The beginnings of scientific geographical knowledge arose during the period of the slave system, which replaced the primitive communal system and was characterized by more high level productive forces. The first division of society into classes arises and the first slave states are formed: China, India, Phenicia, Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt. During this period, people began to use metal tools and use irrigation in agriculture; cattle breeding developed on a large scale, crafts appeared and the exchange of goods between different peoples. All this required good knowledge of the area. People's knowledge is becoming more diverse. During this period, writing appeared, which made it possible to record and systematize accumulated knowledge.

The oldest monuments of Chinese writing (Shanhaijing, Yugong, Dilichi) appeared in VII- IIIcenturies BC e. They already contain some geographical information. "Shanhaijing" contains a collection of myths, legends and travel descriptions. “Yugong” describes mountains, rivers, lakes, soils, vegetation, economic products, land use, tax system, transport (of China and areas inhabited by other peoples. One of the chapters of the book “Dilichhi” - “History of the Han Dynasty” gives information about nature , population, economy and administrative regions of China and neighboring countries.

Chinese scientists have conducted a number of geographical studies. For example, Zhang Rong revealed the relationship between the speed of water flow and runoff, on the basis of which measures to regulate the river were subsequently developed. Yellow River. Scientist Guan Zi described the dependence of plants on soil, groundwater and some other geographical factors. Pei Xu introduced six principles for compiling geographical maps, using a scale, orienting oneself, showing heights, etc. In addition, the Chinese in ancient times invented a compass and had instruments for determining the direction of the wind and the amount of precipitation.

India is also the oldest center of culture. Written monuments of the ancient Hindus, the so-called "Vedas", relating to II millennium BC BC, in addition to religious hymns, they contain information about the peoples who lived in India and about the nature of these areas. The Vedas mention the rivers of Afghanistan (Kabul), describe the river. Indus, r. Ganges and Himalayan mountains. Hindus knew Ceylon and Indonesia. IN I V. n. e. Hindus penetrated through the Himalayas and Karakoram into the southern regions of Central Asia. They discovered the upper parts of river basins originating on the northern slopes of the Himalayas - Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and crossed the high deserts of Tibet and Tsaidam. From Bengal they passed to Eastern Burma.

The ancient Hindus had good calendar. In treatises on astronomy relating to VI V. n. e., it is already indicated that the Earth rotates on its axis and that the Moon borrows its light from the Sun.

In the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in IV And III millennia BC h. Sumerians lived who were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding and traded with neighboring peoples. Apparently, they traded with Crete, Cyprus and sailed to the country of Elam, located on the coast of the Persian Gulf (Iran), as well as to India.

The Sumerian culture was inherited by the ancient Babylonians, who founded their own state, which existed according to VII V. BC e., in the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The Babylonians penetrated into central Asia Minor and may have reached the Black Sea coast. For some territories, the Babylonians compiled simple maps.

In the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates from the end III millennium BC e. and until the end VII V. BC e. there was a state of the Assyrians, who subsequently conquered all of Mesopotamia and undertook military campaigns in Egypt, Syria, Transcaucasia and Iran.

By brave sailors ancient world There were Phoenicians who lived on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Their main occupation was maritime trade, which was carried out throughout the entire Mediterranean Sea and captured the western (Atlantic) coast of Europe. On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, the Phoenicians founded many cities, including VI- Vcenturies BC e. Carthage especially advanced. At the end VI and first quarter V V. BC e. The Carthaginians carried out a bold venture to colonize the west coast of Africa. We know about this event from an official written document located in the Temple of El in Carthage. It contains a decree on the organization of the expedition and a description of the journey along the coast of Africa.

The Phoenicians made a remarkable journey around Africa, which they undertook on the orders of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho. This journey was later described by a Greek scientist Herodotus. The details of the description confirm the authenticity of the voyage, which was completed at three years old. Every autumn, sailors landed ashore, sowed grain, harvested crops and sailed on. During the journey they saw the sun only from right side. The Phoenicians skirted Africa from the south, moving from east to west, and, therefore, could see the sun in the north, that is, on the right side at noon. This detail in Herodotus's story is evidence of sailing around Africa.

The ancient Egyptians knew Central Africa, sailed across the Red Sea to the country of Punt (the African coast from modern Massu to the Somali peninsula) and visited South Arabia. In the east they had relations with the Phoenicians and Babylonians, and in the west they subjugated a number of Libyan tribes. In addition, the Egyptians traded with Crete.

The ancient Greeks and Romans did a lot for the development of all sciences, including geography. Greece's position on the routes from Western Asia to the southern and western Mediterranean countries placed it in very favorable conditions for trade relations, and, consequently, for the accumulation of geographical knowledge.

The earliest written documents of the Greeks are attributed to Homer epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the recording of which dates back to VIII- VIIcenturies BC e., but the events described in them took place approximately in XVI- XIIcenturies BC e. From these poems one can get an idea of ​​the geographical knowledge of the era. The Greeks imagined the Earth as an island shaped like a convex shield. They knew well the countries adjacent to the Aegean Sea, but had vague ideas about more remote areas. However, they knew large rivers Mediterranean-Black Sea basin: Rion (Phasis), Danube (Istrian), Po (Padua), etc.; and they also had some information about Africa and about the nomadic peoples who lived north of Greece.

In ancient Greece, attempts were made to compile geographical maps of the territory known at that time. The Greeks also tried to explain various natural phenomena from the point of view of natural science theories. Greek thinker Parmenides(VV. BC BC) the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth was put forward. However, he came to this conclusion not through experimental data, but based on his philosophy of perfect forms. Parmenides And Pythagoras The division of the globe into five circles, or zones, is attributed: Arctic, summer, equatorial, winter and Antarctic.

The works of the greatest Greek scientist were of great importance for the development of geography Herodotus(484-425 gg. BC e.). The value of these works lies in the fact that they were compiled on the basis of his personal travels and observations. Herodotus visited and described Egypt, Libya, Phenicia, Palestine, Arabia, Babylonia, Persia, the nearest part of India, Media, the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas, Scythia (the southern part European territory USSR) and Greece (Fig. 1).

According to Herodotus, the inhabited Earth was divided into three parts: Europe, Asia and Libya (Africa) 1. The Mediterranean Sea in the north passes into the Pont Euxine (Black Sea) and Maeotic Lake (Sea of ​​Azov).

However, Herodotus’ descriptions also contain many erroneous ideas.

A number of works concerning geography were written by a materialist philosopher Democritus, He traveled a lot and compiled a geographical map, which was used in the compilation of later maps. Democritus posed a number of geographical problems, which were subsequently dealt with by many scientists: the measurement of the then known landmass, and then the entire Earth, the dependence of organic life on climate, etc.

Hiking was important for the development of geography in ancient Greece. Alexander the Great And sea ​​travel beyond the Mediterranean Sea. Among the latter, swimming is of greatest interest Pythea from Massilia (Marseille). Pytheas passing Gibraltar

strait, sailed along the coast of northwestern Europe and presumably reached Norway. Pytheas's notes mention thick fogs, ice and the midnight sun, which indicates the high latitudes he reached. It can be assumed that Pytheas circled Great Britain and saw Iceland.

During times Aristotle(384-322 BC) the idea of ​​the Earth as a ball is already becoming generally accepted. He considered the round shape of the Earth's shadow, which could be observed on the Moon during an eclipse, to be proof of sphericity.

The next, highly important question resolved by Greek and Alexandrian scientists was the question of the size of the Earth. The first historically known determination of the size of the Earth should be considered an attempt by Aristotle's student Dicaearha(300 BC). Very little information has been preserved about this dimension. We know much more about the measurements made by the Alexandrian scientist Eratosthenes(276-196 BC). The method used by Eratosthenes is very close to the principle of modern measurements. Despite the low precision of the instruments and the errors made, the length of the earth's circumference, determined by Eratosthenes, turned out to be very close to reality.

The second very important merit of Eratosthenes is the creation of one of the first systematic works on geography. The first part of this work examined the history of geography, the second - the shape and size of the Earth, oceans, land, climatic zones, and the third gave a description of individual countries. The book was called "Geography". This word was first used by Eratosthenes, and since then the description of the entire Earth or any part of its surface has been called geography. The word geography literally translated from Greek means land description.

After Eratosthenes, we should also note the Alexandrian astronomer Hipparchus, who was the first to introduce a degree network based on dividing the circumference of the globe into 360°, and indicated the principles of accurate map construction.

Rome became the heir to the cultural conquests of Greece and Alexandria. It must be said that we know very little of the major geographers and travelers of the Romans. The campaigns and wars of the Romans provided a lot of material for geography, but the processing of this material was carried out mainly by Greek scientists. The largest of them are Strabo And Ptolemy.

The Greek scientist Strabo was born around 63 BC. e. Among Strabo's works, it should be noted his “Geography”, consisting of 17 books. Of these, two books were devoted to mathematical geography, eight to Europe, six to Asia, and one to Africa. Strabo, like Herodotus, was an outstanding traveler. Before writing Geography, he visited Western Europe, Greece, Egypt and the then known part of Asia.

Mathematician and geographer Claudius Ptolemy, Greek by birth, lived in Egypt in the first half II V. n. e. His greatest work was the creation of the “world system,” which dominated science for more than a thousand years. Ptolemy's geographical views are expressed in the book "Geographical Guide". He builds his geography on purely mathematical principles, first of all indicating the geographical definition of latitude and longitude of each place.

Ptolemy had more significant geographical material than Strabo. In his works we find information about the Caspian Sea, about the river. Volga (Ra) and r. Kame (Eastern Ra). When describing Africa, he dwells in detail on the sources of the Nile, and his description is in many ways similar to the latest research.

The works of Strabo and Ptolemy summed up all the geographical knowledge of the ancient world, which was quite large. Geographers of the most developed countries of Western Europe before XV V. added almost nothing to the geographical knowledge that the Greeks and Romans had before III V. From the given examples of the most important geographical works of antiquity, two paths of development of geography are already outlined with sufficient clarity. The first way is a description of individual countries (Herodotus, Strabo). The second way is a description of the entire Earth as a single whole (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy). These two main paths in geography have survived to this day. Thus, during the era of the slave system, significant geographical knowledge was accumulated. The main achievements of this period were the establishment of the spherical shape of the Earth and the first measurements of its size, the writing of the first major geographical works and the compilation of geographical maps, and, finally, the first attempts to give a scientific explanation of the physical phenomena occurring on Earth.

Geographical ideas of the ancient East

Scientific geographical knowledge, or rather its rudiments, appeared during the slave system. Society begins to divide into classes, and the first slave states are formed - Phenicia, China, India, Assyria, Egypt. During this period, people began to use metal tools, use irrigation in agriculture, and develop cattle breeding. Then crafts appeared, and the exchange of goods between different peoples expanded. But, without good knowledge of the area, all these actions would be impossible.

Some geographical information is available in ancient monuments Chinese writing, appeared in the $VII-III$ centuries BC. So, for example, in "Yugong" describes mountains, rivers, vegetation, tax system, transport, etc.

A number of geographical studies were carried out by Chinese scientists - Zhang Rong revealed the relationship between the speed of water flow and runoff. Based on this, measures to regulate the river were subsequently developed. Yellow River. The Chinese had instruments to determine wind direction and precipitation.

Not only China, but also India is the oldest center of culture. "Veda"- written monuments of the ancient Hindus, in addition to religious hymns, contain information about the peoples of India, about the nature of its regions. The Vedas mention such objects as the Indus, Ganges, and the Himalayan mountains. The Hindus were familiar with Ceylon and Indonesia and knew the route through the high deserts of Tibet. They had a good calendar, and there was information that our planet rotates around its axis, and the Moon shines by reflected sunlight.

Babylonians, who lived in the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, penetrated into the central part of Asia Minor and, according to experts, could reach the Black Sea coast.

On the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea lived Phoenicians, brave sailors of the ancient world. Their main occupation was maritime trade, they carried on throughout the entire Mediterranean Sea and the western coast of Europe. It was they who made a remarkable journey around Africa on the orders of the Egyptian pharaoh Necho.

Egyptians could determine the length of the year and introduced the solar calendar, they also knew the sundial. Nevertheless, having real practical experience, in theoretical terms the peoples of the ancient East retained a mythological character. For example, the ancient Egyptians imagined the Earth as a flat, elongated rectangle, surrounded on all sides by mountains.

Note 1

Taking all this into account, we can say that geography arose in ancient times, and this was associated with the practical activities of people - hunting, fishing, primitive agriculture. The first slave states arose along large rivers and natural boundaries - mountains and deserts. The first written documents appeared, which reflected the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient East with a description of the then known part of the Earth.

Geographical ideas of ancient scientists

Views scientists of antiquity among the geographical ideas of the ancient world, have special meaning. Ancient geography reached its peak in Ancient Greece and Rome from the $12th century. BC – $146$ AD This is explained, first of all, by a very favorable geographical position on the routes from Western Asia to southern and Western countries Mediterranean.

The earliest written documents of the Greeks are epic poems "Iliad" And "Odyssey", from which one can get an idea of ​​the geographical knowledge of this era. For example, the Greeks imagined the earth as an island shaped like a convex shield. They knew the countries adjacent to the Aegean Sea, some information about Africa, about the nomadic peoples who lived north of Greece.

The ancient Greeks attempted to compile geographical maps of the territories known to them. Parmenides, a Greek thinker, put forward the idea that the Earth is spherical, however, he came to this conclusion not experimentally, but based on his philosophy.

Many works of geographical content were written Aristotle. One of the essays was called "Meteorology", which was the pinnacle geographical science Antiquity. Considering the issue of the water cycle, the formation of clouds and precipitation, he concludes that rivers carry their waters to the seas in a volume that is equal to the amount of evaporated water, so the sea level remains stable. He also wrote about earthquakes, thunder, lightning, trying to determine the reasons for their formation. It was not only natural phenomena that interested the scientist. He makes an attempt to connect the influence of natural factors on a person and his behavior. As a result, Aristotle comes to the conclusion that people living in areas with cold climates have a masculine character, but less developed intelligence and artistic interest. They are incapable of state life, retain their freedom longer and cannot dominate their neighbors.

The peoples inhabiting Asia have artistic taste and very intelligent. Their disadvantage is a lack of courage, so they live in a slave state.

The name of the second greatest Greek scientist is Herodotus. His works were of great importance for geography, the value of which stems from his personal travels and observations. Herodotus not only visited, but also described Egypt, Libya, Palestine, and Persia. He described the nearest part of India, Scythia, and the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas.

Herodotus's work entitled "History in Nine Books" after the death of the scientist, it was divided into nine parts - according to the number of muses, and each individual part was named after them. “History” of Herodotus, on the one hand, is a generalizing historical and geographical work, and on the other hand, it is the most important monument of travel and discovery. Herodotus's travels did not contribute to the discovery of new lands, but they helped to accumulate more complete and reliable information about the Earth.

A new geographical direction arose in Hellenistic era($330-$146 BC), which later received the name of mathematical geography. The most prominent representative of this trend was Eratosthenes. In his work entitled "Geographical Notes", he uses the term “geography” for the first time. In the book, the scientist gives a description of the Ecumene, considers questions of mathematical and physical geography, thus uniting all three directions under one name, therefore he is considered the true “father” of geographical science. Unfortunately, Eratosthenes’ “Geography” has not survived to this day.

Note 2

In addition to the listed scientists, it is necessary to name the names of other ancient geographers, such as Strabo, the materialist philosopher Democritus, Gaius Plinius Secunda the Elder, Titus Lucretius Carus, Claudius Ptolemy, etc.

Roman scientists of this period created generalizing geographical works, in which an attempt was made to show all the diversity known world. The campaigns and wars waged by the Romans provided a lot of material for geography. All accumulated material was processed mainly by Greek scientists - Strabo and Ptolemy. Greek by origin, Ptolemy lived in Egypt in the 2nd century AD. His geographical views are presented in the book “Geographical Guide”. The volume of geographical material that Ptolemy had at his disposal was much wider than that of Strabo.

It must be said that up to the $15th century. Geographers of the most developed countries of the world added almost nothing to the existing geographical knowledge of the Greeks and Romans. Two paths for the development of geographical science were outlined with sufficient clarity:

1. Description of individual countries - Herodotus, Strabo;
2. Description of the entire Earth as a single whole - Eratosthenes, Ptolemy, who was the most outstanding and last representative of ancient mathematical geography. In his mind main task Geography consisted of creating maps. The most perfect map of the ancient world was compiled by C. Ptolemy in the $2nd century. AD It was subsequently published several times in the Middle Ages.

Both paths have survived to this day. Significant geographical knowledge was thus accumulated during the era of the slave system. Establishing the sphericity of the Earth, measuring its size, drawing up geographical maps, and writing the first geographical works were the main achievements of geography of that time. Attempts have been made to provide a scientific explanation for the physical phenomena occurring on Earth.

Note 3

Ancient scientists created the first written documents, which gave ideas about the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient East, and described a known part of the Earth.

In the south of Asia there was a huge country - Ancient India. It occupies the Hindustan Peninsula and the adjacent part of the mainland. The coast of India is washed from the west and east by the Indian Ocean. From the north, its border is MOUNTAINS. Almost the entire island is occupied by a plateau. Between the plateau and the Himalayas there is a lowland, the Indus flows in its western part, and the Ganges flows in the eastern part. Both rivers originate in the Himalayas, and when the snow melts in the mountains, the water level rises. The first settlements arose in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers. In ancient times, the Ganges valley was covered with marshy swamps and jungles, impenetrable thickets of trees and bushes.

Extremely insufficient number of sources as monuments material culture, and especially the inscriptions, greatly complicates the study of the history of ancient India. Archaeological excavations began in India relatively recently and yielded tangible results only in the northwestern regions, where the ruins of cities and settlements dating back to the period from the 25th to the 15th centuries were discovered. BC e. However, the excavations begun in these areas have not yet been completed, and the hieroglyphic inscriptions discovered here have not yet been deciphered.

The religious collections of the ancient Hindus, the so-called Vedas, are of great importance for studying the history of ancient India. These sacred books of ancient India, dating back to the second millennium BC. e., are divided into four large collections (samhita), bearing the names Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and the most recent, later added to the first three, the fourth collection Atharvaveda. The most ancient of these collections is the Rig Veda, consisting mainly of religious hymns dedicated to the gods. In other collections, in particular in the Yajurveda, along with chants and hymns, there are many prayer and sacrificial formulas that were used in religious rituals, especially in honor of the god of the intoxicating drink Soma. The Vedas make it possible to establish some data about economic and social order those tribes that invaded North-West India in the middle of the second millennium. But the Vedas provide especially rich material for the study of religion, mythology and partly poetry of this period. However, the Vedas as a source on the history of ancient India can only be used with a very large

The Vedas, gradually becoming more and more incomprehensible, began to be supplied with interpretations, among which the most famous are the Brahmanas, containing explanations of religious rituals, the Aranyakas, containing various religious and philosophical discussions, and the Upanishads, a kind of theological treatise. These later religious books characterize the development of ancient Indian religion, theology and priesthood during the formation of the great Indian states in the first millennium BC. e.

Essential sources for the study of the history and culture of India in the first millennium BC. e. are two large epic poems containing many elements of oral folk artistic creativity, Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Valuable sources on the history of ancient India are the ancient collections of customary law, the so-called Dharmashastra, dating mostly to the end of the first millennium BC. e. These collections of ancient law, closely associated with religious-magical ritual, define duties rather than human rights.

The collection of laws of Manu, the compilation of which is attributed to Manu, the legendary progenitor of people, has become especially widespread. The Laws of Manu were compiled around the 3rd century. BC e. and finally edited in the 3rd century. n. e.

The political and economic treatise “Arthashastra”, which is attributed to Kautilya, one of the ministers of King Chandragupta from the Maurya dynasty, is of very great importance as a valuable source on the history of ancient India. This treatise, containing a detailed system of public administration, comprehensively describes the activities of the king and officials, the foundations of statehood, administrative management, judicial affairs, foreign policy states, finally, the military art of that time.

The inscriptions relating mainly to the early Buddhist period are of a much narrower nature. Many inscriptions have been preserved from the time of King Ashoka.

In the second half of the first millennium BC. e. the states of Northern India enter into various relationships with Iran, Greece and Macedonia. Therefore, for the study of this period, foreign sources and testimonies of foreigners about India become of great importance.

A number of valuable information of a geographical nature, as well as information about the natural resources, customs of the population and cities of ancient India, were preserved in the extensive historical and geographical work of Strabo (1st century BC - 1st century AD). Strabo's work is especially valuable, since it is based on a number of special works of his predecessors: Megasthenes, Nearchus, Eratosthenes, etc.

Of great importance among the works of Greek writers who wrote about ancient India is Arrian’s book “Anabasis”, which has survived to this day, dedicated to detailed description campaigns of Alexander the Great, in particular his campaign in India.

Finally, the works of Chinese historians and writers are of undoubted interest for studying the history of ancient India, in particular the valuable work of Sima Qian, important for establishing chronology, as well as the works of Chinese writers who lived in the 2nd century. BC e. Chinese sources provide a wealth of material for the history of ancient India during the period of the spread of Buddhism, when the relationship between India and China became closer.

Historical tradition persisted throughout the Middle Ages in Indian chronicles. Many confused and chaotic legends have been preserved, for example, in the Kashmir Chronicle (XIII century AD). In some chronicles of South India and Ceylon, such as in Dipavamza, dating back to the 4th century. n. e., interesting legends dating back to the reign of the Maurya dynasty have been preserved. However, all these works, strongly imbued with religious and instructive ideology, require strictly critical study.

Throughout the Middle Ages, relatively little information about India reached Europe.

The study of epigraphic monuments of ancient India began in the 30s of the 19th century. Prinsep, who deciphered the inscriptions of King Ashoka. However, approaches to the archaeological study of India began only in the second half of the 19th century.

The development of Indology was used by reactionary historians, philosophers and publicists in the second half of the 19th century. in order to justify and justify the brutal regime of colonial oppression in India. Pseudoscientific “theories” have appeared about the primordial superiority of the fantastic “race” of Aryan conquerors of Northern India, who possessed some kind of “supernaturally pure” blood and allegedly created a culture and statehood that was completely different from all others. According to these “theories,” this ancient Indo-Aryan, primarily “spiritual,” civilization inexplicably arose on the plateaus of Central Asia or Eastern Iran, among the snowy peaks of the Himalayas and Pamirs, where, according to the ancient legends of the Aryans, there was the cradle of humanity. And in an equally amazing way, this “ancient Aryan culture” described in ancient myths developed over thousands of years along a completely special path in complete isolation from the progressive development of socio-economic formations among all other peoples. These tendentious “theories” were supposed to justify the policy of imperialist exploitation of India and inciting national hatred between the various tribes of Hindustan, in particular religious hatred between Muslims and Hindus. The English and American colonialists, using for their own purposes the false “theory” of “the special spiritual destiny of India,” relied on the aristocratic layer of princely families (Rajas) and the highest priesthood (Brahmins), who considered themselves the true descendants of the Aryan conquerors. The English bourgeois historian Smith argued that the Aryan conquerors in the 7th century. BC e. captured the Punjab region and the Ganges basin, since these were “strong races” that were “indisputably superior to the native races of India.” In fact, even in the classical literature of ancient India, memories of the high culture of the ancient native peoples of India were preserved even in the pre-Aryan era. Archaeological data have now made it possible to attribute the ruins of the ancient cities of North-West India to the third millennium BC. e., to assume the existence of ancient states in the Indus and Ganges valleys in the third and second millennia BC. e. and establish the high flowering of this culture, which existed until the so-called Aryan invasion, which apparently occurred between the 15th and 10th centuries. BC e. On the other hand, ancient Indian written sources, in particular the Vedas, vividly depict the nomadic life of culturally backward pastoral tribes of the Aryan conquerors. All these reactionary theories in the field of ancient Indian history were used to strengthen the power of the imperialists in India.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The most reactionary and most deceitful imperialist “theory” of the “Aryan principle” of world domination took shape, which was “ideologically” substantiated by H. S. Chamberlain. In 1935, the reactionary historian W. Durant, in his book “The Eastern Inheritance,” argued that after the Aryans and Romans, the British entered the arena of history as conquerors of the world. Currently, reactionary American historians are trying to use the misanthropic “race theory” to substantiate the claims of US imperialists to world domination. From this angle, American historians describe the history of ancient India in an extremely tendentious manner, without stopping at the obvious falsification of historical facts.

Many Indian historians late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, waging an ideological struggle against foreign oppressors, largely contributed to the development of the study of the history of ancient India, which was based on the deep use of ancient classical literature, inscriptions and archaeological monuments.

Russian scientists from mid-19th V. fruitfully studied the language, literature and religion of ancient India. The works of K. Kossovich, V.P. Vasilyev and O. Miller gave a lot in the field of studying Sanskrit literature, in particular ancient poetry, as well as Buddhism. Valuable works devoted to ancient Indian literature, mythology and pre-Buddhist religion were compiled by I. P. Minaev, D. N. Ovsyanniko-Kulikovsky and Vs. Miller in the 70-90s of the last century. Back in 1870, I.P. Minaev posed an interesting question about the connections of ancient India with the West. Of no less interest is Minaev’s theory about the northern origin of the Buddhist religion. Having visited India three times in 1879-1888, Minaev, with his extensive knowledge and original ideas, stood out among the learned Indian scholars of his time. Works of Russian scientists of the 19th century. were based on a serious study of the ancient Indian language (Sanskrit). Back in 1841, Professor Petrov taught Sanskrit in Kazan, and subsequently in Moscow. The largest dictionary of Sanskrit was compiled by Betling and Roth and published in St. Petersburg in 1855-1874. However, despite the large scientific materials collected and first studied by Russian scientists of the 19th century, their works are still typical works bourgeois historiography.

Soviet historians studying the history of ancient India in the light of Marxist-Leninist methodology have produced a number of valuable works on the history of ancient India.

The most progressive historians also study the history of ancient India from a Marxist perspective. modern India, like, for example, S.A. Dange, who devoted a special work to the issue of the emergence and development of slave society in ancient India.

The history of South Asia can be divided into the following periods:

I. Ancient civilization(Indus) dates back to approximately XXIII-XVIII centuries BC. e. (the emergence of the first cities, the formation of early states).

II. By the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. refers to the appearance of Indo-European tribes, the so-called Aryans. The period from the end of the 2nd millennium to the 7th century. BC e. is called “Vedic” - according to the sacred literature of the Vedas created at that time. Two main stages can be distinguished: the early (XIII-X centuries BC) is characterized by the settlement of Aryan tribes in Northern India, the late - social and political differentiation, which led to the formation of the first states (IX-VII centuries BC .), mainly in the Ganges valley.

III. The “Buddhist period” (VI-III centuries BC) is the time of the emergence and spread of the Buddhist religion. From the point of view of socio-economic and political history it was marked by the rapid development of the economy, the formation of cities and the emergence of large states, right up to the creation of the all-Indian Mauryan state.

IV. 2nd century BC e.-V century AD e. can be defined as the “classical era” of the flourishing of the economy and culture of the countries of South Asia, the formation of the caste system.

One of the oldest states, India, is located on the Hindustan Peninsula. Over the course of centuries and millennia, nomads, farmers, and traders entered India. Therefore, the formation of knowledge about the world around us, economic activity people, the development of scientific ideas did not occur in isolation, but under the influence of other peoples.

Found at archaeological excavations tools, household items, culture, art, religion made it possible to restore in general terms the features of life and economic activity of the population of Ancient India.

Experts suggest that the Indus Valley was developed earlier than the Ganges Valley. People were doing agriculture, various crafts, trade. IN free time residents loved to listen to music, sing, dance, and play various outdoor games in nature.

Among the sources that have come down to us, revealing the ideas of the ancient Indians about nature, health and disease, a special place is occupied by written monuments - the Vedas. The Vedas are a collection of hymns and prayers, but for us they are interesting because they contain specific natural science and medical knowledge. According to some sources, the creation of the Vedas dates back to the 2nd millennium BC, according to others - to the 9th - 6th centuries. BC e.

According to the Vedas, the disease was explained by the uneven combination of five (according to other sources - three) juices of the human body in accordance with the five elements of the world: earth, water, fire, air and ether. Their harmonious combination was considered a condition without which there is no health. Among the causes of disease, important importance was attached to errors in food, addiction to wine, physical overexertion, hunger, and previous diseases. It has been argued that health status is influenced by climatic conditions, age, mood of the patient.

In the valleys of large Indian rivers with high humidity and high temperatures during the hot season, many diseases raged, killing thousands of people.

Among the signs of individual diseases, the symptoms of malaria, anthrax, elephantiasis, icteric-hemoglobinuric fever, skin and genitourinary diseases were well described. Cholera was considered one of the most terrible diseases. People of the Vedic period knew that the plague was the result of a previous epizootic among rodents, that rabies in humans begins with the bite of a rabid animal, and leprosy is the result of prolonged contact between a healthy person and a sick person.

In the system of medical knowledge, important importance was attached to diagnosis. The doctor was primarily charged with the duty of “unraveling the disease and only then proceeding with treatment.”

The professional value of a doctor, according to Vedic literature, was determined by the degree of his practical and theoretical training. These two sides must be in complete harmony. “A doctor who neglects theoretical knowledge is like a bird with a cut wing.”

The richness of the flora and fauna of India predetermined the creation of many medicines, which, according to sources of that time, numbered more than a thousand. Some of them have not yet been studied. Among animal products, milk, fat, oil, blood, glands, and animal bile were widely consumed. Mercury, copper and iron compounds, arsenic, and antimony were used to cauterize ulcers, treat eye and skin diseases, and for oral administration.

Mercury and its salts were especially widely used: “A doctor familiar with the healing properties of roots is a man who knows the power of prayers - a prophet, and one who knows the effect of mercury is a god.” Mercury was known as a panacea for many diseases. Mercury vapor killed harmful insects.

In ancient India they knew about medicinal properties various muds, as evidenced by references to mud therapy, which was recommended for many diseases known at that time.

The gradual accumulation of knowledge from the field of botany and chemistry, which began since the time of the Vedas, increasingly contributed to the development of pharmacology in India.

When examining the patient, not only his age was taken into account, but also the natural conditions of the place of residence, as well as the patient’s occupation. The medicine of Ancient India was familiar to many peoples.

Key words: Vedas, anthrax, cholera.

Lesson summary of the course "Medical Geography. Topic: Development of medical-geographical concepts in Ancient India, Ancient Tibet and in the Middle Ages in Arab countries (grade 10)

Publication date: 06.04.2015

Brief description: Goal: Formation of scientific ideas in various countries. Objectives: To generate knowledge about medical and geographical concepts in Ancient India, Ancient Tibet and in the Middle Ages in Arab countries, to establish the uniqueness of Tibetan medicine. To form knowledge

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Lesson 4 Slide No. 1

Topic: Development of medical and geographical concepts in Ancient India, Ancient Tibet and in the Middle Ages in Arab countries.

Goal: Formation of scientific ideas in various countries.

To develop knowledge about medical and geographical concepts in Ancient India, Ancient Tibet and in the Middle Ages in Arab countries, to establish the uniqueness of Tibetan medicine.

To develop knowledge about the development of medical and geographical concepts in the Middle Ages, to broaden one’s horizons about science in the Middle Ages.

Continue student development cognitive interest; stimulating the creative thinking activity of students;

Lesson type: lesson-lecture with elements of conversation.

Lesson progress:

I. Stage “Org. moment".

Checking the student's readiness for the lesson.

II. Stage “Learning new material”. Reception "Lecture". Slide number 2

Epigraph “When we turn to medicine of the ancient period, even if it originates from such an enlightened source as the Buddha of Medicine, our arrogance often makes us believe that all this is outdated and inapplicable in the modern world.”

Lecture outline: Slide No. 3

Development of medical and geographical concepts in Ancient India. Slides No. 4-7

The people of Ancient India, earlier than others, began to accumulate knowledge about various diseases and methods of curing them. The great monument of literature - the Vedas - contained not only myths and legends about gods and sages, but also medical prescriptions and recommendations.

Medical knowledge was compiled in the Yajur Veda, compiled around the 9th century BC. According to them, in case of illness or injury, a person must turn to the healing gods. Later, explanations of the texts were compiled by various healers. The gods Shiva and Dhanvantari were considered the founders of medicine. “And the raging sea, in addition to all kinds of jewelry, threw the first learned doctor onto the earth.”

Initially, only Brahmins could treat, and they did not charge for treatment. Gradually, a whole class appeared - the Vedia caste, engaged exclusively in medicine. Brahmins later only taught the art of medicine and called themselves gurus. During training, the student followed everywhere

his teacher, studying holy books, medicines and treatments. Only after completing his education did the doctor receive the right to practice medicine from the rajah.

The main features of Indian doctors representing the Vedia caste were the obligation to dress cleanly, cut nails and beard, speak respectfully and come to the patient upon request. The doctor took payment for his work, and only Brahmins were treated for free. The doctor didn't have to

help an incurable patient. All medications were prescribed after a thorough examination of the patient and establishment of the nature of the disease. In addition to the Brahmins and representatives of the Vedia caste, there were folk doctors - healers.

Surgical interventions were widely practiced in Ancient India, and surgery itself was called shalia. Some of the most famous operations at that time included removing stones from the urinary tract, extracting cataracts, applying fixing pressure bandages for fractures and wounds, stopping bleeding by cauterization, plastic surgery(for example, restoring the integrity of the nose or ear by transplanting tissue from a healthy adjacent area of ​​the body).

A large number of medical works were devoted to hygiene. They talked about keeping food fresh, the benefits of bathing and using ointments, and brushing your teeth. It was known huge amount medicinal herbs. Various animal parts were also used to prepare medicines. The properties of metals and other chemicals, as well as their compounds, were studied. Many poisons and ways to combat them were discovered.

The development of medical and geographical concepts in Ancient Tibet, the uniqueness of Tibetan medicine. Slides No. 8-10

The medicine of ancient Tibet is a unique synthesis of scientific and philosophical knowledge. Having first arisen on the basis of Indian teaching, it continued to develop and improve. To this day, the principles of oriental medicine are very popular, effectively combining age-old wisdom with modern techniques diagnosis and treatment.

The basis of the medicine of ancient Tibet is the work “The Four Tantras.” The treatise is a collection of practical and theoretical knowledge, talks about medicinal substances and the philosophy of oriental medicine in Tibet.

The main source of medical knowledge in ancient Tibet is considered to be a treatise created by the scientist-doctor Vagbhata Jr. at the turn of the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was translated into Tibetan in the 7th century by order of King Trisong Detsena,

The basis of medicine in Ancient Tibet is the doctrine of three essences - nyepa, which include mucus, wind and bile. Man exists through their interaction with each other, and when these relationships are disturbed, poisons arise - dullness, anger and attachment. Thus, all diseases of the body were associated with the mind. In order to cure a disease, it is necessary to take into account the condition of other organs that are weakened and may impede healing. The basic principles of therapy were: “to treat the patient, not the disease,” “to treat where the pain comes from, and not where it hurts,” “the body must be treated as a whole.”

The main methods of therapy practiced in ancient Tibet included diet, healthy lifestyle, medications and various procedures. They were used both individually and in combination, depending on the severity of the patient’s condition and other factors.

According to the treatise “Zhud-shi”, there are no plants that could not be used as medicines. Any means were used to make them, and recipes for medications sometimes included several dozen ingredients mixed in certain proportions. If at least one component was missing, the medicine was considered useless.

Physical exercise. "Lazy Eights" technique

The teacher suggests doing an exercise that activates the brain structures that ensure memorization and increases the stability of attention. Slide number 11

Development of medical knowledge in the Middle Ages and in Arab countries. Slides No. 12-14

The concept of “the Middle Ages” was strengthened by the period limited to the time between antiquity and the Renaissance. “Intermediate centuries” - this is also what they call historical period. One of its features is its enormous duration - about a millennium.
Characteristic of the Middle Ages was the growth of cities, which had high population density, unsanitary conditions, and a low level of medical care for the sick. All this contributed to the massive spread of epidemics. Judging by the descriptions, these were plague, typhus, dysentery, and smallpox.
It is not possible in many countries to consider the development of medical-geographical concepts during this historical period. Let us dwell, albeit very briefly, only on the Arab countries united into a single Muslim state - the Caliphate, where medicine has received significant development. This was facilitated by advances in the field of chemistry and botany, which advanced the development of medicinal science and contributed to the creation of previously unknown medicines. Along with chemistry and botany, mathematics, astronomy, and geography received significant development. Relatively less success was achieved by the scientists of the Caliphate in the field of anatomy, surgery, and obstetrics due to the religious prohibitions of Islam.
The greatest scientist and outstanding physician of the Middle Ages was Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037). He compiled works on medicine, geology, astronomy, chemistry, history of geology

However, Ibn Sina's most significant contribution was to medicine. He wrote more than 20 works in this area. His most important medical work is “The Canon of Medical Science.” The Canon consists of five books. The first of them contains general questions medicine, information on anatomy, general concepts about diseases, their causes, manifestations, maintaining health and methods of treating them. The second book presents data on drugs and their mechanisms of action. The third describes individual diseases and methods of treating them. The fourth book is devoted to surgery, the fifth contains a description of complex medicinal substances, poisons and antidotes.

A large place in the “Canon” is given to hygiene issues. The scientist’s health rules and dietetics formed the basis for many works on these topics by researchers in subsequent generations.
Ibn Sina paid a lot of attention to the interaction of the environment and man, the role of the environment in the occurrence of diseases, noting the dependence of health on the geographical conditions of the area in which a person lives. Ibn Sina owns the following poetic lines:

Subject to all flaws. Heal yourself with nature - in the garden and open field.
III. Stage “Consolidation” educational material» Slide number 16

Questions for conversation:

What can you say about the methods of treating diseases in Ancient India?

Who are Brahmins? What is the main feature of Indian doctors?

What medical procedures were widely practiced in ancient India?

What were most of the ancient Indian medical works devoted to?

Why is ancient Tibetan medicine considered unique?

What is the basic principle of ancient Tibetan medicine?

Name the largest and most outstanding doctor of the Middle Ages?

What did Ibn Sina attach great importance to in medicine?

What are the lines of his poem about: Slide No. 17

An active, fast person, be friends with gymnastics, always be cheerful,
He is proud of his slender figure, and you will live a hundred years, and maybe more.
Sitting in Sydney for a whole century Potions, powders - to health wrong way,
Subject to all flaws. Treat yourself with nature - in the garden and open field?
IV. Stage "Final". Grading.

V. Stage “Reflection”. Slide number 18

The guys in a circle speak in one sentence, choosing the beginning of a phrase from the reflective screen on the board:
1. Today I learned... 7. I learned...
2. It was interesting... 8. I did it...
3. It was difficult... 9. I was able...
4. I completed the tasks... 10. I will try...
5. Now I can... 11. Gave me a lesson for life
6. I purchased...

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