Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.site/
1. General characteristics of Russian literature of the first third of the 19th century. Historical identity of the era
In total, the literary era of the first third of the 19th century can be divided into three “sub-periods”:
1) Literature before 1825
2) Literature of the 30s.
3) Literature of the 40s.
This is a special century: a century when several literary movements dominate and co-exist with each other: classicism is still alive, sentimentalism still exists, romanticism is flourishing and realism is beginning to emerge.
The names of this period: Baratynsky, Pushkin, Lermontov, Lazhechnikov, Zhukovsky.
Historical identity of the era:
First of all, it should be noted that Russia has always been part of the world, so world events affected the country. In 1789-1793, the Great French Revolution took place in France. bourgeois revolution”, which completely changed the structure of the state and raised the country to a new level - the formation changed to bourgeois, and then to capitalist.
And a series of events took place in Russia: on March 11, 1801, Emperor Paul 1 was killed. Moreover, the murder was committed in the sovereign’s bedroom by his own relatives (aristocrats).
But new Age nevertheless, he showed hope for something new and good. “The days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning” - this is how the author begins one of his poems.
The talented reformer Speransky was also working at this time.
Personality of Alexander1. Unfortunately, he did not have all the necessary qualities to successfully govern the country; he was not decisive in matters of abolition of serfdom (especially when it came to the nobles). The emperor had two assistants who played a huge role: Speransky and Arakcheev, who were also called “Two the faces of Alexander."
But soon “only one face” remained: 1812 - Speransky was removed from his post.
1812 - second an important event that influenced the course of history: war.
It was at this moment that public consciousness awakened: enlightened people saw the truth, the true state of affairs of their country
But no one called for the abolition of serfdom: the people who created secret societies spoke only about “changes in order, reforms” - only Radishchev spoke openly about fundamental changes, about abolition - that’s why they called him a “rebel”
In Russia of that period there were two powerful forces, the largest segments of the population: the nobility and the peasantry
But after 1812, a new social thought appeared, and new layers also appeared: the intelligentsia, consisting of nobles and commoners.
It was after 1812 that slaves realized that they were slaves, and slave owners realized that they were slave owners. We compared the situation in France and understood our true situation.
Therefore, secret societies began to emerge that wanted progress for the country.
2 . The main literary movements of the era (the first third of the 19th century) and their aesthetics
Main directions: classicism with its prominent representatives Krylov, Derzhavin, in which features of realism subsequently began to appear and realism itself emerged (Pushkin’s Eugene Onegin); sentimentalism (Karamzin, early Zhukovsky), from which romanticism arose. Sentimentalism did not exist in Russia as a broad literary movement. It is also called Pre-Romanticism.
The largest movement of this period was romanticism. 3 most important motives of romanticism (motives of world sorrow): disappointment, loneliness, regret.
Aesthetics: mystery, dual worlds, the plot is based on man overcoming obstacles, the conflict between man and fate, the victory of fate over the will of man, romantic landscape. 3 stages of Russian romanticism: 1) 1810 - Zhukovsky - psychological; 2) 1818-1825 - Decembrist poets - civil 3) 1830-40 - Lermontov, Tyutchev - philosophical
"Classicism" is a term that means "exemplary." Ancient art was most often taken as a model.
The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Aesthetics: the law of 3 unities (time, place, action), the law of the unity of style and style, the law of the unity of genres, the correspondence of the main characters to the genre of the work, creativity is subject to strict regulation by the mind.
Realism in literature - A truthful depiction of reality (Typical characters in typical circumstances).
Aesthetics: 1. Ideal and reality - Realists need to prove that the ideal is real, i.e. it is not achievable.
2. Man and environment are the main problem for realists. A comprehensive image of a person. Concept of max. environment expanded: material factor, education, upbringing, social circle, etc. 3. Subjective and objective - In realism there is only objectivity! Distinguishing between the author and the hero, emphasizing their differences.
5. The formation of romanticism. Direction. and 6. Romanticism as literary method. Problems of ideal and reality, man and environment, subjective and objective.
The period 1810-1820 is considered to be the heyday of Russian romanticism. By the age of 30 it is observed new stage development of Russian romanticism (follow the chain of Lermontov - Baratynsky - Tyutchev) In Russia, romanticism was different from Western, which is why it is sometimes called “complex romanticism”
Romanticism in France - a reaction to revolution, defeat, the hero is disappointed in the world Hence the motives of loneliness and regret - from this - the motive of world sorrow - therefore the romantic hero is not satisfied with the entire world order, therefore there is no hope for the future
Until 1925, it was believed that romanticism was just a fashion, because in Russia until that year there was no reason for total disappointment - this is a special feature of romanticism
3 stages of romanticism in Russia:
And another problem of the romantics: assessing the national identity of each culture
The romantics' reasoning about form is a rejection of classicist canons. Motivation: the law interferes with creative freedom
Civic romanticism considered the utilitarian role of art in the life of society.
Problems of Romantics
1) the relationship between ideal and reality: through the application of the principle of dual worlds - rupture and collision, antithesis: there-here, otherworldly-earthly, heaven-earth, our (their) time - ancient cities. Often the ideal world can be the world of the past
2) the relationship between man and environment: man - the inner world, the world of feelings, passions, interest in the manifestation of passion, but what kind of passion it is - does not matter; in Russian romanticism - man, but what passion drives him?; about the environment: (this concept first appeared among the romantics) the national environment, as a more extensive local point
3) the problem of the relationship between the subjective and the objective: the author’s subjective perception, the romantic does not follow the objective, the world is through the author’s perception, society’s rejection, the idea that the individual plays decisive role in history. Hence the motive of the poet and the crowd. The author and the hero often coincide in psychological mood and assessment.
The hero is not satisfied with the world, the motive of escapism, the principle of dual worlds - the real and ideal worlds.
Romanticism (main rulings):
1) Landscape of the soul instead of a real landscape 2) the hero does not need a name and biography 3) reader-co-author of the work
3 . Traits and features of Russian romanticism. Psychological, civil and philosophical romanticism
The largest literary movement of the first third of the 19th century was romanticism. It arose as a reflection of a new historical era in Europe after the Great French Revolution (1789-1793)
The mood of hopelessness, despair, “world sorrow” is the disease of the century, inherent in the heroes of Chateaubriand, Byron, Musset.
In the 19th century, Russia was somewhat culturally isolated. Romanticism arose several years later than in Europe. We can talk about some imitation of Russian romanticism, about the absence of real reasons for the mood of hopelessness in Russia - romanticism was initially considered as a fashionable literary movement.
The Patriotic War of 1812 awakens the public consciousness of the people - progressive youth will unite in secret societies. She is disappointed by the lack of change in people's social inequality. - The first reasons for the emergence of True Russian Romanticism (this literary movement is no longer just an imitation, it is also felt by Russian writers).
1810-1820 is the most active period of Russian romanticism. by the 30s, a new stage in the development of romanticism began (Lermontov, Baratynsky, Tyutchev)
At the heart of romanticism is the conflict between man and society, the motive of escape from reality, the ideal world and the real world (two worlds), the motives of world sorrow, in the foreground is the inner world of man, the environment is just scenery, the author’s subjective perception of everything that happens (feelings).
The problem of nationality. Romanticism solves it through showing nationality, national color, in contrast to the method in realism (showing social manifestations)
Therefore, all the motives characteristic of romanticism as a whole were only reflected, not passed through one’s soul, the situation.
3 stages of romanticism in Russia:
1) 1810s: psychological romanticism (interest in the internal state of the hero, Zhukovsky (and the poets of his school))
2) 1818-1825: civil romanticism (call for change, the main participants were Decembrist poets)
3) 1825-1830: philosophical romanticism (motives: no hope of self-realization due to the era of the reaction of Nicholas 1, assessment of oneself and others, Lermontov, Tyutchev,)
A special feature of Pushkin’s romanticism: he combined in his works the features of civil and psychological romanticism (“To Chaadaev”)
In general, romanticism is the first literary movement in Russia that becomes scientifically substantiated (theory) - that is, the aesthetics of Russian romanticism is being formed
Therefore, the term “nationality” (color) was introduced - to show the situation and behavior in this situation. (nationality-nationality)
But soon problems began: the same problem of nationality. The problem of national character - the question arose: “if you create a national flavor, take it from history - what should the hero be like? By whom?" - that is, a problem of a national character. (what are characters? And are the characters of different nations different?)
And this merit belongs to the Decembrists: it was they who discovered the peculiarities of national character traits
But the solution to problems did not end there, because character was first perceived as a constant, not subject to change
4. Literary movements of the first third of the 19th century. Literary struggle and literary criticism. The formation of literary societies and their aesthetics
The need for the emergence of a unified Russian literary language was obvious. The solution to this problem in Russia took on the polemical and parodic nature of two literary associations - “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (1811-16) and the “Arzamas Society of Unknown People” (1815-18).
5 . Periodization of Russian literature of the first third of the 19th century. Characteristics of stages
The historical situation is approximately as follows. All kinds of popular peasant unrest spoil the blood of the government of Paul 1. The courtiers also do not lag behind and from March 11 to 12, 1801. stage a palace coup. The new Tsar Alexander 1, seeing this state of affairs, initially makes some concessions to a liberal-minded society - he allows private printing houses, the import of books from abroad, introduces a new censorship charter limiting administrative interference in press affairs, opens a bunch of universities and gymnasiums, etc. P. the next point on our program is the war of 1812, which, as a people’s and sacred war, awakened the people’s self-awareness and revealed enormous forces nation. How noble rage boiled up like a wave, like a Russian. the people liberated all of Europe from the French goats, and so they directly felt the need for a national. liberation. Hence all the civilians and the roar. themes in literature. Big talk about the abolition of serfdom, the barrel of autocracy and societies. structure of the country.
The literature of this period is extremely poignant. Collide literary movements and directions.
1801 - 1848:
Stage 1: until 1825 - noble period
Stage 2: 30s
Stage 3: 40s
Early 19th century - sunset time classicism. Derzhavin is still alive, the poets are Radishchevites. The position of classicism in drama is still strong (Ozerov, Griboyedov)
The satirical tradition continues to develop (Kantemir - founder, early 18th century; Fonvizin - late 18th century): Krylov, in whose fables realism originates.
- Satirical-moral (didactic) literature. Izmailov’s novel “Eugene, or the harmful consequences of upbringing”, Narezhny - Gogol’s predecessor: “Russian housing estate, or the adventures of Chistyakov.”
- Sentimentalism in Russia. It is inherent in all literary genres: poetry, prose, drama. Karamzin, Dmitriev. The limits of sentimentalism and early romanticism erased.
Works of Zhukovsky. He starts out as a sentimentalist, then goes beyond the boundaries and becomes the first Russian romantic.
- Romanticism (1810-1820)
3 stages: 1810 - Zhukovsky (psychological); 1818-1825 Decembrist poets (civil); 1830 - another outbreak of romanticism - Lermontov, Tyutchev (philosophical).
1823-1825 the first realistic works were created: “Woe from Wit” by Griboyedov, “Boris Godunov” by Pushkin.
1840s - realism.
6 . Problem romantic hero. The main motives of romanticism
Romanticism is a literary movement and artistic method, the emergence of which is associated with an era of crisis, with a transitional time when a change occurs social relations and a change in public consciousness. This is the expectation of something new, anxiety in front of this new, a hasty desire to know it.
The emergence of romanticism in Europe is associated with the events of the Great French Revolution of 1789. In Russia, the formation of Romanticism occurs against the backdrop of a powerful social upsurge that gripped Russian society after the Patriotic War of 1812.
The main idea is the glorification of a self-sufficient personality, feeling its independence, inexhaustibility and self-worth, with its desire for independence, unwillingness to obey the laws of the surrounding world that limit the capabilities of the individual.
Romantic hero.
This is a non-domestic, non-social person, tragically lonely and restless. It embodies a rebellious beginning, a challenge to reality. But he is internally static, his character does not develop. It is always subjective, it reflects the character of the author. He strives for this unusual and exotic.
The romantic hero, eager to explore the vastness of life, is usually associated with nature. Nature versus city. Some romantics like the peace and quiet of nature, others - restless forces - symbols of liberty and freedom. Many romantics tend to turn to folklore. Little attention was paid to the uniqueness of the spiritual world and character of the people.
Aesthetic principles differed from the rules of classical art. The romantics rejected a clear division of heroes into positive and negative, a sharp demarcation of good and evil, subordination to genre regulations, the rule of 3 unities...
The Romantics put forward the principle of creativity based on inspiration and asserted the priority of genius in art. The main thing is free poetic individuality.
Peculiarities:
1) Romantics reject the world around them. They are looking for an ideal outside of real life. (Zhukovsky looked for an ideal in the depths of the human spirit; Batyushkov - in pleasures, joys; Decembrists - in the heroic past)
2) The contrast between dreams and reality. Heroes strive to achieve an ideal, but do not achieve it and are defeated.
3) Romanticism is a reaction to the normative aesthetics of classicism. It is better to comprehend reality with feeling rather than with reason - the cult of the artist.
7 . Formation of Russian literary criticism. The term “nationality” in the aesthetics of Russian romanticism. Formation of realistic and philosophical criticism
The reasons and necessity of criticism are to establish rules, because contradictions began within romanticism.
Accompanying the development of literature is literary criticism. Literary struggle stimulates the development of criticism, which becomes a special form of literary art. The literary struggle was conducted orally, in lit. Salons. Everyone was for his own direction, even different trends arose in the directions.
The need for the emergence of a unified Russian literary language was obvious. The solution to this problem in Russia took on the polemical and parodic nature of two literary associations - “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word” (1811-16) and the “Arzamas Society of Unknown People” (1815-18).
In the early 1800s, Karamzin wrote several articles (“Why is there little authorial talent in Russia”), in which he argued that Russians do not know how to express psychological and philosophical points in their native language, but they do it fluently in French. It is necessary to bring bookish and spoken languages closer together, erase differences, and create a new one based on the “Middle” style. Changes should come naturally, without withdrawal. Karamzin’s articles immediately met with the decisive disapproval of Admiral Shishkov, who responded to them with a treatise “Discourse on the old and new syllable of the Russian language.” In it, he defends Russian culture, identity, denies that the nation that unleashed the Jacobin terror, destroyed the monarchy and rejected religion is an example to follow. Shishkov declares that Russia should not adopt the false Hebrew. Enlightenment, and to preserve and protect our national. Basics. Thus, if Karamzin walked forward, then Shishkov turned his entire gaze back. For this purpose, he turns to the Slavic language of church books, which was no longer spoken in everyday life. So, Karamzin and Shishkov agreed on the need for a single lit. Language, but differed in its creation. Karamzin chose the “Middle” syllable, Shishkov - the “high” and vernacular styles.
In order to educate future young writers, Shishkov organizes a literary. The Society “Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word”, its core consisted of Derzhavin, Krylov, Golenishchev, Shirinsky and others. In addition to them, Kuchelbaker, Katenin, Griboyedov, Gnedich took part in the meetings. Since 1810.
Then the patience of Karamzin’s supporters ran out, and they decided to respond. Karamzin himself did not take part in the controversy.
8 . The formation of romanticism in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky. Genre originality of Zhukovsky’s creativity. Reflections of the events of 1812 (“Singer in the camp of Russian warriors”)
1st period of creativity - Pre-romantic. The main genre is elegy. The main work is a translation of the elegy of the English poet Gray “The Country Cemetery”. The features of Zhukovsky’s poetic genius are clearly manifested. This work is a reflection on life, on the fate of man in the face of the eternal. It is based on thoughts about life. Interest in the world of the human soul, with its motives of the secret and mysterious. The peculiarity of the work is its amazing musicality, which allows you to feel a hidden connection with the world of human experiences and moods.
It was the individual that determined the essence of Zhukovsky’s poetry. Already in the poet’s first elegies, the inner structure of his soul was reflected, the literary mood, emotional coloring, and spirituality of the poet were manifested.
2nd period of creativity - The most important is the formation of romanticism. Elegies, songs, ballads.
The messages revealed feelings caused by the circumstances of the poet’s personal life and his social self-awareness. The subtext of Zhukovsky’s poems revealed the deep drama of the poet’s experiences and his complaints about life. The theme of human loneliness, the inevitability of his suffering in an imperfect world.
Motives of melancholy and longing, eternal dissatisfaction, striving for the unattainable. Light and reconcilable motives also sound. The inexhaustible riches of the human soul are contrasted with the tragedy of external existence; a joyless life - possible happiness in your inner world.
The theme of the poet and poetry, friendship. Often uses national and foreign material.
During this period, he wrote “A Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors,” where, on behalf of the warrior-poet, he glorifies the Russian knights who fought in the War of 1812. In it, he gave the patriotic theme a personal, intimate sound, and it became close to every contemporary. Patriotism ceased to be coldly solemn, warmed by the warmth of the poet’s soul. The wonderful property of poetry - to spiritualize and animate everything that exists - was brilliantly manifested in the elegy “The Sea”. With thoughts of man, J. spiritualizes the sea; nature is not indifferent, not dead. Just like in the soul of a person, the soul of the sea also has its own special secret hidden.
In order to express the inner world, the “soul,” in the image of a lyrical hero, Zhukovsky needed to transform the then poetic structure of Russian poetry. The word contains the basic and secondary meanings. Rationalistic poetics was built on the basic, objective meanings of words. Based on Zhukovsky’s descriptions, it is difficult to determine the physical reflection of the object; the emotional reflections of the perception of l.g. are brought to the fore. subject meanings. If we compare the same word “Quiet” in Zhukovsky and Derzhavin, it is clear that in Zhukovsky it will mean “Pacified”, “giving consent”, etc. Thus, Zhukovsky revives in the word additional emotional shades hidden in the word itself. It is important for the author not just to paint a picture, but to convey his soul and experience through it. In Zhukovsky, the landscape is always associated with mood.
It is Zhukovsky who is credited with expanding the poetic vocabulary of Russian lyrics. With his elegies, Zhukovsky breathed new content into Russian poetry and transformed its structure. Their content is sad not because the canons say so, but because of “the poet’s prevailing worldview.” The predominant tone of J.'s poems is fascination with Existence, the world created by God, and disappointment with society. Since in real world between enlightened, deep moral personality with her great spiritual needs and skeletal society, an abyss lay, then Zh.’s personality is always desperately lonely. The human soul is immense and contains the entire Universe. The poet believed that in the end the beautiful and the sublime would win. Dual worlds are fully reflected in Zhukovsky’s TV.
9 . The ballad genre in the works of V. A. Zhukovsky. Dispute about the ballad genre within the romantic movement
1) Initially, the ballad was a synthesis genre of two types of art (music and literature), because it was a dance song of love content. Moreover, the entire Universe in the ballad was divided into two worlds (“earthly” and “terrestrial”), and its goal was to show the human soul in both of these worlds. The Russian ballad is associated with the name of V. A. Zhukovsky. In total, he wrote thirty-nine ballads, five of which are original. However, his poetic translations can truly rival the original. After all, the poet takes only the outline of the plot, changing and making his own amendments to the image state of mind. It must be said that all of his poetry is very autobiographical, therefore, unlike Western balladeers, Zhukovsky does not separate himself and his heroes, his fate and their life's ups and downs. Thus, the poet complicates his task: to reveal the human soul. Therefore, the narrative is introduced great amount motives. It is interesting that in this case the narrative itself is divided into many plots, because the motive is the unit of its construction, which creates the image of an immense and inexplicable soul.
The main motif that “permeates” all of Zhukovsky’s ballads is the motif of wandering, the path. All heroes are shown on the road.
Moreover, very often this path is symbolic.
A new motive arises - the motive of two worlds, the line between which is marked by death, also a kind of journey.
It is precisely as the greatest happiness that it is perceived, for it is a transition to Eternity, a movement towards peace. And in order to contrast life before and after death, Zhukovsky deliberately alternates in the ballad “The Forest Tsar” the last tense picture of a horse race:
“The rider is galloping, the rider is galloping...” (the poet recreates the clatter of horses and the general state of anxiety by repeating words and syllables: rider-rider, galloping) - and the quiet, peaceful state of death: “In his hands the dead baby lay "
Almost all the heroes of Zhukovsky’s ballads dream “of a sweetheart, of a different world.” This largely explains their impulse to wander, to look for something similar. Their homeland is not their homeland, but only a temporary place of residence. Their homeland is the afterlife. This division of the Universe into a moment and eternity contrasts the possibility of feelings in both worlds. It turns out that the motive of another world is revealed with the help of others. Thus, the two worlds are tested by the possibility of love. According to Zhukovsky, love on earth is a faint reflection of heaven. True love is possible only after death (this is another reason for such a passionate desire to bring this hour closer). Having received a “moment of happiness” on earth, the heroes always mourn.
Zhukovsky tests his heroes with the ability of the feat of one soul in the name of another. This is the only way they can earn the right to “get into” the heavenly world.
Herself earthly life perceived as a test
Zhukovsky's other world always communicates with the outside. So, with the help of motifs of the road, another world, death, separation, love, faith, retribution, the unity of man with nature and leitmotifs, Zhukovsky conveys all the doubts and sensations of the human soul and for the first time in Russian literature raises the question of the priority of the spiritual over the material.
2) about the dispute over the ballad genre
The dispute arose after Zhukovsky’s translation of Burger’s ballad “Lenora” (his version is “Lyudmila”). This is how the polemic between Armazas (Zhukovsky) and the young archaists began in 1816. Many believed that “Lyudmila” lacked Russian flavor. Therefore, after Katenin decided to write his own version - “Olga”. Olga was full of vernacular, so the difference between the two options is in style and language. Griboedov and Somov also spoke out against Zhukovsky’s ballads (in “On Romantic Poetry”)
"Arzamas" - (1813) arose as a society focused on polemics with "Conversation". It included Zhukovsky, Vyazemsky, Dashkov, Orlov, Uvarov, Batyushkov, Bludov, Uvarov, young Pushkin. In contrast to the official "Conversation", the Arzamas people emphasized the provincialism of the "Society of Unknown People", chose a goose as their emblem and playfully began to repel the attacks of the "Conversation". The language of Arzamas speeches, replete with quotes and reminiscences, was designed for a European-educated interlocutor capable of grasping subtle irony. The language of the initiates. The Arzamas residents contrasted the ponderous, stately darkness of the writings and speeches of Shishkov’s supporters with the light, dandy style of Karamzin as well as “Arzamas nonsense.”
But within the Russian romantics (“Arzamas”) there is a split:
“Young Archaists” is a movement based on criticism of Gallomania - French fashion. They stood for the national character of Russian literature. The language should be as close as possible to the vernacular. It included Griboyedov, Katenin, Kuchelbecker.
A dispute arises between “Arzamas” and “Young Archaists”, which results in a contradiction about the ballad genre. After Zhukovsky wrote “Lyudmila,” Katenin calls his translation “Olga” (Burger). The difference is in style and language: Katenin translated and wrote in colloquial, folk language, the work turned out to be rude and dissonant.
romanticism is the first literary movement in Russia that becomes scientifically substantiated (theory) - that is, the aesthetics of Russian romanticism is being formed
Therefore, the term “nationality” (color) was introduced - to show the situation and behavior in this situation. (nationality=nationality)
10. The formation of realism in Russian literature. Realism as a literary movement I 11. Realism as an artistic method. Problems of ideal and reality, man and environment, subjective and objective
Realism is a truthful depiction of reality (Typical characters in typical circumstances).
Realism was faced with the task of not only reflecting reality, but also penetrating into the essence of the displayed phenomena by revealing their social conditionality and identifying historical meaning, and most importantly, to recreate the typical circumstances and characters of the era
1823-1825 - the first realistic works are created. These are Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”. By the 40s, realism was on its feet. This era is called “golden”, “brilliant”. Literary criticism appears, which gives rise to literary struggle and aspiration. And thus the letters appear. society.
One of the first Russian writers to embrace realism was Krylov.
Realism as an artistic method.
1. Ideal and reality - realists had the task of proving that the ideal is real. This is the most difficult question, since in realistic works this question is not relevant. Realists need to show that the ideal does not exist (they do not believe in the existence of any ideal) - the ideal is real, and therefore it is not achievable.
2. Man and environment is the main theme of realists. Realism involves a comprehensive depiction of man, and man is a product of his environment.
a) environment - extremely expanded (class structure, social environment, material factor, education, upbringing)
b) man is the interaction of man with the environment, man is a product of the environment.
3. Subjective and objective. Realism is objective, typical characters in typical circumstances, shows character in a typical environment. The distinction between the author and the hero (“I am not Onegin” A.S. Pushkin) In realism there is only objectivity (reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist), because realism sets before art the task of faithfully reproducing reality.
An “open” ending is one of the most important signs of realism.
The main achievements of the creative experience of the literature of realism were the breadth, depth and truthfulness of the social panorama, the principle of historicism, a new method of artistic generalization (the creation of typical and at the same time individualized images), depth psychological analysis, revealing internal contradictions in psychology and relationships between people.
11 . The work of I. A. Krylov in the first third of the 19th century. Innovation of Krylov the fabulist. Genre features of fables. Dramatic beginning
One of the first Russian writers to embrace realism was Krylov. Krylov's fables. 1809 - 1 collection of fables. Krylov also found himself under the influence of the French Revolution - understanding events. Krylov is the son of the Enlightenment, which fostered the kingdom of reason. Life is not subject to imagination; there are laws independent of man. And Krylov decides to write the laws of life - which is our reality. Krylov associated the choice of the fable genre with the problem of nationality. This genre, in his opinion, is the most adequate with the help of which public opinion can be clearly expressed. One of the tasks was to overcome class distinctions. Here the concept of nationality is understood by the people so that it fits their intelligence. In Krylov’s opinion, the fable became the optimal genre that could reflect Russian reality and erase class boundaries. Realism was more evident in the language. The language reform of the fable prepared the language of Russian realism. Krylov was the first to see in the language of fables the need for a moral and psychological separation of the speeches of the heroes.
He wrote about 200 fables: “The Oak and the Reed,” “The Cuckoo and the Nightingale,” “The Fox and the Cheese,” “The Monkey and the Glasses.”
Kondraty Fedorovich Ryleev (1795-1826) insists in his works that he is, first of all, a citizen, and valued their citizenship, fighting character, and revolutionary spirit in his works. Ryleev believes that the artist should renounce narrow and personal themes. Only that which contributes to the happiness of the fatherland can become the subject of inspiration for a poet. Love themes are alien to him. On days when the “fatherland is suffering,” only military anxieties can give consolation to the fighter-poet.
For the first time, Ryleev’s civic patriotism manifested itself in his poem “To the Temporary Worker” (1820). It was directed against the temporary worker Arakcheev, the tsar’s favorite, the organizer of military settlements. Rendering merciless condemnation to the despotic favorite, the poet turns to the harshest epithets: “arrogant”, “mean and insidious” temporary worker, “frantic” tyrant, “cunning flatterer”, and finally - a scoundrel. But next to the image of a temporary worker in the poem, the image of a Poet, a Citizen, a proud, independent person appears. The poem clearly shows Ryleev's civic position - to evaluate a statesman not by the rank he holds, but by the benefit he brought to the Fatherland, by what he did for the people. Ryleev's civic courage was manifested in his angry words addressed to the tyrant:
Oh, how I try to glorify him with the lyre,
Who will deliver my fatherland from you?
The cycle of historical “Dumas” by Ryleev, written in the spirit of civic-heroic romanticism in 1821 - 1823, is also imbued with the pathos of citizenship. In the printed preface, the poet explained their purpose with the words: “to remind youth of the exploits of their ancestors, to acquaint them with the brightest eras folk history, to unite love for the fatherland with the first impressions of memory.” The historical range of thoughts is very wide - from the 10th to the beginning of the 19th century, from the exploits of Oleg the Prophet to the death of Derzhavin. This is how a kind of Russian history in verse was created - a series of paintings restoring the heroic deeds of past centuries. The poet praises the courage shown in the struggle for national independence and independence of the homeland, for the liberation of the people from foreign rule. And in his thoughts the images of Vadim, Olga, Dmitry Donskoy, Ermak, Susanin, Bogdan Khmelnitsky, fighters against internal tyrants trampling on the rights and freedoms of the individual (images of Kurbsky and Volynsky), patriots who marked themselves with military exploits for the sake of the greatness of their fatherland (images of Svyatoslav and Prophetic Oleg. Turning to the past, the poet wanted to show that the ideals of the most progressive people of his time were based on the best traditions of the people in their battles for national independence and freedom. For the sake of this goal, he deliberately neglected historical authenticity and deliberately transformed his heroes, endowing them with traits. of his time. To resurrect history in order to arouse the valor of contemporaries with the glorious deeds of their ancestors - this is Ryleev’s main intention.
The highest achievement of Ryleev’s political evolution is the poem “Voinarovsky” - a work that resurrected episodes of Mazepa’s treasonous policy. The main theme of the poem is the struggle for the national independence of Ukraine. The poet portrays his hero Voinarovsky as a brave tyrant-hater, accustomed from childhood to “honoring Brutus,” the soul of a “truly free” and noble “defender of Rome.” This is an ardent patriot, ready to make any sacrifice for the sake of his homeland. For Ryleev’s contemporaries, these words sounded like an oath of allegiance to the homeland and a call to civic sacrifice.
Ryleev based the poem on a real historical event, intending to emphasize the scale and drama of the personal destinies of the heroes - Voinarovsky, his wife and Mazepa. The author in the poem is deliberately separated from the hero. Thanks to the broad historical background against which a real historical hero appears - an extraordinary, strong-willed, purposeful personality, in “Voinarovsky” the narrative element is strengthened compared to thoughts. However, Ryleev's poem remained romantic. Although the hero separated from the author, he acted as a bearer of the author's ideas. Ryleev connects Voinarovsky with a historically unjust social movement, and the hero in exile thinks about the real content of his activities, trying to understand whether he was a toy in the hands of Mazepa or an associate of the hetman. This allows the poet to preserve the high image of the hero and at the same time show Voinarovsky at a spiritual crossroads. Unlike the heroes of thought languishing in prison or exile, who remain integral individuals, do not at all doubt the rightness of their cause and the respect of posterity, the exiled Voinarovsky is no longer completely convinced of his justice, and he dies without any hope for folk memory, lost and forgotten.
12 . Russian romantic poem. Structural and genre features. Kozlov “Chernets”, Ryleev “Voinarovsky”, Baratynsky “Eda”
The poem is an expression of Kozlov’s conscious desire to create an independent romantic poem based on Russian material. Kozlov is one of the first Russian “Byronists”. Kozlov is trying to create an apotheosis for Byron, to cover his entire life, his social and family conflicts, talking about the poet’s love of freedom, about the flame of fatal passions. “Chernets” (1825) is a poem that brought fame to Kozlov. The unfortunate fate of the bedridden poet, who was also about to lose his hearing and sight, extremely fueled interest in Kozlov. And the “Byronic” image of the hero - Chernets - received psychological authenticity. The content of the poem is as follows: in one of the Kyiv monasteries a monk, a “young sufferer,” takes refuge. He arrived there at night, in a storm, his fate is mysterious. One day he told the monastery elder about himself. He grew up as a homeless orphan, did not know his native affection: “When my peers were playing, I was already thinking.” He had no one to love, he lived unsociablely:
I had nothing to lose.
I had no one to part with.
And so a gray-haired warrior with his wife and seventeen-year-old daughter arrived from the banks of the Neva to his native land. The young man fell in love with the girl, and her parents betrothed them. The wedding was already coming up. But suddenly a rival, a distant relative of the beloved, appeared and began to insidiously flatter and forcibly force the girl into marriage. In humiliation of the opponent it is said that he betrayed his honor when he served as a cornet in the Polish army. The mother of the beloved maiden dies, and an insidious rival began to take possession of the soul of her father, and he betrays his word. The hero of the poem decided to act boldly:
He despised the villain, took his daughter away
And he secretly married her.
The couple lived happily for a whole year and were already expecting a baby. But an evil rival slandered the lovers and said that the daughter was cursed by her father. The daughter cannot withstand the ordeal and dies in terrible agony. The newborn son also dies. The hero buried them and left the region where he became orphaned. But in his soul he always carried the image of his wife and baby, imagined them blissful in paradise and wanted to quickly unite with them. And then one day, visiting their grave in a clearing, he meets his rival on horseback, the killer of his son and wife. There is no forgiveness for him. The hero strikes the villain with a dagger when he tried to draw his saber. In terrible mental shock, he wanders through the fields, suddenly hears the bell for matins and finds himself in the temple. But what can he pray for now? In spiritual depression, he realizes that now it is even more difficult to unite with his beloved . The murderer came to the monastery for repentance. He prays in front of the icons. And then one day his wife appears before him, in a white veil. Etane was a trick of the imagination. It was she with the baby in her arms. She tells her husband that he is forgiven by heaven. He rushes towards her, and her shadow disappears. The hero dies in terrible torment.
The mastery of the verse is impeccable, almost Pushkin's lightness, you can even catch the features of the brewing sharp Lermontov contrast. Here are some more examples:
I had everything, I lost everything... This all adds elasticity to the style. Kozlov perceived “Byronism” in a suffering way. Only Lermontov - a “Byronist” with a Russian soul - will convey all the power of Byron’s grief and protest, the thirst for active action against evil.
Ryleev has always been distinguished by exceptional honesty and selflessness. He kept the title of revolutionary pure. These noble moral qualities Ryleev also poeticized the characters in his works. Belonged to them central image poem "Voinarovsky". In it, Ryleev strove for historical truthfulness. He attached serious importance to descriptions of the Siberian region, achieving ethnographic, geographical and everyday accuracy. Ryleev introduced into the poem many real details concerning the nature, customs and life of the harsh region.
Ryleev based the poem on a real historical event, intending to emphasize the scale and drama of the personal destinies of the heroes - Voinarovsky, his wife and Mazepa. The author in the poem is deliberately separated from the hero. Thanks to the broad historical background against which a real historical hero appears - an extraordinary, strong-willed, purposeful personality, in “Voinarovsky” the narrative element is strengthened compared to thoughts. However, Ryleev's poem remained romantic. Although the hero separated from the author, he acted as a bearer of the author's ideas. Ryleev’s image of Voinarovsky is split in two: on the one hand, Voinarovsky is depicted as personally honest and not privy to Mazepa’s plans. He cannot be held responsible for the secret intentions of the traitor, since they are unknown to him. On the other hand, Ryleev connects Voinarovsky with a historically unjust social movement, and the hero in exile thinks about the real content of his activities, trying to understand whether he was a toy in the hands of Mazepa or an associate of the hetman. This allows the poet to preserve the high image of the hero and at the same time show Voinarovsky at a spiritual crossroads. Unlike the heroes of thought languishing in prison or exile, who remain integral individuals, do not at all doubt the rightness of their cause and the respect of posterity, the exiled Voinarovsky is no longer completely convinced of his justice, and he dies without any hope of popular memory, lost and forgotten.
Toning down the love plot, Ryleev brings to the fore the social motives of the hero’s behavior and his civic feelings. The drama of the poem lies in the fact that the hero-tyrant fighter, whose sincere and convinced love of freedom the author does not doubt, is placed in circumstances that force him to evaluate the life he has lived. Voinarovsky does not reproach himself for his feelings. And in exile he adheres to the same convictions as in freedom. He is a strong, courageous man who prefers torture to suicide. His whole soul is still turned to his native land. He dreams of the freedom of his homeland and longs to see her happy. However, hesitations and doubts constantly break into Voinarovsky’s thoughts. They relate primarily to the enmity of Mazepa and Peter, the activities of the hetman and the Russian Tsar. Until his last hour, Voinarovsky does not know who his homeland found in Petra - an enemy or a friend, just as he does not understand Mazepa’s secret intentions, but this means that Voinarovsky is not clear about the meaning of his own life: if Mazepa was driven by vanity, personal gain, if he wanted “ erect a throne,” then, consequently, Voinarovsky became a participant in an unjust cause, but if Mazepa is a hero, then Voinarovsky’s life was not in vain. The poet does not hide Voinarovsky's weaknesses. Civic passion filled the hero's entire soul, but he is forced to admit that he did not understand much about historical events, although he was a direct and active participant in them. In his poem, as in his thoughts, the content of history was the struggle of tyrant fighters and patriots against autocracy. Therefore, Peter, Mazepa and Voinarovsky were portrayed one-sidedly. Peter in Ryleev’s poem is only a tyrant, and Mazepa and Voinarovsky are freedom-lovers who oppose despotism. Meanwhile, the content of the real historical conflict it was immeasurably more difficult. Mazepa and Voinarovsky acted quite consciously and did not personify civic valor.
In the poem “Voinarovsky,” Ryleev came face to face with a life situation that would interest him in the future. Wojnarowski acknowledges the possibility of personal error. His subjective intentions diverged from the objective meaning of the social movement to which he joined.
romanticism realism lyrics literature
13 . Civil lyrics of the Decembrist poets. The genre of the romantic poem (V. F. Raevsky, F. N. Glinka, V. K. Kuchelbecker, P. A. Katenin)
1) The poetic movement associated with Decembrism grew out of the struggle against the foundations of the feudal-serf system. The Decembrist poets approved public role poetry, its civil purpose.
In search of an effective and politically committed artistic word The Decembrist poets sharply diverged from the sentimental-elegiac direction of Zhukovsky’s school and were the heirs and continuers of Radishchev’s revolutionary traditions. Political differentiation among the Decembrists, who were divided into more left-wing and more right-wing, also determined the degree of their progressiveness. literary activity. From this point of view, of course, the political positions of Ryleev, this most revolutionary Decembrist poet, are incommensurable with the positions of F. Glinka or Katenin: it is no coincidence that Glinka belonged to the extremely moderate wing of the Welfare Union, and Katenin, an active figure in the Decembrist movement in its early stage.
The most characteristic feature of the work of the Decembrist poets was a deep interest in Russian national history, patriotic pride in the heroic past of one's homeland. The most important thematic line of Decembrist poetry was the reproduction of great historical events and images of heroes of the past, reflecting the freedom-loving spirit of the Russian people in their struggle for freedom and national independence. Ancient Novgorod with its veche system and republican liberties aroused particular sympathy among the Decembrists. In their literary activity, the Decembrists did not confine themselves to the confines of Russian history and culture, widely drawing materials from the history of other peoples. Antique images became unique conventional symbols for designating very specific phenomena of modern Russian political and social life.
The system of “adaptations” among the Decembrist poets, pursuing certain goals of circumventing censorship, at the same time also reflected characteristic feature their artistic method. Along with the critical current in the depiction and assessment of social reality, elements of propaganda and political symbolism and allegorism appear quite clearly in Decembrist poetry. Allegorical forms were, in particular, F. N. Glinka’s favorite method.
Similar documents
Zhukovsky's path to romanticism. The difference between Russian romanticism and Western. The contemplative romance of creativity, the eclecticism of the poet’s early works. The philosophical beginning in the poet's lyrics, genre originality ballads, significance for Russian literature.
course work, added 10/03/2009
Humanism as the main source of Russian artistic power classical literature. The main features of literary trends and stages of development of Russian literature. The life and creative path of writers and poets, the global significance of Russian literature of the 19th century.
abstract, added 06/12/2011
The state of Russian criticism of the 19th century: directions, place in Russian literature; major critics, magazines. Meaning of S.P. Shevyrev as a critic for journalism of the 19th century during the period of transition of Russian aesthetics from the romanticism of the 20s to the critical realism of the 40s.
test, added 09/26/2012
Development of Russian literature of the 19th century. The main directions of sentimentalism. Romanticism in Russian literature of 1810-1820. The political orientation of public interests towards a patriotic spirit, the idea of the religious revival of the country and people.
course work, added 02/13/2015
The 19th century is the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry, the century of Russian literature on a global scale. The flourishing of sentimentalism is the dominant feature of human nature. The formation of romanticism. Poetry of Lermontov, Pushkin, Tyutchev. Critical realism as a literary movement.
report, added 12/02/2010
The dominant concepts and motives in Russian classical literature. Parallel between the values of Russian literature and Russian mentality. Family as one of the main values. Morality glorified in Russian literature and life as it should be.
abstract, added 06/21/2015
The main features of the formation of Russian culture in the 19th century. Romanticism as a reflection of Russian national identity. Creativity L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, their realistic approach and views on Russia’s historical choice and the problem of man.
abstract, added 04/16/2009
General characteristics of romanticism as a movement in literature. Features of the development of romanticism in Russia. Literature of Siberia as a mirror of Russian literary life. Techniques of artistic writing. The influence of the Decembrists' exile on literature in Siberia.
test, added 02/18/2012
Genres of literary criticism. Literary-critical activity of A.V. Lunacharsky and M. Gorky. Features of the author's narration. Periodical literary critical publications. Problems of covering national literatures in Russian criticism of the twentieth century.
course work, added 05/24/2016
The origins of Russian literary criticism and discussions around its nature. Trends in modern literary process and criticism. Evolution creative path V. Pustova as a literary critic of modern times, the traditionalism and innovation of her views.
Literature as a form of art.
Literature is not just academic subject, giving a certain amount of knowledge, but, first of all, literature is a type of art.
Literature (from the Latin litera - letter, writing) is a type of art in which the main means of figurative reflection of life is the word.
Fiction is a type of art that is capable of most comprehensively and widely revealing the phenomena of life, showing them in movement and development.
As an art of words, fiction arose in oral folk art. Its sources were songs and folk epic tales. The word is an inexhaustible source of knowledge and an amazing means for creating artistic images. In words, in the language of any people, their history, their character, the nature of the Motherland are captured, the wisdom of centuries is concentrated. The living word is rich and generous. It has many shades. It can be menacing and gentle, instill horror and give hope. No wonder the poet Vadim Shefner said this about the word:
A word can kill, a word can save,
With a word you can lead the shelves with you.
In a word you can sell and betray and buy,
The word can be poured into striking lead.
Fiction- a type of art in which the word is the main means of figurative reflection of life. The basic concept of literature is image; with the help of images, fiction recreates entire eras in the diversity of their past, present and future: vicissitudes antiquity we learn in tragedies Sophocles And Euripides, eras Renaissance– y Shakespeare And Lope de Vega; in novels L. Tolstoy And I. Turgeneva We are faced with the moral quest of the nobles of the early 19th century.
The main means of literature, as we have already said, is the word. Through the images created by words, the author tries to captivate the reader, “include” him in the action, and make his presence in the time and space of the work “real.” Such “participation” is necessary for a complete and deeper understanding of what is written: for example, the reader worries about Tatyana in “Eugene Onegin”, tries to understand the reasons for Katerina’s actions in “The Thunderstorm” and the complex spiritual world Natasha Rostova in “War and Peace”, the tragedy of Grigory Melekhov in “Quiet Don”. It is our (“reader’s”) perception and deep experience of the fate of the heroes that indicates that literature is an art, the art of words.
Poetry evokes a special emotional reaction in the human soul. Poetry is voluminous and multifaceted in relation to thematic plan: poetry does not mean “poems about love”, these are works on various topics - and intimate, philosophical, military and others. The reader is not left indifferent by the sincere and confessional lines of A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, the immortal words of A. Tvardovsky, the philosophical reflections of B. Pasternak and O. Mandelstam, etc.
Fiction can be considered the most versatile form of art: for example, V. Surikov’s wonderful painting “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution” needs historical commentary, but A. Tolstoy’s novel “Peter I” does not: it conveys the breath of the era in the details of everyday life and human relationships.
The fundamental basis of dramatic theater is fiction. National theaters were created on the basis of the works of Shakespeare, Ostrovsky, Gogol, Chekhov, Ibsen, Shaw, etc. The literary text served to create opera art: the greatest geniuses Tchaikovsky and Mussorgsky, when creating their operas, turned to Pushkin’s texts (“Eugene Onegin”, “ Queen of Spades", "Boris Godunov").
Films are created based on the text - the script. Many of them are film adaptations of works of art (“The Master and Margarita” and “The Idiot” by V. Bortko, “War and Peace” by S. Bondarchuk).
Fiction is closely connected with society, with its movement towards a humanistic ideal. Literature is the focus of socio-historical experience and personal experience in mastering the world around us. It helps to establish a connection between generations, to form, develop and strengthen a scale of values.
Literature in society performs several functions: educational(study of the surrounding world), aesthetic(cultivating a sense of beauty), heuristic(“discovery of the world”), communicative(dialogue “author-reader”), etc.
As we see, literature is deservedly named a leader among other types of art due to its significance for the development of both an individual person and all of humanity - both in a specific era and in a global sense.
Thus, words in human speech and in fiction do not live separately. They are united and coordinated by thought, the idea of a work, and animated by human speech. A simple, familiar human word. But with the power of his talent, like a magic wand, a writer or poet turns the word to us in an unexpected way, forcing us to feel, think, and empathize.
Art - great wizard and a kind of time machine. Any writer, observing, studying life, embodies with the help of words everything that he saw, felt, and understood. Literature has the special power of educating humanity in a person. It enriches us with very special knowledge - knowledge about people, about their inner world. Literature as the art of words has amazing ability influence the minds and hearts of people, helps to reveal the true beauty of the human soul.
General characteristics of literature of the 19th century.
The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman"(1833), "Bakhchisarai Fountain", "Gypsies" ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, many romantic poems. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels V. Scott, whose translations were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is an artistic type extra person", the example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type “ little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “ Stationmaster».
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is evident). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. Full satirical images and works by A.S. Pushkin. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict vices and shortcomings Russian society- a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.
Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who can live well in Rus'? ", as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens new page in the history of Russian literature.
Related information.
Rip off the brilliant Europe veil and you will see a terrible a picture of her poverty and vices. S. Rodriguez
At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, the collapse of feudalism was obvious. The French bourgeois revolution, which promised that the world would be ruled by Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, led to the victory of the bourgeois system, but very soon it became clear that this system could not ensure universal happiness.
Not having the strength to do one thing
Happy, they neglected him
And they began to look for happiness for everyone
(G. Leopardi)
It turned out that the French Revolution turned people “deprived of bread into people also deprived of morality.”
The 19th century was rich in revolutions and coups. In addition to the French Revolution, in 1848-1849. Revolutions take place in Europe at the turn of 1850-1860. A revolutionary situation arises in Russia, the United States is shaken by the Civil War of 1861-1865.
In the advanced countries of Europe and the USA it continues industrial revolution(railroads, steamships, telegraph appear). However, many technical inventions designed to improve life only highlight the imperfection of the world.
Capitalism eliminated social injustice(anyone can become rich, and therefore noble), but gave rise to many other injustices. A generation comes to power that does not know what morality is. Money becomes their golden dream, and money and morality turn out to be incompatible. This has led to the fact that the heroes of almost all works are deeply immoral people (Georges Duroy, Gobsek, Tsakhes, Claude Frollo).
The contradictions of life are naturally transferred to literature. Central to the artistic trends of the era is the question of not only how a person can survive in this world, but also how how to actively participate in historical process how to influence him, that is, to be a person’s “hammer or anvil”(Goethe).
The literary process of the first half of the 19th century was very unique compared to previous eras. The speed of development of literature is increasing. New artistic movements emerge and form into integral systems very quickly (it takes decades, not centuries). Moreover, the emergence of a new method does not mean a complete negation of the old one. Therefore, a characteristic feature of the era is the coexistence of polar opposite directions in art:
1) romanticism (the desire to escape to another, ideal world);
2) realism (an attempt to analyze and then change this world).
Romanticism
Romanticism is an artistic movement that originated in Germany, which cultivates the individual, his subjective experiences, his rich inner world.
In the 18th century, this term had a different meaning: everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found more often in books than in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. this word was used to denote new artistic direction, the opposite of classicism.
The social basis of romanticism becomes disappointment in his era, in the new society, with which great hopes were associated, since this society was predicted by the great minds of Europe. The romantics believed that they had to live under an inglorious star, when Europe was suffering from revolutions, when all the best human impulses were vulgarized. Such disappointment was certainly accompanied by a mood of hopelessness, despair, “world sorrow is the “disease of the century.” Alfred de Musset in his novel “Confession of a Son of the Century” wrote: “Hopelessness walked across the earth, and the sons of the century, full of strength, no longer needed by anyone, dropped idle hands and drank this poisoned drink from a meager cup. The disease of our century comes from two reasons; the people carry two wounds in their hearts. Everything that happened has already passed. Everything that will happen has not yet come.” Pushkin said that the trouble with everything romantic was the premature passion of the soul: “No: the feelings in him cooled down early” (Eugene Onegin).
A person finds himself dropped out of social relations and, as a result, the illusion of individual freedom from life circumstances arises, the myth is created that one person can change the world(Napoleon's personality).
Dissatisfaction with modern reality leads to the emergence of two worlds (the real world and the ideal world, the dream world). Much attention Romantics focus on childhood. Childhood was interpreted as an ideal world, a world of harmony, whose depth and charm attracts adults. “Adulthood” is a time that has lost the spontaneity and purity of childhood.
Romanticism rejected one of the basic principles of educational literature - “imitation of nature.” The Romantics believed that the author should be absolutely free, he should create only according to his own laws. Oscar Wilde wrote: “Do not attribute unhealthy tendencies to the artist; he is allowed to depict everything.”
The era of romanticism is characterized by renewal artistic forms and the entire system of literary genres, a reform of the stage takes place (the merging of lyrics and drama). New, transitional genres are being created (lyric-epic and lyric-epic-dramatic), a romantic poem is being created anew (symbolic, morally descriptive, folklore), romantic drama turns to the traditions of Shakespeare and Calderon, “dramatic poems” appear (Byron, Shelley). Lyricism reaches an extraordinary flowering (the words are associative, polysemantic, metaphorical). Romanticism theorists preached openness literary families and genres, a synthesis of art, religion and philosophy, emphasized the musical and pictorial principles in poetry. The most popular of the lyric epic genres is ballad, in prose poetic forms predominate - fairy tale, lyrical short story.
The prose of romanticism developed in many genre directions. Romanticism used both the classical short story, and the chivalric romance (“The Count of Monte Cristo” by Dumas the Father), and elements of the picaresque novel, and the oriental rococo fairy tale. In the 30-40s. turns out romantic social novel (J. Sand, E. Xu, V. Hugo), appears fantastic story. The historical novel, which existed in the previous period, was radically reworked and became one of the central genres.
Realism
Realism (from Latin realis - material, real) is an artistic method that involves a truthful and objective depiction of reality in artistic images.
The work of most writers of the 19th century developed in line with realism, and although realist writers of the first half of the 19th century did not consider themselves to be part of a single movement, this did not mean that such a movement did not exist. In 10-20 years. it was already maturing in the depths of romanticism, in the 30-40s. declared itself in different European countries as a noticeable phenomenon. By the 40s. realism is already an independent and significant trend in European literature.
Realists sought to penetrate into the essence of social processes; they wanted not only to discover a new world, but also to explore its laws and connections. For realists, a person was interesting both as a unique personality, and as a typical phenomenon, and as a historical figure - not in the sense that he played some important role in history, but in the fact that he belonged to history without realizing it.
Description of the presentation by individual slides:
1 slide
Slide description:
General characteristics of Russian literature first half of the 19th century The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Pushkin Alexander Sergeevich (1799-1837)
2 slide
Slide description:
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events during the Pugachev Rebellion*. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) * Peasant War of 1773-1775 led by Emelyan Pugachev (Pugachevschina, Pugachev uprising, Pugachev rebellion) - an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks, which grew into a full-scale peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev. Gogol Nikolai Vasilievich (1809-1852)
3 slide
Slide description:
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”
4 slide
Slide description:
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism*). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. * Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art. Chichikov
5 slide
Slide description:
At the beginning of the 19th century, one of the most important literary figures was N.M. Karamzin. By nature prone to sensitivity and melancholy, he eagerly embraced the influences of Western literature - Rousseau and his followers, French and German, Richardson's English novel, Sterne's humor. Karamzin considered it his duty to visit famous writers, and for the first time in Russian literature he gave live information about the characters of the European Enlightenment. Karamzin's sentimental stories were a success - " Poor Lisa", and historical stories, in which the sentimental rhetoric of the future "History of the Russian State" is manifested. For the first time, Russian history was presented by a talented, already famous writer, armed with multifaceted research, but at the same time in a beautiful, accessible form, in a tone of national pride and with sentimental eloquence, which should have been especially effective in popular reading, Karamzin and his followers wanted to bring the literary language closer to. colloquial speech, avoided heavy Slavic language, were not afraid of foreign words and sought to impart grace and lightness to the language. But Karamzin’s school was short-lived: the funny sides of sensitivity began to catch the eye, which, moreover, had neither valuable poetic nor social content; and most importantly, much more significant forces and with a more vital direction appeared in poetry. Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766-1826)
6 slide
Slide description:
At the beginning of the century, the poetic activity of V.A. began. Zhukovsky. His first poems attracted attention with the subtlety of feeling and the “sweetness of verse.” His name became famous when in the twelfth year “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” was written, filled with patriotic animation. Contemporaries did not notice the strangeness of the form, where Russian soldiers appeared in classical weapons and in romantic lighting: the classical convention had not yet been forgotten, they were beginning to get used to the romantic one. His poetry was characterized by a personal character; his religious and mystical mood brought him closer to Gogol. He was far from the newest literary circle. During literary development Zhukovsky, in addition to his translated works, which were always elegant and expanded the horizon of Russian poetry, also had the merit of a high understanding of the essence of poetry. His definition of poetry corresponded to his entire worldview. Poetry is “God in the holy dreams of the earth,” and on the other hand, “poetry is virtue.” The definition was too personal, but in any case, it placed poetry in the highest spheres moral life. Zhukovsky’s younger contemporary was K.N. Batyushkov, but his literary career was interrupted too early and sadly by mental illness, in which he lived the last decades of his life. It was a living and varied talent that did not have time to develop to full originality. In his poetry he is still dependent on European models, old and new; but he pondered the poetry of others, became carried away by it himself, and what would previously have been a simple imitation became his sincere, sometimes deep passion. He also had a peculiarity in the development of poetry; here, together with Zhukovsky, he was the immediate predecessor of Pushkin. Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852) Batyushkov Konstantin Nikolaevich (1787-1855)
7 slide
Slide description:
A freer atmosphere of public life existed during the reign of Alexander I*, which resulted in a greater revival of literary interests. At this time, I.A. achieved his fame. Krylov. He began his literary career back in the time of Catherine with comedies and a satirical magazine of average dignity. Having achieved success only in mature years, he settled on the genre that best suited his talent. He partially retold the traditional plots of fables, but also wrote many original ones and surpassed his predecessors Khemnitser and Dmitriev. He still had a pseudo-classical manner, but at the same time he had a lot of lively wit and knowledge of Russian life and language. In terms of his general outlook, he was a man of reason, rather indifferent to the worries of life that were happening around him, distrustful of hobbies. It was moderation, but at the same time skepticism. Krylov Ivan Andreevich (1768-1844) * 1801 - 1825 Board Russian Emperor Alexander I. At the beginning of his reign he carried out moderate liberal reforms. In foreign policy he maneuvered between Great Britain and France. In 1805-1807 he participated in anti-French coalitions. In 1807-1812 he temporarily became close to France. He fought successful wars with Turkey (1806-1812) and Sweden (1808-1809). Under Alexander I, Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), the Eastern Caucasus (1813), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. After the Patriotic War of 1812, he led the anti-French coalition of European powers in 1813-1814. Was one of the leaders Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 and organizers of the Holy Alliance.
8 slide
Slide description:
Another very famous and revered writer of that time was N.I. Gnedich, whose main work was the translation of the Iliad: he spent many years completing this work, which aroused the surprise of his contemporaries. In Gnedich's translation, serious work on Homer is visible, but due to his old addiction to false-classical grandiloquence, Gnedich devoted too much space to Church Slavonic elements of the language, sometimes using words completely unknown in ordinary speech. In the field of drama at the beginning of the century, the famous name was V.A. Ozerov: his tragedies were written in the classical spirit, with great ease of verse and sincerity of feeling. Ozerov's tragedies were a huge success, especially "Dmitry Donskoy", which caused patriotic enthusiasm. Gnedich Nikolai Ivanovich (1784 - 1833) Ozerov Vladislav Alexandrovich (1770 - 1816)
Slide 9
Slide description:
The beginning of the 19th century was a time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 accelerated the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people and its strengthening. The general trend of this period is the growing democratization of culture, the coverage of ever wider sections of the people by education. The raznochinny strata of society not only become familiar with the culture developed by the Russian nobility, but also become creators of Russian culture, setting its new motives and trends. The Church, subordinate to the state and having adopted the forms of Western learning, provides examples of asceticism that affirms Orthodox tradition. Having fully settled within the confines of European education, Russian culture is intensely searching for an image of national and cultural identity, developing national forms of existence in modern civilization. The growth of national self-awareness of the people during this period had a huge impact on the development of literature, visual arts, theater and music.
The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E. A. Baratynsky, K. N. Batyushkov, V. A. Zhukovsky, A. A. Fet, D. V. Davydov, N. M. Yazykov come to the fore. With the work of F. I. Tyutchev, the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A. S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A. S. Pushkin “The Bronze Horseman” (1833), “The Bakhchisarai Fountain”, “The Gypsies” ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A.S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M. Yu. Lermontov.
His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “The Demon”, and many romantic poems are known. It is interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems by A. S. Pushkin “The Prophet”, the ode “Liberty”, “The Poet and the Crowd”, the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of the Poet” and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter,” where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.
A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A. S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of “little man”, which is shown by N. V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A. S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In N. V. Gogol’s prose poem “Dead Souls,” the writer, in a sharp satirical manner, shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is felt). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century.
Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V. G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N. A. Dobrolyubov and N. G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, I. A. Goncharov created their works. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who can live well in Rus'? ", as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
