses - the establishment of Marxist-Leninist, communist ideology as a state ideology.
2. Creation of a “proletarian culture”, oriented towards the lower strata of society, based on communist education.
3. “Communization” and “Sovietization” mass consciousness through the Bolshevik ideologization of culture.
4. Elimination of illiteracy, development of education, dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge.
5. Break with the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage.
6. Creation and education of a new Soviet intelligentsia.
The beginning of the eradication of illiteracy. Having come to power, the Bolsheviks were faced with the problem of the low cultural level of the population. Population census 1920 ᴦ. showed that 50 million people in the country are illiterate (75% of the population). In 1919 ᴦ. the decree of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted On the elimination of illiteracyʼʼ. In 1923 ᴦ. the society ʼʼ was founded Down with illiteracyʼʼ headed by the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee M.I. Kalinin. Thousands of reading huts opened, where adults and children studied. According to the 1926 census. Literacy of the population was 51%. New clubs, libraries, museums, and theaters opened.
Science. The authorities sought to use the technical intelligentsia to strengthen the economic potential of the Soviet state. Under the guidance of an academician THEM. Gubkina the study of the Kursk magnetic anomaly and oil exploration between the Volga and the Urals were carried out. Academician A.E. Fersman Conducted geological surveys in the Urals and the Far East. Discoveries in the field of space exploration theory and rocket technology were made by K.E. Tsiolkovsky And F. Zánder. S.V. Lebedev developed a method for producing synthetic rubber. The founder of aircraft manufacturing studied the theory of aviation NOT. Zhukovsky. In 1929 ᴦ. The All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after. V.I. Lenin (VASKhNIL, President – N.I. Vavilov).
The attitude of the authorities towards the humanitarian intelligentsia. The authorities limited the ability of the humanitarian intelligentsia to participate in political life and influence public consciousness. In 1921 ᴦ. The autonomy of higher education institutions was abolished. Professors and teachers who did not share communist beliefs were fired.
In 1921 ᴦ. GPU employee I'M WITH. Agranov fabricated the case about the “Petrograd Combat Organization”. Its participants were a group of scientists and cultural figures, incl. professor V.N. Tagantsev and poet N.S. Gumilyov. 61 people were shot, incl. Gumilev.
In 1922 ᴦ. a special censorship committee was created - Glavlit, who exercised control over “hostile attacks” against the policies of the ruling party. Next created Glavrepetkom– committee for control of theater repertoires.
IN 1922
ᴦ. on the initiative of V.I. Lenin and L.D. Trotsky on two “philosophical ships” over 160 opposition-minded prominent scientists and cultural figures - philosophers - were expelled from the country N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.O. Lossky, S.L. Frank, I.A. Ilyin, L.P. Karsavin etc.
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Was expelled P.A. Sorokin(he studied in the Ivanovo region, and later became a major sociologist in the USA).
In 1923 ᴦ. under the leadership N. K. Krupskaya libraries were cleaned of “anti-Soviet and anti-fiction books”. They even included the works of the ancient philosopher Plato and L.N. Tolstoy. K ser.
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1920s. Private book publishing houses and magazines were closed.
Graduate School. Preparation of the new intelligentsia. The CPSU(b) set a course for the formation of a new intelligentsia, unconditionally loyal to the regime. “It is extremely important for us that the intelligentsia be trained ideologically,” stated N.I. Bukharin. – And we will churn out the intelligentsia, produce it, like in a factory. In 1918 ᴦ. University entrance exams and tuition fees were cancelled. New institutes and universities opened (by 1927 – 148, in pre-revolutionary times – 95). For example, in 1918 ᴦ. A polytechnic institute was opened in Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Since 1919 ᴦ. Work faculties were created in universities ( workers' faculties) to prepare worker and peasant youth who did not have a secondary education for higher education. By 1925 ᴦ. graduates of workers' faculties made up half of the students. For people from the bourgeois-noble and intelligentsia “socially alien” strata, access to higher education was difficult.
School system 1920s. The three-tier structure of secondary educational institutions was eliminated (classical gymnasium - real school - commercial school) and replaced by a “polytechnic and labor” secondary school. School subjects such as logic, theology, Latin and Greek and other humanities were removed from the public education system.
The school became unified and accessible to all. It consisted of 2 stages (1st stage - four years, 2nd - five years). Factory apprenticeship schools (FZU) and working youth schools (WYS) were engaged in training workers, and administrative and technical personnel were trained in technical schools. School programs were focused on communist education. Instead of history, social studies was taught.
State and church in the 1920s. In 1917 ᴦ. the patriarchate was restored. In 1921–1922. Under the pretext of fighting hunger, the Bolsheviks began to confiscate church valuables. In ᴦ. In Shuya, parishioners who tried to prevent the seizure of church valuables were shot. As part of the policy of “militant atheism,” churches were closed and icons were burned. In 1922 ᴦ. In Moscow and Petrograd, trials were organized against church ministers, some of them were sentenced to death on charges of counter-revolutionary activities. A struggle arose between the “old churchmen” (patriarch Tikhon) and ʼʼrenovationistsʼʼ (Metropolitan A.I. Vvedensky). Patriarch Tikhon was arrested and soon died, the patriarchate was abolished. In 1925 ᴦ. Metropolitan became locum tenens of the patriarchal throne Peter, but in December 1925 ᴦ. he was arrested and deported. His successor, Metropolitan Sergius and 8 bishops in 1927. signed an appeal in which they obliged priests who did not recognize Soviet power to withdraw from church affairs. The Metropolitan opposed this Joseph. Many priests were exiled to Solovki. Representatives of other religions were also persecuted.
Literature and art in the 1920s. Writers and poets of the “Silver Age” continued to publish their works ( A.A. Akhmatova, A. Bely, V.Ya. Bryusov etc.) Directors worked in theaters E.B. Vakhtangov, K.S. Stanislavsky, V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, actress M.N. Ermolova. Exhibitions were organized by followers of the “World of Art”, “Jack of Diamonds”, “Blue Rose” and other associations of artists ( P.P. Konchalovsky, A.V. Lentulov, R.R. Falk etc. . ). The revolution gave new impetus to creativity V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Blok, S.A. Yesenina. Representatives of left-modernist movements - futurism, cubism, constructivism - showed great activity in painting, theater, architecture ( V.E. Meyerhold, V.E. Tatlin etc.).
Many new literary groups and organizations are emerging:
Group Serapion brothersʼʼ ( M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, K. A. Fedin etc.) was looking for new artistic forms of reflecting the post-revolutionary life of the country;
Group Passʼʼ ( MM. Prishvin, V.P. Kataev etc.) advocated for the preservation of the continuity and traditions of Russian literature.
Literary and artistic associations of proletarian-Bolshevik communist orientation arose:
-Proletkult(1917–1932 ᴦ.) - formed a new proletarian socialist culture ( A.A. Bogdanov, P.I. Lebedev-Polyansky, Demyan Bedny);
Literary group ʼʼ Forgeʼʼ (1920–1931), joined RAPP;
-Russian Association of Proletarian Writers(RAPP), (1925–1932) using the slogan “partisanship of literature,” fought with other groups. Published a magazine ʼʼOn dutyʼʼ;
LEF Group ʼʼ Left Arts Frontʼʼ (1922–1929) – poets V.V. Mayakovsky, N.N. Aseev and others worked taking into account the requirements of Proletkult, published the magazine ʼʼLEFʼʼ.
These groups harassed non-party cultural figures, calling them “internal emigrants” for avoiding chanting the “heroics of revolutionary achievements.” “Fellow travelers” were also criticized - writers who supported Soviet power, but allowed “hesitation” ( MM. Zoshchenko, A.N. Tolstoy, V.A. Kaverin, E.G. Bagritsky, M.M. Prishvin etc.).
CULTURAL REVOLUTION, the process of radical restructuring of the cultural and ideological life of society during the construction of socialism in the RSFSR and the USSR. The term “cultural revolution” was first used by V.I. Lenin in his work “On Cooperation” (1923), meaning, first of all, the spread of literacy and the development of mass educational work among the rural population. Subsequently, the term was established to denote the policy of replacing “bourgeois” culture with a new, socialist one, formed, in Lenin’s words, “from the point of view of the worldview of Marxism and the living conditions and struggle of the proletariat in the era of its dictatorship.” The most important goal of the cultural revolution was to transform the principles of Marxist-Leninist ideology into a person’s personal beliefs. The cultural revolution included the restructuring of public education and enlightenment on a socialist basis, the “re-education” of the bourgeois and the formation of the socialist intelligentsia, the creation of literature, art and science based on Marxist ideology, the establishment of a new morality and atheistic worldview, the transformation of everyday life, etc.
The objectives of cultural policy are formulated in the first decrees of the Soviet government, the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918 and the program of the RCP (b) of 1919. For its implementation, a system of party-state management of the cultural life of society was created, which included the agitation and propaganda department of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) (Agitprop), The People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR (Narkompros; all educational institutions were concentrated in its system), the Main Political and Educational Committee (Glavpolitprosvet), the public education departments of the Soviets, Glavlit, etc. Publishing, theater and museum business, and film production were nationalized. Freedom of the press has been eliminated.
The system of communist propaganda and agitation included the organization in industrial centers and enterprises of trade union cultural departments and cultural and educational commissions, libraries, clubs, proletarian universities, “red corners”, etc. Mobile and stationary political literacy schools, political literacy groups, etc. operated in the villages. propaganda trains, propaganda steamers, “red carts” and “red convoys” ran throughout the country. Radio technology was of great importance for both the city and the countryside, thanks to which the horizons of knowledge for the population sharply expanded and at the same time the party received a powerful means of ideological influence on the masses. In the 1920s, Marxist circles of the lower, middle and higher level, where listeners were introduced to the goals of the socialist revolution, and the policies of the RCP(b)-VKP(b) and the Communist International were explained. Back in the 1920s, the cult of V.I. Lenin arose, which strengthened and was supplemented in the 1930s by the cult of I.V. Stalin, which became an integral attribute of the cultural revolution in the USSR.
One of the most important aspects of the cultural revolution is atheistic propaganda and the introduction of a materialistic worldview instead of a religious one. They began with the Decree on the Separation of Church and State (1918), which abolished the teaching of the Law of God in school. The anti-religious campaign was intended to destroy the peasant patriarchal culture. Within the framework of the Workers' and Peasants' Radio University, founded in 1928, there was an anti-religious faculty. By decision of the 2nd Congress of Atheists (1929), anti-religious departments were opened at universities, communist universities and technical schools, and special courses and seminars were opened at the biological, agronomic and medical faculties of the institutes. Anti-religious museums were created in many cities. In 1932, the Union of Militant Atheists became a mass organization (5.5 million people). The circulation of anti-religious literature increased, and circles of young atheists were organized. For children who tried to adhere to family religious traditions, an intolerable environment was created in educational institutions. The clergy was subjected to defamation and persecution. Many churches, especially during the years of collectivization, were destroyed or converted into clubs, warehouses and production facilities.
In the field of education, emphasis was placed on introducing the class principle in higher education and eliminating illiteracy on a mass scale. V. I. Lenin attached to the last problem special meaning in connection with criticism of the Bolshevik plans for building socialism in Soviet Russia by Russian and Western European social democrats, who argued that such plans were doomed to failure due to the cultural backwardness of the population. According to the decree of the Council of People's Commissars "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR" dated December 26, 1919, all illiterate people between the ages of 8 and 50 were required to learn to read and write. In this case, for adults, the working day was shortened by 2 hours, and in the Red Army, literacy classes were equated to drill training. Under the People's Commissariat of Education, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was formed (1920; since 1917, there was a department of extracurricular activities headed by N.K. Krupskaya, which was also created to eliminate illiteracy), a network of extracurricular education was organized: schools for educational programs (liquidation of illiteracy), reading rooms, voluntary society “Down with illiteracy” (1923). According to the 1939 census, the proportion of literate people in the RSFSR aged 9 to 49 years reached 89.7% (according to the 1918 economic census, 64% of workers were literate, and 30% of peasants).
When implementing the policy of the cultural revolution, the school was faced with the task of being not only “a conductor of the principles of communism in general, but also a conductor of the ideological, organizational educational influence of the proletariat on the semi-proletarian and non-proletarian layers of the working masses.” The widespread creation of Komsomol and Pioneer organizations played a significant role in the spread of the communist worldview. When organizing school education, the experience of the functioning of institutions was taken into account primary education, established back in pre-revolutionary Russia: according to the “Regulations on the Unified Labor School of the RSFSR”, adopted by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on September 30, 1918, in Soviet Russia it was assumed free, joint education for boys and girls in a 9-year 2-level school (1st stage - 5-year elementary school, 2 -I stage - 4-year secondary school). However, the implementation of the “Regulations...” encountered significant difficulties. About 50% of children in 1920 remained out of school. In 1921, school funding was transferred to the local budget and entrusted to the population (the so-called self-taxation). The number of schools, as well as teachers, began to decline. In 1923, tuition fees were introduced (children of disadvantaged citizens and disabled people were exempted) for primary 4-year-olds (sometimes 3- or 5-year-olds) and secondary (9-year-olds) secondary schools Oh; at the same time, production-oriented 7-year schools began to be created at state farms and cooperatives, from 1925 - at industrial enterprises. By the end of the 1920s, appropriations for public schools increased significantly. In 1930-34, universal compulsory 4-year (in industrial cities and workers' settlements - 7-year) education was introduced (universal compulsory 7-year - everywhere, in 1956). Great importance for development schooling in the native language was the creation in the 1920-30s of writing for dozens of peoples (Kyrgyz, Bashkirs, Buryats, peoples of Dagestan, the Far North, etc.), translation from Arabic into Latin, and then into Cyrillic graphic basis of the writing of individual peoples of Central Asia and the Caucasus (Uzbeks, Tajiks, Turkmens, Kazakhs, Azerbaijanis, etc.). In 1940, there were 65 thousand schools in the USSR, in which almost the entire (over 20 million) younger generation studied, and 1,216 thousand teachers worked. Due to the increasing involvement of women in production activities, the number of preschool children's institutions increased (46 thousand in 1940).
By decree of the Council of People's Commissars of August 2, 1918, access to universities was open to persons over 16 years of age (including women), regardless of whether they had a secondary or even primary education; entrance exams were canceled, as well as tuition fees (resumed for most students and senior secondary school students for the period 1940-56). At the same time, the People's Commissariat for Education was instructed to admit into universities mainly “persons from among the proletariat and the poor peasantry” if the number of people wishing to study there exceeded the usual number of places at the university. In order to prepare people from the lower social classes for studying at a university, in 1919 workers' faculties (workers' faculties) began to be created, which were also centers for the formation of student primary organizations of the RCP (b), which influenced the decisions of admissions committees, preventing the entry of “class alien” elements into universities . In 1921, the autonomy of higher education was liquidated. During the years of the 1st Five-Year Plan (1928/29-1932/33), the number of universities in the RSFSR increased from 94 to 498 (mainly due to the division of polytechnic universities into several branch institutes and the transformation of technical schools into universities). By the end of the 1930s, 15.9% of the population had higher, incomplete higher, secondary and incomplete secondary education; this group accounted for about 80-90% total number specialists.
The preparation of a new administrative, scientific and teaching elite, devoted to Marxist ideas, was carried out by specially created scientific and higher educational institutions: the Socialist Academy of Social Sciences (1918; from 1924 the Communist Academy), the Institute of K. Marx and F. Engels (1921; in 1931 merged with V.I. Lenin Institute), V.I. Lenin Institute (1923-31), Istpart, Institute of Red Professors, communist universities. One of the main problems was the writing of new textbooks and teaching aids based on communist ideology. The teaching of history in schools and universities was replaced by the study of social studies. In universities, compulsory study of historical materialism, the history of the proletarian revolution, the history of the party and the foundations of Leninism was introduced; in 1921, instead of law, history, and economic faculties, faculties of social sciences were formed (since the mid-1930s, humanities faculties in universities began to be restored; teaching of history was resumed in school and universities). In 1922-23, under the Central Committee of the RCP (b), the Central Bureau of Communist Students and its citywide associations were formed, which helped strengthen the influence of the party in universities.
In the field of science, the Soviet leadership proceeded from the thesis of the priority development of productive forces. In the interests economic development The country's government supported the activities of the Commission for the Study of the Natural Productive Forces of Russia (KEPS; established in 1915), which included leading scientists. In 1918, oil exploration began in the area between the Volga and the Urals, and in 1920, work began on a comprehensive study of the Kursk magnetic anomaly. A Scientific and Technical Department was created at the Supreme Economic Council to centralize all specific research, which involved over 250 scientific professors, 300 engineers and about 240 other specialists. Over 200 scientists and engineers participated in the preparation of the GOELRO plan. By 1921, there were over 70 research institutes operating in the RSFSR (not counting those at universities). By the Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR dated July 27, 1925, the Russian Academy of Sciences received the status of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and was recognized as the highest scientific institution country and transferred to the jurisdiction of the Council of People's Commissars. In the same year, by decision of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, an interdepartmental Commission for promoting the work of the Academy of Sciences was approved, which exercised political and organizational leadership of the academy, participated in planning its work, controlling finances, etc.
The introduction of Marxist consciousness among scientists with already established views and worldviews was particularly difficult. The Soviet leadership, in need of intellectual strength, on the one hand, attracted scientists and technical specialists to cooperation (in 1921 the Council of People's Commissars adopted decrees “On improving the living conditions of scientists”, “On measures to raise the level of engineering and technical knowledge in the country and to improve living conditions” engineering and technical workers of the RSFSR", in 1921-31 the Central Commission for Improving the Life of Scientists under the Council of People's Commissars operated), and on the other hand, trying to subordinate them to the goals of fulfilling socialist construction plans, resorted to methods of intimidation and repression. During the operation, which received the name “Philosophical Steamship” in literature, over 200 people were forcibly sent abroad in 1922-23, in whom the Bolsheviks saw their political opponents - prominent lawyers, doctors, economists, cooperative leaders, writers, journalists, philosophers, higher education teachers, engineers. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the process of “squeezing out” bourgeois specialists was accelerated. In the course of organized political processes, scientists in the humanities (“Academic Affairs”), representatives of mainly the old technical intelligentsia (“Shakhtinsky Case”, Industrial Party Case), scientists in the field of economic sciences (Labor Peasant Party Case), and local historians (“Shakhtinsky Case”) were subjected to persecution and repression. local historians' case"), etc. Many were shot or served prison terms; since 1929, some prisoners were engaged scientific research in the “sharashkas” - Special technical bureaus of the OGPU - NKVD - Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR. This policy caused enormous damage to the intellectual potential of the country, however, despite the losses, Soviet science made a significant contribution to the socialist industrialization of the country and the creation of a powerful defense potential.
In the field of literature and art, the revolution opened the way to a “new” culture that arose back in the 1910s, in particular Proletkult (formed in 1917), whose activities were based on ideas about a purely proletarian culture and a nihilistic attitude towards cultural heritage the past and its bearers. The idea of a total remake of society, the unprecedented socio-political experiment of the Bolsheviks, found a response among representatives and ideologists of futurism and other areas of avant-gardeism. In 1922, the “Left Front of the Arts” (LEF) was created, whose activities were characterized by the rejection of “bourgeois” art and “bourgeois” aesthetics and the desire to create socially useful art. The search continued in line with other areas of art, whose representatives united into their own creative unions and organizations - the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AHRR), “Pass”, “Serapion Brothers”, etc. Political poster, in the creation of which many participated famous artists and poets, was effectively used to promote revolutionary ideas and new ideology. Simultaneously with the formation of models revolutionary culture There was a process of narrowing the sphere of influence on the public consciousness of humanistic values traditional for Russian classical culture.
The Soviet leadership and party leaders initially focused on popular culture, designed to convey visual ideological information to the urban strata (since 1918, a monumental propaganda plan was carried out), and interfered little with the activities of various literary and artistic groups. The resolution of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) dated June 18, 1925 stated that the party as a whole could not bind itself to “commitment to any direction in the field of literary form,” however, cultural figures who still retained relative independence were not allowed to directly or indirectly criticize the ruling party. From the 2nd half of the 1920s, the government moved to obvious restrictions on the freedom of creative exploration; The conductors of this policy were the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers, the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians, and the Russian Association of Proletarian Artists. During the period of the collapse of the NEP and with the beginning of collectivization, direct and active support of party and state initiatives was already required from cultural figures. In 1932, numerous literary and artistic associations, representing various trends and movements in art, were dissolved, and in their place, sectoral creative unions were created on a single ideological basis. Leading artistic method became socialist realism. Works of writers, poets and artists that did not correspond to the method (from the point of view of power) were not published or popularized. Close attention The party leadership and I.V. Stalin personally paid attention to cinema. To strengthen the moral and political unity of the Soviet people, classical and modern examples of the national cultures of peoples were popularized Soviet Union, special importance was attached to the propaganda of proletarian internationalism. Hoping to attract the creative intelligentsia to participate in socialist construction, the Communist Party and the Soviet government developed a system, on the one hand, of encouraging and supporting loyal cultural figures, and on the other hand, restrictions and pressure, even persecution and physical destruction, of those who did not want to give up his convictions, he was alien to party ideology. Since the mid-1930s, the classical heritage of Russian and world culture has been in demand, especially in those parts that contained criticism of the feudal or bourgeois system. The patriotic spirit in the work of writers, playwrights, artists, and composers began to be welcomed. At the same time, the previous connections between domestic and foreign culture were artificially limited, which was divided into “progressive” and “reactionary” depending on the attitude of certain foreign masters towards the USSR. Soviet readers and viewers did not have access to the works of “reactionaries,” among whom were many prominent cultural figures, as well as Russian writers who found themselves in exile or repressed in their homeland.
Significant changes have occurred in the field everyday life. Communal houses and kitchen factories were built, and collective forms of socially useful unpaid labor were introduced (subbotniks, Sundays). Networks of rest houses, sanatoriums and dispensaries were created. Young people were involved in various circles at pioneer houses and educational institutions. Amateur artistic activities were widespread. Physical culture and sports, considered by the authorities not only from the point of view of physical health and military training of youth, but also as a means of rallying the “working and peasant masses” around certain party, Soviet or professional organizations, were included in the activity plan of trade unions, the Komsomol, the army, schools, health authorities, began to play a big role in the life of Soviet people (mass sports societies were created, stadiums were built, sports sections for youth). A system of military-patriotic education for the younger generation has been formed.
The main tasks of the Soviet leadership for the revolutionary transformation of culture were resolved by the end of the 1930s. Has developed new culture, which was based on a single officially accepted mandatory ideology. The cultural revolution, carried out against the backdrop of a significant increase in the urban population, introduced fundamental changes in the conditions and way of life of the working people, primarily workers and government employees, who took a stable and secure place in society, gained access to education and social advancement, and accepted mass Soviet culture. By 1940, the circulation of published books and newspapers increased significantly, and the number of public libraries and film installations increased. The state established low prices(“cheaper than tobacco and bread,” according to the poet B. A. Slutsky) for books, newspapers, movie tickets, museums, theaters, etc.
The experience gained from the Cultural Revolution was in demand by the Soviet leadership and in the future, it was also disseminated by the ruling communist parties in other socialist countries.
Lit.: The Great October Socialist Revolution and the formation of Soviet culture, 1917-1927. M., 1985; Soviet culture in the reconstruction period, 1928-1941. M., 1988; Maksimenkov L.V. Confusion instead of music: Stalin’s cultural revolution, 1936-1938. M., 1997; Aimermacher K. Politics and culture under Lenin and Stalin, 1917-1932. M., 1998; Manin V.S. Art on the reservation: Artistic life in Russia 1917-1941. M., 1999; Plaggenborg St. Revolution and culture: Cultural landmarks in the period between October Revolution and the era of Stalinism. St. Petersburg, 2000; Berezovaya L. G., Berlyakova N. P. History of Russian culture. M., 2002. Part 2.
“CULTURAL REVOLUTION” of 1966-76, an ideological and political campaign launched by Mao Zedong under the slogan of the fight against “revisionism” and “remnants of the bourgeoisie in the party, government and army.” The goal was to eliminate the political opposition to Mao Zedong and establish a regime of his personal power (for more details, see the article China, section Historical outline). The 6th Plenum of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (1981) qualified the “Cultural Revolution” as a “turmoil” that arose “through the fault of the leader.”
Lit.: The Cultural revolution in China / Ed. T. W. Robinson. , 1971; The Cultural revolution in the provinces. Camb., 1971; Lee Hong Yung. The politics of the Chinese Cultural revolution: a case study. Berk., 1978; Usov V.N. On the issue of assessing the Maoist “cultural revolution” // Questions of history. 1982. No. 2; aka. Cultural revolution in China // China: history in faces and events. M., 1991; aka. History of the People's Republic of China. M., 2006. T. 1-2; Gao Gao, Yan Jiaqi. The story of ten years of the “great cultural revolution”. Tianjin, 1986 (in Chinese); Wang Nianyi. An era of great upheaval. Henan, 1989 (in Chinese); Maomao. My father Deng Xiaoping during the Cultural Revolution. M., 2003; Secret news from the turbulent years: People who died and were imprisoned during the “great cultural revolution.” Hohhot, 2003 (in Chinese).
The cultural revolution in the USSR took place during the first and second five-year plans. Its most important and very first task was to eliminate illiteracy among the population. In 1926, about 51.1% of residents aged nine years and older were literate. In some nations, the educated population constituted a very small percentage. So, the Kazakhs had about 9.1%, the Kyrgyz - 5.8%, the Yakuts - 7.2%, the Turkmens - 2.7%, the Tajiks - 3%.
The Cultural Revolution in Russia began with the Communist Party's call to eliminate illiteracy. The movement to eliminate lack of education has developed quite widely in the country. The party's slogan called on the literate to teach the illiterate. Thus, the total number of people taking part in the movement throughout the country by 1930 was about a million. The cultural revolution in the USSR by 1932 had captured more than thirty million people.
To eliminate illiteracy once and for all, it was necessary to stop the flow of uneducated people from among the younger generation. Thus, compulsory universal education was introduced in the country.
In addition to eliminating illiteracy, innovation played an important economic and political role. Lenin pointed out that an uneducated person is beyond politics. Illiterate people, in his opinion, are not able to master technology and take a conscious part in the formation of the socialist system.
The Cultural Revolution in the USSR in 1930-1931 was marked by the introduction of free four years of primary education for children aged eight to eleven. In workers' settlements, factory districts, and industrial cities, a subsequent free seven-year education was introduced for children who graduated from a four-year school.
Thus, by the end of the first five-year plan, compulsory universal education was implemented throughout almost the entire country.
The cultural revolution in the USSR during the first two five-year plans was marked by large-scale, widespread school construction. Thus, in 1929-32, about thirteen thousand schools were built, designed for 3.8 million students, in the period from 1933 to 1937 - more than eighteen thousand schools. Number of people receiving average and higher education, was increased by the 37th year to 29.6 million.
In addition to enormous successes in the formation of school education, hundreds of new technical schools and pedagogical institutes were created in the RSFSR and other republics. During the first five-year plan, the rapidly expanding network of secondary and higher educational institutions made it possible to train more than four hundred, and during the second five-year plan - more than a million specialist teachers of secondary and senior management.
During the first two five-year plans, significant successes were noted in the development of Soviet science. The agricultural tasks set in the plans required the formation of the closest ties with production and the practice of building socialism. At that time, the works of such figures as I.V. Michurin, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, I.P. Pavlov, A.E. Fersman, V.A. Obruchev, A.P. Karpinsky, N. D. Zelinsky and other scientists.
During the first and second five-year plans, branches of the USSR Academy of Sciences were opened and began to develop in the Far East, the Urals, and in the Uzbek, Turkmen, Kazakh, Tajik, Armenian, Azerbaijan, and Georgian union republics.
The cultural revolution of the USSR brought up a new intelligentsia that emerged from the peasant and working class environment. This new class was closely connected and devoted to the people, and served them faithfully. The intelligentsia of that time provided significant assistance to the Communist Party and the entire state in the formation of a socialist society.
Education USSR
43. .
NEP
44. Industrialization policy.
45. Collectivization
Goal of collectivization
Consequences of collectivization
46.Cultural revolution
Cultural Revolution in the USSR
Occupation of the city
German and Italian troops entered Stalino on the morning of October 21, 1941, breaking the resistance of the 12th and 18th armies of the Southern Front, which were defending the city. Before this, at the beginning of October, the 18th Army was surrounded near the village of Chernigovka (Zaporozhye region) and suffered heavy losses: over 100 thousand soldiers and officers were captured, 212 tanks and 672 artillery pieces were destroyed. Only about 30 thousand people escaped the encirclement.
Almost immediately after the capture of Stalino, which was quickly renamed back to Yuzovka, the Germans began rebuilding the city’s enterprises that had been destroyed during the fighting and evacuation. In its plans, the German command prepared the Donbass to play the role of the “eastern Ruhr” for the “thousand-year Reich,” and therefore the Germans approached restoration measures with all their pedantry. Already in November, the partially destroyed power plant began operating again, thanks to which the lighting of institutions and the operation of the water supply network were resumed in the city. In February 1942, the Novo-Mushketovo, 12 Naklonnaya, Butovka, 5 bis Trudovskaya, 1-2 Smolyanka, 4 Livenka, 1 Shcheglovka and others mines were restored.
However, in Stalino, the Germans were far from doing just restoration work.
Struggle
The underground in Stalino was created back in October 1941. The city party organization allocated several thousand people for the underground and partisan struggle, and an underground regional committee of the CP(b)U, consisting of three people, was created for their direct leadership. However, with the beginning of the German occupation, the underground system was almost completely destroyed and had to be rebuilt.
The underground carried out sabotage operations, collected information about the movement and composition of enemy units, and transmitted information about the location of German warehouses and headquarters. Mass propaganda work was carried out - leaflets were distributed in the city, oral conversations were held with the population, calls for sabotage in the mines were transmitted. In addition to the underground fighters, 27 partisan groups and detachments also operated in the city.
Trying to suppress resistance, the Nazis used the most brutal measures. The order of the Chief of Staff of the Supreme Command of the German Armed Forces, Keitel, stated: “... the available armed forces to maintain security will be sufficient only if any resistance is punished not by prosecuting the perpetrators, but by creating such a system of terror on the part of the armed forces , which will be sufficient to eradicate from the population any intention to resist. Commanders must find means to carry out this order through the use of draconian measures." Such measures included imprisonment in death camps, hangings and mass shootings: for each killed German soldier, the first 100 local residents who came across were subject to execution.
Liberation and restoration of the city
The battles for the liberation of Stalino began on September 7, 1943 after soldiers of the 301st and 50th rifle divisions overcame enemy defenses outside the village of Shcheglovka. The city was completely liberated in the first half of the next day, September 8. Attacks on enemy troops were carried out simultaneously from the north and south (by the forces of the 50th Infantry Division), and later tank troops entered Stalino along the restored bridges across Kalmius.
Every year on September 8, the day when the city of Stalino was liberated, Donbass Liberation Day is celebrated.
After the German troops were driven out of the city, Stalino appeared before his liberators almost completely destroyed. And although entire neighborhoods on the outskirts remained untouched, factories and the city center lay in complete ruins.
The active restoration of Stalino's industry began in the first post-war years, and by 1950 the city had reached the pre-war level of industrial production. Coal, metallurgical and chemical industry was completely reconstructed and expanded, new enterprises operating in the food and light industries began to appear in the city.
Education USSR
In 1922, a new state was formed - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The unification of individual states was dictated by necessity - strengthening economic potential and presenting a united front in the fight against invaders. General historical roots, the long stay of peoples within one state, the friendliness of peoples towards each other, the commonality and interdependence of the economy, politics and culture made such a unification possible. There was no consensus regarding the ways to unite the republics. Thus, Lenin advocated a federal unification, Stalin - for autonomy, Skripnik (Ukraine) - for a federation.
In 1922, at the first All-Union Congress of Soviets, which was attended by delegates from the RSFSR, Belarus, Ukraine and some Transcaucasian republics, the Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the Union were adopted. Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) on a federal basis. In 1924, the Constitution of the new state was adopted. The highest authority was declared All-Union Congress Svetov. In the intervals between congresses, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee worked; the SNK (Council) became the executive body People's Commissars). Nepmans, clergy and kulaks were deprived of voting rights. After the emergence of the USSR, further expansion took place mainly through violent measures or through the fragmentation of republics. During the Great Patriotic War Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia became socialist. Later, the Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani SSRs were separated from the TSFSR.
According to the Constitution of 1936, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR was established as the highest all-Union legislative body, consisting of two equal chambers of the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities. In the period between sessions of the Supreme Council, the Presidium became the highest legislative and executive body.
Thus, the creation of the Soviet Union had contradictory consequences for the peoples. The development of the center and individual republics proceeded unevenly. Most often, republics could not achieve full development due to strict specialization ( Central Asia- supplier of raw materials for light industry, Ukraine - supplier of food, etc.). Between the republics, it was not market relations that were built, but economic relations prescribed by the government. Russification and cultivation of Russian culture partly continued the imperial policy on the national question. However, in many republics, thanks to joining the Federation, steps were taken to get rid of feudal ones; survivals, increase the level of literacy and culture, establish the development of industry and agriculture, modernize transport, etc. Thus, the pooling of economic resources and dialogue of cultures undoubtedly had positive results for all the republics.
43. . Approval of the New Economic Policy
NEP- economic policy pursued in Soviet Russia and the USSR in the 1920s. It was adopted on March 14, 1921 by the X Congress of the RCP (b), replacing the policy of “war communism” pursued during Civil War. The New Economic Policy aimed at restoring the national economy and the subsequent transition to socialism. The main content of the NEP is the replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax in kind in the countryside (up to 70% of grain was confiscated during surplus appropriation, and about 30% with a tax in kind), the use of the market and various forms property, attracting foreign capital in the form of concessions, carrying out a monetary reform (1922-1924), as a result of which the ruble became a convertible currency.
The Soviet state faced the problems of financial stabilization, and, therefore, deflation and achieving a balanced state budget. State strategy
Aimed at survival under the conditions of the credit blockade, it determined the primacy of the USSR in compiling production balances and distributing products. The New Economic Policy assumed state regulation of a mixed economy using planned and market mechanisms. The NEP was based on the ideas of the works of V.I. Lenin, discussions on the theory of reproduction and money, the principles of pricing, finance and credit. The NEP made it possible to quickly restore the national economy destroyed by the First World War and the Civil War.
44. Industrialization policy.
To carry out industrialization in the USSR, considerable funds were required. And, in conditions of almost complete absence of foreign investment, collectivization provided them. Collectivization, at the next, 15th Congress, was proclaimed the main task of the party in the countryside. It was carried out using harsh, often violent methods. Today, industrialization and collectivization in the USSR are called the great turning point.
The first five-year plan was announced in 1929. Its plans, like the subsequent five-year plans, were often excessive. The most famous construction projects of the 20s - 30s are: Dneproges, Magnitka, Belomorkanal, TurkSib, Chelyabinsk, Kharkov, Stalingrad tractor plants. Popular enthusiasm also played a significant role in carrying out accelerated industrialization.
The industrialization policy led to a noticeable decline in the standard of living of the population, especially the peasantry. However, by the end of the 30s, the results of industrialization became obvious - a powerful industry appeared (including industries new to the USSR), coal mining and metal smelting were increased, and so on. Only the presence of such an industry allowed the USSR to win the coming World War II.
45. Collectivization- the process of uniting individual peasant farms into collective farms (collective farms) in the USSR. The decision on collectivization was made at the XV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1927. Conducted in the USSR in 1928-1937; main stage 1930-1933 - complete collectivization. In the western regions of Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova, in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, collectivization was carried out after their annexation to the USSR and was completed in 1949-1950.
Goal of collectivization- establishment of socialist production relations in the countryside, transformation of small-scale individual farms into large, highly productive public cooperative industries. As a result of complete collectivization, an integral system of massive transfer of financial, material and labor resources from the agricultural sector was created
In industrial. This served as the basis for subsequent rapid industrial growth, which made it possible to overcome the qualitative gap between the USSR industry and the leading world powers.
Consequences of collectivization
As a result of Stalin's collectivization policy: more than 2 million peasants were deported, of which 1,800,000 were deported in 1930-1931 alone; 6 million died of hunger, hundreds of thousands were in exile.
This policy caused a lot of uprisings among the population. In March 1930 alone, the OGPU counted 6,500 mass protests, of which 800 were suppressed using weapons. Overall, during 1930, some 2.5 million peasants took part in 14,000 uprisings against Soviet politics collectivization.
In one interview, professor of political science at Moscow State University and Ph.D. Alexey Kara-Murza expressed the opinion that collectivization was a direct genocide of the Soviet people. But this issue remains debatable.
46.Cultural revolution- a set of measures carried out in Soviet Russia and the USSR, aimed at a radical restructuring of the cultural and ideological life of society. The goal was the formation of a new type of culture as part of the construction of a socialist society, including increasing the share of people from the proletarian classes in the social composition of the intelligentsia.
The term “cultural revolution” in Russia appeared in the “Anarchist Manifesto” of the Gordin brothers in May 1917, and was introduced into Soviet political language by V.I. Lenin in 1923 in his work “On Cooperation”: “The cultural revolution is... a whole revolution, a whole period of cultural development of the entire mass of the people.”
Cultural Revolution in the USSR how a purposeful program to transform national culture often stalled in practice and was massively implemented only during the first five-year plans. As a result, in modern historiography there is a traditional, but, according to a number of historians, not entirely correct, and therefore often disputed, correlation of the cultural revolution in the USSR only with the period 1928-1931. The cultural revolution in the 1930s was understood as part of larger transformations society and national economy, along with industrialization
And collectivization. Also, during the cultural revolution, the organization of scientific activity in the Soviet Union underwent significant restructuring and reorganization.
Results of the cultural revolution in the USSR
The successes of the Cultural Revolution include increasing the literacy rate to 87.4% of the population (according to the 1939 census), the creation of an extensive system of secondary schools, and the significant development of science and art. At the same time, an official culture was formed, based on Marxist class ideology, “communist education,” mass culture and education, which was necessary for the formation large quantity production personnel and the formation of a new “Soviet intelligentsia” from the workers’ and peasants’ environment.
According to one point of view, during this period, by means of Bolshevik ideologization, a break was made with the traditions of centuries-old historical cultural heritage.
On the other side, a whole series the authors dispute this position and come to the conclusion that traditional values and the worldviews of the Russian intelligentsia, the petty bourgeoisie and the peasantry were only slightly transformed during the cultural revolution, and the Bolshevik project of creating a more perfect, harmonious, collectivist person of a new type, that is, a “new man”, should be considered largely a failure
47. World War II: causes, background, goals and participants.
World War II 1939-1945 (World War II) - a war started by Germany and Italy