From the very beginning of 1611 there was a movement that finally brought the state out of ruin. It arose in the district, township and volost worlds (communities) of the North, accustomed to independence and self-government. These communities, which received district and zemstvo institutions of the 16th century, broader organization and involvement in the tasks of the state administration, built their own way of life, developed their internal relations and even were in charge of defense against enemies, maintaining Cossacks and datochny people who were recruited among themselves, under very soft leadership and influence of the central government.
Historical reference
The cities and regions of the North, not affected by the development of service land ownership, were free from the sharp class division of the population. There was no strong division between rich and poor, so they were a socially cohesive force. The prosperous and energetic population of the Pomeranian cities awakened to the fight against the reorganization of the land and the defense of the state, as soon as they encountered an insight from the thieves' gangs of the Tushino thief.
That is, these forces were patriotic, but you need to remember that in history there is very little idealism. Despite the fact that among these people there were many sincerely Orthodox and patriotic, it was absolutely clear that the rule of the Poles in Moscow, the weakening state power- leads them to material losses, disrupts their trade. That is, they had not only a national-class, but also a material interest in driving the Poles out of Moscow, and so that there would be a strong Central Power in Moscow. Strictly speaking, the first wave of this movement arose back in 1609, and objectively, Skopin-Shuisky could have become its leader. But in 1609 the situation was still too complicated. But in 1610 the situation changed.
First Zemstvo Militia
The so-called first Zemstvo militia arose. It was led by the Lipunov brothers (Prokopiy and Zakhar), as well as Ivan Zarutsky, who was once for the Tushintsev, and Prince Dmitry Timofeevich Trubetskoy (the so-called triumvirate). These were all adventurers, but this is a normal feature for the Time of Troubles in Russia. It is precisely such People who come to the fore during the Time of Troubles.
At this time, the Poles are in the Kremlin. In March 1611, the first militia led by the triumvirate began to storm Moscow in order to drive the Poles out of there. It was not possible to take the city, but the blockade of the Kremlin continued. The Poles have gone so far as to eat corpses. Why did it take on a very organized character? If a person in one company dies, only representatives of this company eat him. It was truly terrifying.
But the Poles held out. By the way, during this uprising the Poles set the city on fire, and almost all of Moscow burned down. And here the conflict begins between the Cossacks and the nobles, because the Lipunovs were the leaders of the noble part, and Zarutsky and especially Trubetskoy were the Cossacks. The Poles used it. They planted a letter according to which Lipunov was supposedly going to enter into some kind of agreement with the Poles. The Cossacks believed this and killed Lipunov. After the death of Lipunov, the noble part left, and the Cossacks were left alone. Meanwhile, another Tsarevich Dmitry appeared in Pskov. True, everyone knew that it was not Dmitry, but Sidorko from the locals. But Trubetskoy recognized him. In some areas, they kissed the cross for Marina Mniszech and her son, whom the official authorities called “Vorenko,” that is, the son of a thief. It was believed that he was the son of False Dmitry 2, but in fact he was the son of Ivan Zarutsky. Under these conditions, the province began new stage Zemsky movement.
Second Zemstvo Militia
A second Zemstvo militia arose, led by Kuzma Minin, who at first simply raised funds and, first of all, the infantry was equipped, but a military leader was needed. The military leader was Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, who came from the Starodubsky princes. That is, he was a descendant of Vsevolod the Big Nest. And he had more than serious reasons to sit on the Russian throne.
Actually, the second militia marched on Moscow under the coat of arms of Prince Pozharsky. Another thing is that Pozharsky failed to become the Russian Tsar, and the Romanovs then did everything to slander him and never pay attention to the fact that the coat of arms of the second militia was the coat of arms of Pozharsky. That is, the second militia marched in order to place Pozharsky on the throne. But this was not part of the Romanovs’ plans. The movement led by the second militia covered the entire Volga region and this entire army came to Yaroslavl, where they stayed for 4 months. Alternative governing bodies were created in Yaroslavl. Here funds were raised and the Council of All the Earth was convened. This Council became a provisional government. Temporary orders were established. An embassy from Novgorod arrived in Yaroslavl, which proposed to invite the Swedish prince Karl Philip to the kingdom. The cunning merchants in Yaroslavl refused nothing to anyone. They were simply stalling for time, making vague promises.
At this time, Zarutsky and Trubetskoy declare Minim and Pozharsky rebels. In addition, there is a conflict between Trubetskoy and Zarutsky himself. Zarutsky takes Marina Mnishek and leaves first for Kaluga, and then to the south. In 1614 he will be captured on Yaik and impaled, and his son will be hanged. That is, the reign of the Romanovs began with the murder of a child. And this is historical symmetry... When they say that they feel sorry for Tsarevich Alexei, who was shot by the Bolsheviks in 1918, they forget that there is some kind of historical symmetry in this. The Romanovs began their reign with the murder of a child, because many people kissed the cross for this child, the son of Marina Mnishek, as a possible heir to the throne. And it was like a historical boomerang that came back after many, many years. Marina herself was either drowned or strangled, but she also disappeared in 1614.
Expulsion of Poles from Moscow
But let's get back to current events. Trubetskoy remained in Moscow, who sent hired killers to Minin and Pozharsky so that they would kill at least Pozharsky. Nothing came of this, and in August 1612, the militia led by Minin and Pozharsky approached Moscow. The situation in Moscow is this: the Poles are sitting in the Kremlin, Trubetskoy and his Cossacks are also sitting in Moscow (but not in the Kremlin). Minin and Pozharsky come to Moscow, but Hetman Khodkevich comes to the rescue of the Poles. Hetman Khodkevich and the militia of Minin and Pozharsky meet near the Crimean Ford (where the Crimean Bridge is now). There was no bridge there then, there was a ford. And here they are standing opposite each other. On August 22, the first battle took place (it was more of a reconnaissance battle), and on August 24, the main battle unfolded. The Russian cavalry could not withstand the blow, but the Nizhny Novgorod infantry saved the situation.
The Poles began to reorganize for the next attack, and Pozharsky explained to Minin that the militia would not withstand the second blow. Then Pozharsky turned to Trubetskoy for help. But Trubetskoy refused, because the Cossacks strongly hated everyone who had or could have had at least a slightly better financial situation. And then Minin cheated... The battle began, success began to lean on the side of the Poles, and then Minin decided the matter. He sent Trubetskoy a messenger to the Cossacks with the promise that if the Cossacks help and hit the flank, then Khodkevich’s entire convoy will be theirs. For the Cossacks, this decided everything (the convoy is a sacred matter). The Cossacks struck the flank, Hetman Khodkevich was defeated and as a result the Cossacks entered Russian history with a convoy. Looking ahead, the Cossacks will leave Russian history on the wagon.
Now only the people could save the country's independence. Patriarch Hermogenes in 1610 called on the people to fight the invaders, for which he was arrested.
The national liberation movement against the invaders began to unfold. First militia was created on Ryazan land at the beginning of 1611. It included former detachments of the “Tushino camp” under the leadership of P.P. Lyapunova, D.T. Trubetskoy, I.M. Zarutsky. They even created a temporary government body - the Council of All Rus'. In March 1611 first militia besieged Moscow, where an uprising against the Poles had already broken out. On the advice of the boyars, Polish collaborators, the interventionists set fire to the city.
The fighting was already on the approaches to the Kremlin. In this battle, in the Sretenka area, Prince Pozharsky, who led the vanguard, was seriously wounded. It was possible to capture only part of the city, but it was not possible to completely expel the Poles. The reason for this was the disagreements that arose between the nobles and the Cossacks within militia. Its leaders spoke in favor of returning the fugitive peasants to their owners. Regarding the Cossacks, it was said that they would not have the right to hold public office. Opponents of P. Lyapunov began to spread rumors that he planned to exterminate all the Cossacks. In July 1611, the Cossacks gathered a “Cossack circle”, invited P. Lyapunov there, where they killed him.
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The government of the seven boyars, who became Polish puppets, did not even think about repelling the enemy. The people rose up to fight for liberation. In Ryazan, under the leadership of the nobleman Lyapunov, the first militia was formed from nobles, townspeople and Cossacks. In the spring of 1611 It approached Moscow and began the siege. However, in the summer, a struggle broke out between the noble militia and the Cossack peasant part, which ended with the murder of Lyapunov and the collapse of the first militia. The situation in the country also worsened due to the fall of Smolensk. Taking advantage of Russia's weakness, the Swedes occupied Novgorod. This news caused new wave liberation movement. Nizhny Novgorod became the center for the formation of the second militia. It was organized and inspired by the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin, and headed by Dmitry Pozharsky. By the end of 1612 Moscow was liberated and the interventionists were defeated. Time of Troubles was completed with great territorial losses for Rus'. Smolensk was occupied by the Poles, and Novgorod by the Swedes. According to the Stolbovo Peace Treaty of 1617. Sweden returned Novgorod, but retained Izhora with the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Russia was deprived of access to the Baltic Sea. In 1618 The Deulin truce was concluded, the Smolensk land passed to Poland. The economic devastation lasted for a long time. However, the historical significance of the fight against the invaders lies in the fact that the Russian people defended the independence of Russia.
19. The beginning of the reign of the Romanovs. End of the Troubles.
In specific historical conditions beginning of the 17th century the priority was the restoration of central power, which meant the election of a new king. A Zemsky Sobor met in Moscow, at which, in addition to the Boyar Duma, the highest clergy and the capital's nobility, numerous provincial nobility, townspeople, Cossacks and even black-sown (state) peasants were represented. 50 Russian cities sent their representatives. The main question was the election of a king. A fierce struggle broke out around the candidacy of the future tsar at the council. Some boyar groups proposed calling a “prince’s son” from Poland or Sweden, others nominated candidates from the old Russian princely families (Golitsyns, Mstislavskys, Trubetskoys, Romanovs). The Cossacks even offered the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek (“warren”). After much debate, the members of the cathedral agreed on the candidacy of 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the cousin of the last tsar from the Moscow Rurik dynasty, Fyodor Ivanovich, which gave reason to associate him with the “legitimate” dynasty. The nobles saw the Romanovs as consistent opponents of the “boyar tsar” Vasily Shuisky, while the Cossacks saw them as supporters of “Tsar Dmitry”. The boyars, who hoped to retain power and influence under the young tsar, did not object either. On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor announced the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. An embassy was sent to the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma, where Mikhail and his mother “nun Martha” were hiding at that time with a proposal to take the Russian throne. This is how the Romanov dynasty established itself in Russia, ruling the country for more than 300 years. One of the heroic episodes of Russian history dates back to this time. A Polish detachment tried to capture the newly elected tsar, looking for him in the Kostroma estates of the Romanovs. But the headman of the village of Domnina, Ivan Susanin, not only warned the tsar about the danger, but also led the Poles into impenetrable forests. The hero died from Polish sabers, but also killed the nobles lost in the forests. In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the country was actually ruled by the Saltykov boyars, relatives of the “nun Martha,” and from 1619, after the return of the Tsar’s father, Patriarch Filaret Romanov, from captivity, the patriarch and “great sovereign” Filaret. The Troubles shook the royal power, which inevitably increased the importance of the Boyar Duma. Mikhail could not do anything without the boyar council. The local system, which regulated relationships within the ruling boyars, existed in Russia for more than a century and was exceptionally strong. The highest positions in the state were occupied by persons whose ancestors were distinguished by nobility, were related to the Kalita dynasty and achieved the greatest success in their careers. The transfer of the throne to the Romanovs destroyed the old system. Kinship with the new dynasty began to take on paramount importance. But the new system of localism did not take hold immediately. In the first decades of the Troubles, Tsar Mikhail had to put up with the fact that the first places in the Duma were still occupied by the highest titled nobility and the old boyars, who had once tried the Romanovs and handed them over to Boris Godunov for execution. During the Time of Troubles, Filaret called them his worst enemies. To enlist the support of the nobility, Tsar Mikhail, having no treasury and lands, generously distributed Duma ranks. Under him, the Boyar Duma became more numerous and influential than ever. After Filaret's return from captivity, the composition of the Duma was sharply reduced. The restoration of the economy began and public order. In 1617, in the village of Stolbovo (near Tikhvin), an “eternal peace” was signed with Sweden. The Swedes returned Novgorod and other northwestern cities to Russia, but the Swedes retained the Izhora land and Korela. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but it managed to get out of the war with Sweden. In 1618, the Truce of Dowlin was concluded with Poland for fourteen and a half years. Russia lost Smolensk and about three dozen more Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk cities. The contradictions with Poland were not resolved, but only postponed: both sides were not able to continue the war any further. The terms of the truce were very difficult for the country, but Poland refused to claim the throne. The Time of Troubles in Russia is over. Russia managed to defend its independence, but at a very heavy price. The country was ruined, the treasury was empty, trade and crafts were disrupted. It took several decades to restore the economy. The loss of important territories predetermined further wars for their liberation, which placed a heavy burden on the entire country. The Time of Troubles further strengthened Russia's backwardness. Russia emerged from the Troubles extremely exhausted, with huge territorial and human losses. According to some estimates, up to a third of the population died. Overcoming economic ruin will be possible only by strengthening serfdom. Deteriorated sharply international situation countries. Russia found itself in political isolation, its military potential weakened, and for a long time its southern borders remained practically defenseless. Anti-Western sentiments intensified in the country, which aggravated its cultural and, ultimately, civilizational isolation. The people managed to defend their independence, but as a result of their victory, autocracy and serfdom were revived in Russia. However, most likely, there was no other way to save and preserve Russian civilization in those extreme conditions.
20. Major events during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (salt riot, copper riot, dispute between the tsar and the patriarch, city uprisings, Stepan Razin’s riot).
1646 - Salt riot in Moscow, the population of the city attacked the royal retinue. Muscovites wanted to be given two clerks and boyar Morozov, who was the tsar's educator. He managed to hide from the angry people, and the Muscovites carried out lynching over the clerks Trakhaniotov and Pleshcheev. This influenced the authorities, and the salt tax was abolished, while at the same time increasing the collection of direct taxes. Soon the situation began to escalate again, the state demanded from the population more money. They began to levy taxes not on land, but on households; they took taxes on income several times; they issued copper coins that were worth the same as silver coins.
1648 - Publication of a decree on the indefinite search of fugitive peasants. Return of Smolensk, Chernigov and a number of other cities to Russia.
1649 - Compilation of the “Code” (a set of Russian laws).
1654 - Pereyaslav Rada. Reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia.
1654-1667 - War with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the annexation of Left-Bank Ukraine, ending with the Truce of Andrusovo (January 30, 1667).
1656-1658 - War with Sweden, which ended with the Truce of Valiesar (December 20, 1658) for three years.
1658 - Construction of new cities in Siberia begins (Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, Selenginsk).
1662 - Copper riot in Moscow. By that time, prices had increased sharply again, and many refused to believe in copper coins and demanded only silver ones. The revolt was suppressed, but the minting of coins was stopped.
1662-1666 - Establishment of regular infantry with the involvement of more than a hundred foreign colonels. 1668-1676 - Solovetsky uprising.
1670-1671 - Rebellion led by Stenka Razin, which ended with his execution. The actions of Razin and his followers evoke sympathy among the people and a desire to support them, and over time they attract thousands of them ordinary peoplĕ, peasants and townspeople go over to Razin’s side and help ensure that the movement achieves its goal. Stepan Razin creates “charming letters” - appeals that attract simple people, burdened by constant, unfair taxes. Construction of the first Russian ships in the village of Dedilovo on the Oka River.
21. Culture of Russia in the 19th century.
XV11th century A unique period in the history of Russian culture. It completes the development of culture over the previous centuries. This transition of culture in the 11th century, in turn, led to very interesting trends in it. Many genres continue to exist, but new content is maturing within them, exploding them from the inside. There are processes of secularization, secularization of culture, and its humanization. Interest in a person and his life intensifies. All this breaks out of the narrow framework of the medieval canon, sometimes creating crisis phenomena, and sometimes leading to an unprecedented rise in spirit, which now stuns our imagination. This century turned out to be a turning point for the development of Russian music. Church music is becoming more festive. “Edges” appear - musical works, which were performed outside the church. In Russian architecture of the 11th century. Also occupies a special place. The desire to abandon age-old canons and “secularize” art manifested itself with enormous force. Played a major role in the development of architecture in general wooden architecture. Back at the end of the 15th century. An order for stone affairs arose, concentrating the best forces in this area. The techniques of stone architecture have improved, and the volume of buildings has become significantly more complex. Various side chapels and extensions are adjacent to the main mass, covered porch galleries, etc. are becoming common. Craftsmen began to widely use colored tiles, complex brick belts and other decorative details, which is why the facades of buildings take on an unusually elegant, colorful appearance. The first collections of proverbs appeared, many of which have survived to this day. Legends, songs and tales are widespread. One of their favorite heroes is Stepan Razin, who is endowed with heroic traits and finds himself in the same circle with the epic heroes. Handwritten books are becoming more widespread, especially collections that contain various materials. The increase in written records led to the final victory of cursive writing and new attempts to organize paper production in Russia. Along with handwritten books, printed books became more and more widespread. The printing yard was active, producing educational literature(for example, “Grammar” by Meletiy Smotrytsky). One of the main monuments of socio-political thought and literature remained still chronicles. At this time, the patriarchal vaults, Belsky, Mazurin chroniclers, vaults of 1652, 1686 were created. and many other chronicle monuments. Along with all-Russian ones, provincial, local, family and even family chronicles appear. The focus of the writers of that time was increasingly on questions of economic life and political problems.
22. Beginning of the reign of Peter I. Power struggle.
From 1682 to 1696 The Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from different marriages - Peter (1672-1725) and Ivan (1666-1696). Since they were minors, the ruler was their sister Princess Sophia (1657-1704), who ruled from 1682 to 1689. During this period, the role of Prince V. Golitsyn (1643-1714), the princess’s favorite, increased.
In 1689, Peter I came of age, got married and showed a desire to fight the old outdated boyar traditions. Sophia made an attempt, with the help of the archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of the new system and the loss of many of her privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and nobles, the Moscow Patriarch and even some streltsy regiments. Peter retained the throne, punished the rebel Streltsy, disbanded the Streltsy army, and Sophia was tonsured into a monastery.
In 1696, Ivan V died, Peter became the sole ruler. Peter's first task was to continue the fight for Crimea. He directed his actions towards capturing Azov, a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But due to poorly prepared siege equipment and the lack of ships, the Russian troops failed. Then Peter began building a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built 30 large ships in one year, doubling his land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and captured it. To gain a foothold on the Sea of Azov, he built the Taganrog fortress. In 1697, he went with the “Great Embassy” to Europe, combining a diplomatic mission with a variety of educational tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, and crafts.
23. Northern War. Main battles.
1. Having secured the support of a number of European powers, Peter I declared war on Sweden in 1700, and the Northern War began (1700–1721).
2. At the first stage of the war, Russian troops were defeated during the siege of Narva. The first setbacks, however, did not break Peter; he energetically set about creating a regular army.
3. The Russians won their first significant victory near Dorpat at the end of 1701. This was followed by new victories - the capture of the Noteburg (Oreshek) fortress, which received the new name Shlisselburg.
4. In 1703, Peter I founded a new city - St. Petersburg - to protect the Neva from the Swedes. He later moved the capital of Russia here. In 1704, Russian troops managed to capture Narva and the Ivan-Gorod fortress.
5. The most significant battle of the Northern War was the victorious Battle of Poltava for the Russian army (June 27, 1709), which changed the entire course of the war and increased the prestige of Russia.
6. The war after the Battle of Poltava continued for another 12 years. It ended in 1721 with the Peace of Nystad.
Year and place of battle
Result
1703, spring-fall of Nyenschantz
1704 - Capture of the cities of Yam, Koporye, Dorpat, Narva
1710-Capture of Riga, Revel, Vyborg, Kexholm
1714 - Capture of the Åland Islands, landing on the Swedish coast
24. The main reforms of Peter I.
The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) were to maximize the power of the tsar, increase the military power of the country, territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.
Military reform. Created regular army with the help of conscription, new regulations were introduced, a fleet was built, and equipment was built in a Western style.
Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by collegiums. The “Table of Ranks” was introduced. The decree on succession to the throne allows the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter accepted the imperial title.
Church reform. The patriarchate was abolished, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to government salaries. No15
Changes in the economy. A capitation tax was introduced. Up to 180 manufactories were created. State monopolies were introduced on various goods. Canals and roads are being built.
Social reforms. The Decree on Single Inheritance (1714) equated estates to estates and prohibited their splitting during inheritance. Passports are being introduced for peasants. Serfs and slaves are actually equated.
Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first Vedomosti newspaper, a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. Nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles, beard shaving, smoking, and assemblies are introduced.
Results. Absolutism is finally taking shape. Russia's military power is growing. The antagonism between the top and bottom is intensifying. Serfdom begins to take on slave forms. The upper class merged into one noble class.
In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled; in 1705-1706. There was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria.
25. The era of palace coups in the ΧVΙΙΙ century.
January 28, 1725 Peter 1 died. The question arose about the heir. According to the decree on succession to the throne (1722), the emperor must appoint his own heir. However, he did not have time to do this. The contenders for the throne were Peter's widow, Ekaterina Alekseevna, and his grandson, Peter Alekseevich. Menshikov, with the help of the guards regiments, elevated Ekaterina Alekseevna to the throne. Since she did not show state abilities, Menshikov became the de facto ruler of the country. For better government, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body that limited the power of the Senate. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich - the husband of Peter I’s eldest daughter Anna . The majority of the Supreme Privy Council was made up of the closest advisers of Peter 1, only Prince D. M. Golitsyn belonged to the old nobility. P. A. Tolstoy’s attempt to oppose A. D. Menshikov led to his exile and death on Solovki. This election opens the era of palace coups. A palace coup is a change of power carried out by a narrow circle of members of court groups and the hands of guard regiments. In May 1727 Catherine 1 died. Shortly before her death, she chose 12-year-old Tsarevich Peter, the son of the murdered Tsarevich Alexei, as her successor. After the death of Catherine, as during her life, the country was actually ruled by Menshikov; by decree of the emperor, he appointed himself generalissimo. Menshikov hoped to marry his daughter Maria to Peter 11. But during Menshikov’s illness, the Dolgorukov princes and Vice-Chancellor Osterman reinstated Peter against his Serene Highness. Menshikov was arrested, deposed by decision of the Upper Privy Council and, together with his family, exiled to the Siberian city of Berezov, where he died 2 years later. The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. In it, all affairs were carried out by four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyn, as well as the master of intrigue A.I. Osterman. The Dolgorukies came to the fore. Sixteen-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the tsar’s closest friend in hound hunting and his other pastimes. Ivan's sister Catherine became the "sovereign bride". The nobles who came to Moscow for the coronation and wedding, as well as the court that moved to the old capital, witnessed the illness and death of Peter II in his fifteenth year of life. Peter's death occurred precisely on the day of the announced wedding. The Romanov dynasty ended in the male line. The question of a new emperor had to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.
Disputes immediately began in the Privy Council about the candidacy of the ruler of Russia. It was decided to invite the niece of Peter 1 (daughter of his brother Ivan) - Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). The symbol of Anna’s reign became the Secret Chancellery, headed by A. I. Ushakov, which monitored speeches against the empress and “state crimes” (the famous “word and case"). 10 thousand people passed through the Secret Chancellery.
The absolutist state met the demands of the nobles to expand their rights and privileges. Thus, under Anna Ioannovna, the distribution of land to the nobles was resumed. In 1731, sole inheritance, introduced by Peter the Great's decree of 1714, was abolished, and estates were recognized as the full property of the nobility. Two new guards regiments were created - Izmailovsky and Horse Guards, where a significant part of the officers were foreigners. Since the 30s of the 18th century. noble minors were allowed to enroll in the guards regiments, train at home and, after an exam, be promoted to officers. In 1732, the Land Noble Cadet Corps was opened to train nobles. This was followed by the opening of the Naval, Artillery, and Page Corps. Since 1736, the service life for nobles was limited to 25 years. In the fall of 1740. Anna Ivanovna fell ill and died in October. But, dying, she took care of the heir: the two-month-old son of Anna Leopoldovna’s niece, Ivan 1V Antonovich, was appointed to him, and Biron became his regent. Biron reigned for only 22 days. He was overthrown by Minich, and Anna Leopoldovna became regent. In November 1741 The guards-conspirators, outraged by the dominance of the Germans, elevated the daughter of Peter I, Ekaterina Petrovna (1741-1761), to the throne. Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed the goal of her reign to be a return to the order of her father, Peter the Great. The rights of the Senate, the Berg and Manufactory Collegium, and the Chief Magistrate were restored. Under Elizabeth, a university was opened in Moscow (1755, January 25) - the first in Russia. The conference at the highest court took the place of the abolished Cabinet of Ministers. The activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible. To support the nobility, the Noble Land Bank was established. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, 33-year-old Peter III (1761-1762) became Emperor of Russia. The quarrelsome, unbalanced Peter III did not like Russians, but he idolized Frederick II. A fan of Prussian drill, Peter III said that he preferred to be a colonel in the Prussian army than to be an emperor in Russia. This “adult child” did not develop as a mature personality; he spent most of his time in revelry and loved shift parades. His favorite pastime was playing soldiers.
The six-month reign of Peter III amazes with the abundance of adopted state acts. During this time, 192 decrees were issued. The most important of them was the Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberty to the Russian nobility of February 18, 1762. The Manifesto exempted nobles from compulsory state and military service. A nobleman could leave service at any time, except during war. It was allowed to travel abroad and even enter foreign service, to give children home schooling. On June 28, 1762, guards officers led by the Orlov brothers and the wife of Peter III, Catherine, carried out a palace coup. The Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments enthusiastically supported the new ruler, who was proclaimed autocratic empress in the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The Manifesto on the accession of Catherine II to the throne was read in the Winter Palace. The Senate and Synod swore allegiance to her. The next day, Peter III signed his abdication from the throne. A few days later he died (apparently he was killed by Alexei Orlov and the guards.
26. “Enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II.
It is known that the reign of Catherine coincided with the era of enlightenment. One way or another, the ideology of the enlighteners - Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and others influenced the policies of European monarchs. Catherine did not escape such influence. Possessed a lively mind and developed thinking, she was familiar with the works of educators and their views on government and governance. Already as a Russian empress, she corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, discussing with them the problems of organizing power and the role of the monk in governing society. We must not forget that the empress had to implement her views, gleaned from the Enlightenment, in a huge autocratic state, based on the political and economic dominance of the nobility, which did not tolerate infringement of its interests. Finding the resultant between the goals of power and the privileged class was not easy. However, the events of the first years of Catherine’s reign are traditionally associated with the implementation of a policy of enlightened absolutism. In addition to the distribution of state-owned lands and peasants, already familiar to the aristocracy, as a reward to participants in the palace coup, Catherine carried out a number of reforms that helped strengthen her power. So, she abolished the special Hetman rule in Ukraine, reformed the Senate, in which she saw a danger to her autocratic
authorities. In order to avoid the possibility of interference in the competence of the supreme power and to streamline its work, Catherine divided the Senate into 6 departments, thereby making it a purely administrative body, deprived legislative rights. 4 St. Petersburg and 2 Moscow departments of the Senate became independent institutions with their own range of affairs and their own office, which destroyed the unity of the Senate and weakened it. Contrary to the personal desire of the Empress to abandon all legislative acts adopted by Peter 111, she had to confirm some of them, and above all: the Decree on the abolition of the Secret Investigation Office of the Chancellery; decree on transfer to the state. management of monastic and church lands (secularization); prohibition of buying peasants into factories. But the most remarkable event of the beginning of Catherine’s era, of course, was the work of the Statutory Commission. Even in her youth, having studied the views of European philosophers, and again returning to this activity as an empress, Catherine came to the conclusion that order and stability in the state, the well-being of her subjects, could be ensured by achieving compliance with the laws. Therefore, she saw her immediate task in creating a new, more advanced system of legislation to replace the archaic Council Code of 1649. Another interesting undertaking of Catherine 11 was the creation in 1765. A free economic society, which was supposed to promote rational methods of farming. For this purpose they began to publish various works on agronomy, breeding, animal husbandry, etc.
27. Diplomacy and wars of Catherine’s time.
The reign of Catherine 11 occupies a special place in the history of Russian diplomacy. For the first time since the era of Peter 1, the outstanding victories of the Russian army were supported by no less brilliant successes of diplomats. Türkiye, incited by France and England, declared war on Russia in the fall of 1768. Military operations began in 1769 and were carried out on the territory of Moldova and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and admirals G.A. Spiridov and I.S. Greig, leaving St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.
In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov captured Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and taking advantage of the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. Troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way to Istanbul for the main forces led by P.A. Rumyantsev. Türkiye was forced to ask for peace. Peace of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhiy 1774. Determining the program of Russian foreign policy in the Black Sea-Balkan direction for decades, the effective mediating role of Russia during the Teshen Congress of 1779, the proclamation in 1780. The principle of armed maritime neutrality, which became a serious contribution of Russia and the strengthening of the legal basis of international relations, the annexation of Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, the signing of the Geogievsky Treaty with Eastern Georgia in 1783, the inclusion of Lithuania into the Russian state, the reunification of Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine with it. This is far from a complete list of achievements of Catherine’s era. The orientation towards non-state interests was organically combined in the foreign policy activities of Catherine 11 with the diplomatic practice of the era of late absolutism with its desire to “round the borders” and weaken its neighbors. “Rounding the borders”, carrying out multi-vector territorial expansion, Catherine built an empire, guided by political and moral concepts of its time. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine firmly took the leadership of foreign policy into her own hands and did not let go of it until the end of her days. The main feature of Catherine’s foreign policy should be the compliance of the foreign policy course pursued by the Empress with the long-term state interests of Russia. Pragmatism, flexibility, ability to take advantage of circumstances.
28. Pugachev rebellion 1773-1775.
In 1773 In the Yaitsky Cossack army, Emelyan Pugachev proclaimed himself Peter 111 Fedorovich. Pugachev was a Don Cossack. He called for the overthrow of the noble Empress Catherine 11, who took it by deceit. E. Pugachev found support on Yaik. The performance began on September 17, 1773. He approached Orenburg and besieged it. The number of rebels reached 30 thousand. Human. March 22, 1773 There was a battle
with the tsarist troops, the Pugachevites were defeated. Pugachev issued a manifesto in which he called for the destruction of nobles and tsarist officials and the liberation of peasants from serfdom. To replenish his army, he rushed to the south, where he was joined by Don and Yaik Cossacks and barge haulers. With them he approached Tsaritsyn, but was never able to take possession of the city. It was soon defeated by the government army. September 12, 1774 He was captured and handed over to the Russians. January 10, 1775 Pugachev and his closest associates were executed.
29. Uprising of the Highlanders North Caucasus under the leadership of Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma).
On March 8, 1785, the Chechen religious and political figure Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma) spoke in the village of Aldy preaching gazavat (holy war) against the Russian army in the Caucasus. In June 1785, the army of Sheikh Mansur defeated the Russian punitive detachment of Colonel Pieri, and in July-August besieged the Kizlyar fortress. By autumn, the uprising spread to the territory of Kabarda and Dagestan. In November 1785, Mansur was defeated in Kabarda, and in January 1787, Colonel Retinder's detachment suppressed the uprising in Chechnya. In the summer, Sheikh Mansur, who went beyond the Kuban, led an uprising of the Trans-Kuban Circassians and Nogais, which was suppressed in October of the same year, and in 1788-1789 he led unrest among the Trans-Volga Kyrgyz-Kaisaks. In June 1791, Mansur actually led the defense of the Turkish fortress of Anapa. After the capture of Anapa by Russian troops on June 21, 1791, Sheikh Mansur was captured and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress (he died on April 13, 1794 in custody). Despite the suppression of the uprising of Sheikh Mansur, the Russian administration of the Caucasus was actually unable to create its own governing bodies on the territory of Chechnya.
30. Reign of Paul I. His domestic and foreign policies.
Domestic policy.
Paul began his reign by changing all the orders of Catherine's rule. During his coronation, Paul announced a series of decrees. In particular, Paul established a clear system of succession to the throne. From that moment on, the throne could only be inherited through the male line; after the death of the emperor, it passed to the eldest son or the next oldest brother if there were no children. A woman could occupy the throne only if the male line was suppressed. With this order, Paul excluded palace coups, when emperors were overthrown and erected by the force of the guard, the reason for which was the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne (which, however, did not prevent palace coup March 12, 1801, during which he himself was killed). Also, in accordance with this decree, a woman could not occupy the Russian throne, which excluded the possibility of temporary workers (who accompanied empresses in the 18th century) or a repetition of a situation similar to the one when Catherine II did not transfer the throne to Paul after he came of age. Paul restored the system of collegiums, and attempts were made to stabilize the financial situation of the country (including the famous action of melting down the palace coin services). With the manifesto on the three-day corvee, he prohibited landowners from performing corvee according to Sundays, holidays and more than three days a week (the decree was almost not implemented locally). He significantly narrowed the rights of the noble class compared to those granted by Catherine II, and the rules established in Gatchina were transferred to the entire Russian army. Fearing the spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russia, Paul I banned young people from traveling abroad to study, the import of books was completely prohibited, even sheet music, and private printing houses were closed. The regulation of life went so far as to set a time when the fires in houses were supposed to be turned off. By special decrees, some words of the Russian language were removed from official use and replaced with others. Thus, among those seized were the words “citizen” and “fatherland” that had a political connotation (replaced with “everyman” and “state”, respectively), but a number of Paul’s linguistic decrees were not so transparent - for example, the word “detachment” was changed to “detachment” or “command”, “execute” to “execute”, and “doctor” to “doctor”.
Foreign policy.
Paul's foreign policy was inconsistent. In 1798, Russia entered into an anti-French coalition with Great Britain, Austria, Turkey, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. At the insistence of the allies, the disgraced A.V. Suvorov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. Austrian troops were also transferred to his jurisdiction. Under the leadership of Suvorov, Northern Italy was liberated from French domination. In September 1799, the Russian army made Suvorov's famous crossing of the Alps. However, already in October of the same year, Russia broke the alliance with Austria due to the Austrians’ failure to fulfill allied obligations, and Russian troops were recalled from Europe.
31. Culture of Russia in the 8th century.
In the 18th century, the pace of cultural development accelerated, which was associated with economic success. The secular direction in art has become the leading one, replacing the traditionalist culture of previous centuries, permeated with a religious worldview. The nature of education is changing, it is also becoming mainly secular. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow. From the senior classes of this school, transferred to St. Petersburg, later, in 1715, the Maritime Academy was created. Then the Artillery, Engineering, Medical schools, the School of Clerical Servants, and mining schools were opened. In 1708, a civil printed font, Arabic numerals, was introduced, which made it easier to learn. But education as a whole remained class-based, since it did not become universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population. An outstanding event was the creation of Moscow University in 1755 on the initiative and project of M.V. Lomonosov and the opening of the Academy of Arts in 1757. Expanded geographical knowledge about country. The interior regions of Siberia, the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Arctic Ocean, and Central Asia were examined. In the middle of the century, geographer I.K. Kirillov published the first “Russian Atlas”. V.N. Tatishchev and M.V.
Lomonosov laid the foundation for Russian historical science. Outstanding scientists of that time worked in Russia: mathematician L. Euler, founder of hydrodynamics D. Bernoulli, naturalist K. Wolf, historian A. Schletser. Later, a cohort of Russian scientists appeared - astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky, mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographers and ethnographers S.P. Krasheninnikov and I.I. Lepekhin, physicist G.V. Richman. Writers, poets and publicists A.D. enriched Russian literature with their works. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, N.I. Novikov, later A.N. Radishchev, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, N.M. Karamzin et al.
32. Alexander I. Domestic and foreign policy.
Alexander I abolished all the innovations of Paul I: he restored the “granted letters” to the nobility and cities, freed the nobles and clergy from corporal punishment̆, declared an amnesty to all those who fled abroad, returned up to 12 thousand disgraced and repressed people from exile, abolished the Secret Expedition, which was engaged in investigation and reprisals.
After 1801, it was forbidden to print advertisements for the sale of serfs without land, but such sales were allowed. In 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued, which allowed peasants to buy their freedom by agreement with the landowners. The censorship statute of 1804 was the most liberal in the 19th century. in Russia. In 1803 - 1804, a reform of public education was carried out: representatives of all classes could study, continuity of educational programs was introduced, and new high boots and privileged lyceums were opened - Demidovsky (in Yaroslavl) and Tsarskoye Selo. State bodies were transformed. management. Through the efforts of M.M. Speransky's old Peter's collegiums were replaced by ministries. In 1811, the law strictly delineated the rights and responsibilities of the Senate, the Committee of Ministers and the State. advice. New state order management existed with minor changes until 1917. In 1805 - 1807, Alexander I took part in coalitions against Napoleon, was defeated at Austerlitz (1805) and was forced to conclude the extremely unpopular Peace of Tilsit in Russia (1807). But successful wars with Turkey (1806-12) and Sweden (1808-09) strengthened Russia's international position. Vost. were annexed. Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812) and Azerbaijan (1813), Duchy of Warsaw (1815). Since 1810, Russian rearmament began. army, the construction of fortresses, but with the archaic system of recruitment and serfdom, this could not be completed. Having granted a liberal constitution to the Kingdom of Poland, he promised in 1818 that this order would be extended to other lands “when they reach proper maturity.” In 1816 - 1819, a peasant reform was carried out in the Baltic states. Secret projects for the abolition of serfdom in Russia were prepared, but, faced with stiff opposition from the nobles, Alexander I retreated. Since 1816, military settlements have been established, and the role of Alexander I in their creation is no less significant than A.A. Arakcheeva. From 1814, the king became interested in mysticism, bringing Archimandrite Photius closer to him.
In 1822, Alexander I issued a rescript banning secret societies and Masonic lodges, and in 1821 - 1823 introduced an extensive network of secret police in the guard and army. In 1825, he received reliable information about a conspiracy against him among the troops, went south, wanting to visit military settlements, but caught a bad cold on the way from Balaklava to the St. George Monastery. The unexpected death of Alexander I, a healthy and not yet old man, gave rise to numerous legends.
33. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign trips Russian army (1812-1815)
Causes and nature of the war. The outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially irritated by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops and created military warehouses there. The threat of invasion looms over Russia's borders. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.
Napoleon became the aggressor. He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became a liberation and Patriotic war, since not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.
Correlation of forces. In preparation for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte.
Active preparations for the war that Russia had been waging since 1810 brought results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders - M. I. Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich and others.
However, on initial stage During the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian one. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 210 thousand people, divided into three armies. The 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, the 3rd - under General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .Plans of the parties. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan was based on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from uniting and deciding the outcome of the war in one or more border battles. The balance of forces forced the Russian command to initially choose a strategy of active defense. As the course showed
war, this was the most correct decision.
Stages of war. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy deep into Russian territory and disrupt his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - a counter-offensive of the Russian army with the goal of completely expelling the enemy from Russia.
The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and invaded Russia by forced march.
The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, avoiding a general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with in separate parts the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him.
The Russian troops faced two main tasks - to eliminate disunity (not to allow themselves to be defeated individually) and to establish unity of command in the army. The first task was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies united near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's original plan was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant solving the second problem. M.I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on August 17. He did not change his retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected from him decisive battle. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a general battle. She was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.
Battle of Borodino. M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. In the center there was an earthen mound where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky were located. The army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.
Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, encircle it and completely defeat it.
The balance of forces was almost equal: the French had 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians had 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.
Early in the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The fight for flushes lasted until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. Bagration was seriously wounded. (A few days later he died from his wounds.) Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while Napoleonic’s was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.
From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not strive for a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command took place in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.
M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out an original plan - the Tarutino march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and in the Krasnaya Pakhra area reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the French from seizing the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon’s army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested and were replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.
The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented case in history), it burned in the fire. There was no food or other supplies in it. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. all peace proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M. I. Kutuzov and Alexander I.
On October 7, the French left Moscow. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the town of Maloyaroslavets. Once again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the Smolensk road they had destroyed.
Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army looked like a disorderly flight. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russians.
The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon entered Russia. Robbery and looting French. Chinese soldiers caused resistance local residents̆. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders on their native land. Names go down in history ordinary peoplĕ (G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina), who organized partisan detachments. “Flying detachments” of regular army soldiers led by career officers (A.S. Figner, D.V. Davydov, A.N. Seslavin, etc.) were also sent to the French rear.
At the final stage of the war, M.I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He took care of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy’s forces were melting every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near the city of Borisov. For this purpose, troops were brought up from the south and north-west. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near Krasny in early November, when out of 50 thousand people in the retreating army, more than half were captured or died in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to transport his troops across the Berezina River on November 14-17. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and secretly left for Paris. M.I. Kutuzov’s order to the army of December 21 and the Tsar’s Manifesto of December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War. But Napoleon still kept almost all of Europe in subjection. To ensure its security, Russia continued military operations in Europe. In January 1813, Russian troops entered Prussia. Austria, England, and Sweden joined Russia. In October 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place - the “battle of the nations.” Napoleon was defeated. In March 1814 Paris fell. In 1814-1815 The Congress of Vienna took place European countries, Norton resolved the issue of the post-war structure of Europe. By decision of the congress, the Polish kingdom entered the Russian Empire. In March 1815, Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement to form a quadruple alliance. Victory in the Patriotic War strengthened Russia's international position as a strong European power.
The summer of 1611 brought new misfortunes to Russia. In June, Polish troops took Smolensk by storm. In July the Swedish king Charles IX captured Novgorod land. The local nobility came to an agreement with the interventionists and opened the gates of Novgorod to them. The creation of the Novgorod state was announced with the son of the Swedish king on the throne.
Failure of the First Militia
Headman Nizhny Novgorod Kuzma Minin, having collected the necessary funds, offered to lead the campaign to Dmitry Pozharsky. After his consent, the militia from Nizhny Novgorod headed to Yaroslavl, where for several months they gathered forces and prepared for a march on Moscow.
Kuzma Minin
In the fall of 1611, the creation of the Second Militia began in Nizhny Novgorod. Its organizer was the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin. Thanks to his honesty, piety and courage, he enjoyed great respect among the townspeople. Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin called on citizens to donate property, money and jewelry to create armed units capable of fighting traitors and invaders. At Minin’s call, fundraising began for the needs of the militia. The townspeople collected considerable funds, but they were clearly not enough. Then they imposed an emergency tax on the residents of the region. Using the money collected, they hired service people, who mainly consisted of residents of the Smolensk land. The question arose of who should be the leader.
Dmitry Pozharsky
Soon an experienced governor was found, ready to take over the leadership of the military side of the enterprise - Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. He took part in the popular uprising against the Poles in Moscow in March 1611 and was then seriously wounded.
Why was it difficult to choose a leader? After all, there were many experienced governors in the country. The fact is that during the Time of Troubles, many service people moved from the king’s camp to the “Tushinsky thief” and back. Cheating has become commonplace. Moral rules- fidelity to word and deed, inviolability of an oath - have lost their original meaning. Many governors could not resist the temptation to increase their wealth by any means. It became difficult to find a governor who would “not appear in treason.”
When Kuzma Minin proposed Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, the residents of Nizhny Novgorod approved this choice, since he was among the few who had not stained themselves with treason. Moreover, during the Muscovite uprising in March 1611, he took part in street battles in the capital, led a detachment and was seriously wounded. In his estate near Suzdal, he was treated for wounds. Nizhny Novgorod envoys were sent there with a request to lead the fight. The prince agreed.
Formation of the Second Militia
In the spring of 1612, the second militia left Nizhny Novgorod and moved towards Yaroslavl. There it stayed for four months, forming an army from troops from all over the country. Prince Dmitry Pozharsky was responsible for the military training of the army, and Minin was responsible for ensuring it. Minin was called “the man elected by the whole earth.”
Here, in Yaroslavl in April 1612, from elected representatives of cities and counties, they created a kind of zemstvo government “Council of the Whole Land”. Under him, the Boyar Duma and orders were created. The Council officially appealed to all subjects of the country - “Great Russia” - with a call to unite to defend the Fatherland and elect a new Tsar.
Relationship with the First Militia
The relations between the leaders of the Second Militia and the leaders of the First Militia, I. Zarutsky and D. Trubetskoy, who were near Moscow, were very complex. While agreeing to cooperate with Prince Trubetskoy, they categorically rejected the friendship of the Cossack ataman Zarutsky, known for his treachery and fickleness. In response, Zarutsky sent a hired killer to Pozharsky. It was only by luck that the prince remained alive. After this, Zarutsky and his troops moved away from Moscow.
A trained, well-armed army moved towards Moscow. At the same time, a large army under the leadership of Hetman Chodkiewicz, one of the best Polish commanders, marched from the west to the capital to help the Poles. Chodkiewicz's goal was to break through to the Kremlin and deliver food and ammunition to the besieged Polish soldiers, because famine had begun among them.
In August 1612, the forces of the Second Militia approached Moscow. Together with Trubetskoy’s Cossacks, they repelled the advance of a large Polish army under the command of Hetman Jan Chodkiewicz, who arrived from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. A fierce battle took place on August 22, 1612 at the Novodevichy Convent. Pozharsky resisted and did not allow Khodkevich’s troops to reach the Kremlin. But the hetman was not going to resign himself. He decided to strike next.
On the morning of August 24, the Poles appeared from Zamoskvorechye. They were not expected from there. Out of surprise, the militia began to retreat. The Poles have almost approached the Kremlin. The besieged were celebrating their victory; they had already seen the banners of the hetman’s attacking troops. But suddenly everything changed. Even during the battle, Minin begged Pozharsky to give him people for an ambush. Material from the site
In battles with Khodkevich, Kuzma Minin personally led hundreds of noble cavalry into the attack. The monks of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery provided great assistance to the militia. Appealing to the religious feelings of the Cossacks, they convinced them to temporarily forget about self-interest and support Minin and Pozharsky.
The attack led by Minin, which was supported by the Cossacks, decided the outcome of the battle. As a result, Khodkevich’s detachment lost its convoy and was forced to move away from Moscow. The Poles in the Kremlin remained surrounded.
On October 22, 1612, the Cossacks and Pozharsky’s troops took Kitai-gorod. The fate of the Poles holed up in the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod was decided. Suffering greatly from hunger, they did not last long. Four days later, on October 26, the Moscow boyars and the Polish garrison in the Kremlin capitulated.
Thus, as a result of the Second People's Militia, Moscow was liberated.
King Sigismund III tried to save the situation. In November 1612, he approached Moscow with an army and demanded that his son Vladislav be elevated to the throne. However, this prospect has now caused widespread outrage. Having failed in several battles, the king turned home. He was driven by severe frosts and food shortages. The attempt at a new intervention failed at the very beginning.
By the end of 1610, the situation in Russia was very difficult: the Poles ruled in the western regions and Moscow, in the north the remnants of the Swedish detachment given to Shuisky plundered the cities, they took Novgorod. The South generally wanted to secede. The first attempt to cope with what was happening was made in 1611. Patriarch Hermogenes in December 1610 began sending letters to cities, calling on the people to fight the invaders. Despite the fact that the patriarch himself was deprived of his freedom for this, his appeal was accepted. The first to gather was the nobleman Prokopiy Lyapunov, from the Ryazan land. He began to recruit troops to fight the Poles. It included the remnants of the last army of Tsar Vasily Shuisky and a gang of Cossacks of different origins with the peasants they recruited. In January 1611 Lyapunov moved towards Moscow. Zemstvo squads from many cities came to him; even the remnants of the Tushino army with the boyars, governors and military men who served the second impostor, under the leadership of Prince D. T. Trubetskoy and the Cossack ataman Zarutsky, went to liberate Moscow. The Poles, after the battle with the residents of Moscow and the approaching Lyapunov militia, settled in the Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod. The position of the Polish detachment (about 3,000 people), commanded by Chodkiewicz, was very unpleasant, since it had few supplies. Sigismund could not help his squad, because he himself was stuck near Smolensk. The Zemstvo and Cossack militias united and besieged the Kremlin, but discord immediately began between them. However, the army declared itself the council of the earth and began to rule the state, since there was no other government. Due to the growing contradictions between the zemstvo people and the Cossacks in June 1611. gathered to draw up a general resolution. The agreement between the representatives of the Cossacks and the service people who formed the basis of the zemstvo army was very extensive: it was supposed to organize not only the army, but also the state. It was indicated that the highest power belongs to the entire army, which calls itself “the whole earth”; governors - only executive bodies this board, which reserves the right to replace them if they perform poorly. The court is carried out by the voivodes, but they can execute only with the approval of the “council of the whole earth”, otherwise they themselves face death. Further, a lot of attention was paid to the issue of estates. All awards from Tushinsky Thief and Sigismund were declared illegal. The “old” Cossacks were allowed to receive estates and therefore become service people, receiving their rights and responsibilities. Then came the decrees on the return of the fugitive slaves, who called themselves Cossacks (new Cossacks), to their former masters; “Cossack freemen” was noticeably declining. Finally, a command administration was created, modeled on the one that existed in Moscow. From the agreement it becomes clear that the army gathered near Moscow considered itself a representative of the entire land and that at the council the main role belonged to the zemstvo service people, and not to the Cossacks. This agreement is also characteristic in that it testifies to the importance that the service class gradually acquired. But the predominance of service people did not last long; the Cossacks could not be in solidarity with them. The matter ended with the murder of Lyapunov and the departure of the zemstvo squads. The population's hope for the first militia was not justified, Moscow remained in the hands of the Polish detachment, and the militia itself disintegrated. Part of him returned to his lands, part remained near Moscow, but no longer tried to fight the invaders, but was engaged in plundering the surrounding population. They tried to proclaim the son of Marina Mniszech the new king, but no one took such statements seriously. The boy was killed by the Crow, and later the child was hanged.
The second militia began to be assembled in September 1612 by Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, who became the governor, and the merchant Kuzma Minin, who supplied the army with everything necessary. The movement began in the northern and northeastern lands, the least affected over the past years. It consisted mainly of service people, townspeople, and peasants. Later, some Cossack detachments joined (under the leadership of Trubetskoy). Having gathered an army, the prince did not rush, especially since in winter it would be extremely difficult to stand near Moscow: people would begin to experience a lack of food, and the army could fall apart like the first. After spending the winter in Nizhny, we went to Yaroslavl, which, moreover, was a very important point. The Cossacks wanted to occupy it, taking a hostile position towards the new militia. Yaroslavl was taken; the militia stood here for three months, because it was necessary to train the army; "build" the land.
In August 1612, Pozharsky sent an army to Moscow. At first it settled on the Yauza, 5 west from Moscow, and blocked the access of food to the city. In mid-autumn, Kitay-gorod was taken, the remaining Poles hid in the Kremlin. They still hoped for the help of their king, and refused offers to surrender. Finally, on October 26, the Kremlin was captured.
Next, the government operating in Yaroslavl decided to convene a Zemsky Sobor to elect a legitimate Russian Tsar who would suit everyone. Pozharsky convened ten representatives from each city, as well as from black volosts, which had never happened before. This council turned out to be the most complete ever held. Historians call the approximate number 700 people. Main candidates: V.I. Shuisky, F. Mstislavsky, Vorotynsky, Trubetskoy, M.F. Romanov, V.V. Golitsyn.
The electors met in January, and witnesses said that there were many disputes and the elections were not easy. The most different methods, including illegal ones (for example, vote buying). Different candidates symbolized different social ideals. For example, Prince I.M. Vorotynsky, an ancient, noble family, was an opponent of Western influence and preferred adherence to ancient Russian traditions. Naturally, he was supported mainly by those who shared these views with him. F. Mstislavsky, a descendant of Ivan III, was a very capable person, many noted his intelligence and willpower. Perhaps, having been on the throne, he would have carried out many reforms in Russia, putting it on a progressive path of development, but after some time Mstislavsky himself withdrew his candidacy. Of the other applicants, Prince V.V. was worthy. Golitsyn, but at that time he was in captivity in Poland. M.F. Romanov could not compete with them in terms of birth, and no one knew about his qualities, but he had an influential father - Filaret, who, however, made a career under impostors. (False Dmitry II made him patriarch). We can say that M.F. Romanov was “just” a candidate.
Filaret insisted on introducing restrictive conditions for the new king and pointed to his son as the most suitable candidate. It was indeed Mikhail Fedorovich who was chosen. This election was a compromise that harmonized currents hostile to each other. Undoubtedly, he was offered those restrictive conditions that Filaret wrote about: “Give full justice to the old laws of the country; do not judge or condemn anyone by the highest authority; do not introduce any new laws without a council, do not burden your subjects with new taxes and do not accept the slightest decisions in military and zemstvo affairs." The election took place on February 7, but the official announcement was postponed until the 21st, in order to find out during this period how the people would accept the new king. The people were only glad of the certainty that had arisen, and the cities, one after another, swore allegiance to the new king. Particularly satisfying was the fact that the Tsar turned out to be Russian after all.