from the village of Kirovo (flat 59 44) to the village of Lavrovo (flat 58 46)

(“Kirovo”. Training card U-38-56-A-b, M 1:25 000)

The shortest route is along an improved asphalt concrete road (roadway width 8 m, roadbed width 12 m), connecting the village of Kirovo and the village of Lavrovo. From Kirovo (1,200 inhabitants, church, gardening, forest protection plantings, electrical substation) the road passes through hilly terrain with a forest protection belt in a south-easterly direction. Approaching the village of Lavrovo (450 inhabitants, separate palaces, a cemetery, a gardening farm), the road passes through meadows with grassy vegetation. Further from the village, the road passes over a bridge over the Kunta River (river width 2 m, flow speed 0.2 m/s). The bridge (reinforced concrete, 20 m long, 4 m wide and with a load capacity of 30 tons) is located on an embankment 2 m high, the area along the bridge is swampy (passable swamps).

Problem 5

Mark on the map the watershed lines and thalwegs (drainage lines) located within the same squares (see task 4). Show watershed lines in brown or red, thalwegs in green or blue. For one of the logs, draw watershed lines and thalwegs completely, that is, both within and outside the given squares.

An example of solving a problem. From a given drainage alignment (point R ) draw a curved line normal to the horizontal lines along the watershed to the points WITH , A (Fig. 11). This line intersects the horizontal lines of greatest curvature. The thalweg line (drainage line) will run along the ravine. Area of ​​a figure bounded by points A , IN , WITH , R called drainage area.

Rice. 11. Construction of watershed lines and thalwegs

Problem 6

Calculate the area of ​​a figure bounded by points A , IN , WITH , – S abc .

There are three ways to measure areas on plans and maps: graphical, mechanical (electronic-mechanical) and analytical.

TO graphically This includes a method of dividing the measured area into simple geometric shapes, and a method based on the use of a palette.

In the first case, the area to be measured is divided into simple geometric shapes (Fig. 12, A), the area of ​​each of which is calculated using simple geometric formulas, and the total area is determined as the sum of the areas of particular geometric figures:

In the second case, the area of ​​the measured figure is covered with a palette consisting of squares (Fig. 12, b), each of which is a unit of area. The palette is placed on the contour of the area, the number is counted n full squares enclosed within the contour of the site, and the number n" squares cut by the boundary of the site. Total number squares covering the entire contour of the site, N total is calculated by the formula

N generally = n + 0,5n".

To determine the area of ​​the plot P in m 2, hectares, km 2, calculate the price of dividing the palette With, i.e., determine the area of ​​the square of the palette on the ground:

c = (a M) 2 ,

Where A– side of the palette square in linear measure (mm, cm);

M– map (plan) scale denominator.

Then the area of ​​the plot

P = N generally With.

Mechanical method consists of determining areas on plans and maps using mechanical or electronic planimeters.

Analytical method(Fig. 13) consists of calculating areas based on the results of measurements of angles and lines on the ground. Based on the results of measurements on the ground, the coordinates of the vertices are calculated X, Y. Square S polygons 1–2–3–4 can be calculated through the areas of trapezoids

For a polygon with the number of vertices n we finally get:

Calculations using formulas are performed on a microcalculator or on a computer.

The accuracy of determining areas analytically is determined by the accuracy of the measured values.

rice. 13. Analytical method for measuring areas

Problem 7

Using geodetic coordinates, determine the nomenclature of a map of the specified scale for a point IN .

The solution to the problem is to sequentially determine the nomenclature of map sheets of scales 1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000, 1:10,000, on which the point is located IN . It is recommended to solve the problem by drawing up layout diagrams for sheets of maps of the listed scales. On the diagram you need to indicate the longitude and latitude of the boundaries of the map sheet on which the point falls IN , and next to it is the nomenclature of this sheet.

The nomenclature of map sheets at a scale of 1:1,000,000 is made up of row and column designations. The rows are limited by parallels every 4° in latitude and are designated by letters of the Latin alphabet from the equator to the poles - from A to V (Fig. 14).

Rice. 14. Scheme of layout and nomenclature of map sheets M 1:1000,000

The columns are limited by meridians at 6° longitude, designated by Arabic numerals from 1 to 60, the columns begin to be counted from the meridian with a longitude of 180°, from west to east.

A map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 contains an integer number of map sheets of other scales, a multiple of four: (four sheets of a map at a scale of 1:500,000, 36 sheets of a map at a scale of 1:200,000, 144 sheets of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 (Fig. 15 ) etc.).

The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 is made up of the designations of the row (letters) and columns (numbers) at the intersection of which the sheet is located, for example N-44. The dimensions and location of the columns of the map sheets at a scale of 1: 1,000,000 in longitude coincide with the six-degree zones of the Gaussian projection, in which topographic maps are compiled. The only difference is that the zones are counted from the prime (Greenwich) meridian, and the columns of the sheets of the millionth map are counted from the meridian with a longitude of 180°. Therefore, the zone number differs from the column number by 30°.

The nomenclature of sheets of maps of scales 1:100,000 - 1:500,000 is made up of the nomenclature of the corresponding sheet of the millionth map, with the addition of a number(s) or a letter indicating the location of this sheet on it.

Rice. 15. Layout and nomenclature of topographic maps

Geographical description of the area

The analysis of topographic maps is carried out in order to study the study area, its features, patterns of location, the relationship of objects and phenomena, the dynamics of their development, etc. The analysis allows you to correctly select a map of a certain scale depending on the direction of intended use (for familiarization with the area, for orientation on the ground , as a basis for compiling hypsometric, soil, landscape maps, for scientific analysis of natural and socio-economic phenomena, etc.)

The selection of maps is accompanied by an assessment of the degree of their suitability for specific work in terms of the accuracy and detail of the information that is expected to be obtained using the maps. It is necessary to take into account that increasing the scale of maps leads to an increase in the number of map sheets, reducing visibility of the territory, but increasing the accuracy of the information. The time of publication of maps determines their compliance with the current state of the territory. The dynamics of geographical phenomena are revealed by comparing maps from different times to the same territory.

The following methods of map analysis are used: visual, graphical, graphic-analytical and mathematical-statistical.

Visual method is based on the visual perception of an image of a terrain, a comparison of graphically shown terrain elements by shape, size, structure, etc. It involves a predominantly qualitative description of objects and phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye-based assessment of distances, areas, heights and their ratios.

Graphical analysis consists of studying constructions made using maps. Such constructions are profiles, sections, block diagrams, etc. Using graphical analysis techniques, patterns of spatial distribution of phenomena are revealed.

Graphic-analytical analysis divided into cartometric and morphometric. Cartometric techniques consist of measuring the length of lines on maps, determining coordinates, areas, volumes, angles, depths, etc. Morphometric techniques make it possible to determine the average height, thickness, power of a phenomenon, horizontal and vertical dissection of the surface, slopes and gradients of the surface, tortuosity of lines and contours etc.

Numerical indicators of the prevalence of objects, connections between them, and the degree of influence of various factors make it possible to establish methods of mathematical and statistical analysis. Using mathematical modeling methods, spatial mathematical models of the terrain are created.

Geographical description of the area is compiled after a preliminary study of the map and is accompanied by measurements and calculations based on comparison of lengths, angles, areas with a linear scale, location scale, etc. The basic principle of description is from general to specific. The description is constructed according to the following scheme:

1) card details(nomenclature, scale, year of publication);

2) description of the boundary of the area(geographical and rectangular coordinates);

3) relief characteristics(type of relief, landforms and the area and extent they occupy, absolute and relative elevation marks, main watersheds, shape and steepness of slopes, the presence of ravines, cliffs, gullies with an indication of their length and depth, anthropogenic landforms - quarries, embankments, excavations, mounds, etc.);

4) hydrographic network– names of objects, length, width, depth, direction and speed of river flow, slope, nature of banks, bottom soil; characteristics of the floodplain (size, presence of old channels, floodplain lakes and depth of swamps); the presence of hydraulic structures, as well as bridges, ferries, fords and their characteristics; description of the reclamation network, its density; the presence of springs and wells;

INTRODUCTION

Read the map - this means correctly and fully perceiving conventional signs, quickly and accurately recognizing depicted objects and their characteristic properties from them. Depending on the tasks being solved, the sequence of reading the card may be different. In this case, some general rules must be observed.
1. You should not read everything on the map, but selectively, paying attention only to those elements of its content that are relevant to the task at hand.
2. Conventional signs of the objects under study must be considered not in isolation, but in mutual connection with the image of the relief and other elements of the area, while determining the joint influence of all these objects on the implementation of the tasks being solved.
3. Reading the map must be completed with meaningful memorization of the terrain objects depicted on the map, which are the subject of study and identification of them in kind when performing certain tasks.

10.1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONVENTIONAL SIGNS

On maps and plans, the image of terrain objects (situations) is presented in cartographic symbols.- a system of symbolic graphic notations used to depict various objects and phenomena, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics on maps. Symbols are sometimes also called "map legend".
For ease of reading and memorization, many conventional signs have outlines that resemble the top or side view of the local objects they depict. For example, symbols of factories, oil rigs, isolated trees, and bridges are similar in shape to the appearance of the listed local objects.
Cartographic symbols are usually divided into large-scale(outline), off-scale And explanatory(Fig. 10.1). In some textbooks, linear symbols are classified as a separate group.

Rice. 10.1. Types of symbols

Large-scale (contour) signs are conventional signs used to fill the areas of objects expressed on the scale of a plan or map. From a plan or map, using such a sign, you can determine not only the location of the object, but its size and outline.
The boundaries of area objects on the plan can be depicted with solid lines of different colors: black (buildings and structures, fences, roads, etc.), blue (reservoirs, rivers, lakes), brown (natural landforms), light pink (streets and areas in populated areas), etc. The dotted line is used for the boundaries of agricultural and natural land in the area, the boundaries of embankments and excavations near roads. The boundaries of clearings, tunnels and some structures are indicated by a simple dotted line. The fill characters inside the outline are arranged in a specific order.
Linear symbols(a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting linear objects - roads, power lines, borders, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted accurately on the map, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8 to 10 times.
If an object on a plan (map) cannot be expressed by a scale symbol due to its smallness, then off-scale symbol, for example, a boundary sign, a separately growing tree, a kilometer pole, etc. The exact position of an object on the ground is shown main point off-scale symbol.

The main point is:

• for signs of symmetrical shape - in the center of the figure (Fig. 10.2);
• for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base (Fig. 10.3);
• for signs having a base in the form right angle, - at the vertex of the corner (Fig. 10.4);
• for signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure (Fig. 10.5).

Rice. 10.2. Symmetrical signs
1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without towers.

Rice. 10.3. Wide base signs
1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones.

Rice. 10.4. Signs with a base in the form of a right angle
1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations; 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs;
5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Rice. 10.5. Signs that are a combination of several figures
1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans (religious buildings).

Objects expressed by off-scale symbols serve as good landmarks on the ground.
Explanatory symbols (Fig. 10.6, 10.7) are used in combination with scale and non-scale; they serve to further characterize local items and their varieties. For example, an image of a coniferous or deciduous tree in combination with a conventional forest sign shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, and transverse strokes on a railway symbol indicate the number of tracks.

Rice. 10.6. Explanatory symbols of a bridge, highway, river

Rice. 10.7. Characteristics of forest stands.
The numerator of the fraction is the average height of trees in meters, the denominator is the average thickness of trunks, and to the right of the fraction is the average distance between trees.

The maps contain signatures of the proper names of settlements, rivers, lakes, mountains, forests and other objects, as well as explanatory signatures in the form of alphabetic and numerical designations. They allow us to obtain additional information about the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of local objects and relief. Lettered explanatory signatures are most often given in abbreviated form according to the established list of conventional abbreviations.
For a more visual representation of the terrain on maps, each group of symbols related to the same type of terrain elements (vegetation cover, hydrography, relief, etc.) is printed with paint of a certain color.

10.2. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS OF LOCAL OBJECTS

Settlements on topographic maps of scales 1:25,000 - 1:100,000 show everything (Fig. 10.8). Next to the image of the locality, its name is signed: cities - in capital letters in straight font, and localities rural type- lowercase letters more small print. Under the name of a rural settlement, the number of houses is indicated (if known), and if they have district and village councils, their abbreviated signature (PC, CC).
The names of urban and holiday villages are printed on maps in capital letters in italic font. When depicting settlements on maps, their external outlines and the nature of the layout are preserved, main and through passages, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and other buildings that have landmark significance are identified.
Wide streets and areas depicted on the map scale are shown with large-scale symbols in accordance with their actual size and configuration, other streets are shown with conventional out-of-scale symbols, main (main) streets are highlighted on the map with a wider clearance.

Rice. 10.8. Settlements

Populated areas are depicted in most detail on maps at scales of 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. Blocks with predominant fire-resistant and non-fire-resistant buildings are painted over in the appropriate color. As a rule, all buildings located on the outskirts of populated areas are shown.
The map at a scale of 1: 100,000 basically preserves the image of all main streets, industrial facilities and the most important objects that are landmarks. Individual buildings within blocks are shown only in settlements with very sparse buildings, for example in dacha-type settlements.
When depicting all other settlements, buildings are combined into blocks and filled with black paint; the fire resistance of buildings on the 1:100,000 map is not highlighted.
Selected local items significant landmarks are plotted on the map most accurately. Such local objects include various towers and towers, mines and adits, wind turbines, churches and separate buildings, radio masts, monuments, individual trees, mounds, rock outcrops, etc. All of them, as a rule, are depicted on maps conventional out-of-scale signs, and some are accompanied by abbreviated explanatory captions. For example, signature check yy. with the sign of a mine means that the mine is coal.

Rice. 10.9. Selected local items

Road network on topographic maps it is depicted in full and detail. Railways are shown on maps and divided according to the number of tracks (single-, double- and triple-track), gauge (normal and narrow-gauge) and condition (operating, under construction and dismantled). Electrified railways are distinguished by special symbols. The number of tracks is indicated by dashes perpendicular to the axis of the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two - double-track, one - single-track.
On railways they show stations, sidings, platforms, depots, track posts and booths, embankments, excavations, bridges, tunnels, semaphores and other structures. The proper names of the station (passages, platforms) are signed next to their symbols. If the station is located in or near a populated area and has the same name as it, then its signature is not given, but the name of this populated area is emphasized. The black rectangle inside the station symbol indicates the location of the station relative to the tracks; if the rectangle is located in the middle, then the tracks run on both sides of the station.

Figure 10.10. Railway stations and structures

Symbols for platforms, checkpoints, booths and tunnels are accompanied by corresponding abbreviated captions ( pl., bl. p., B, tun.). Next to the symbol of the tunnel, in addition, its numerical characteristic is placed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the height and width, and the denominator - the length of the tunnel in meters.
Road And ground roads When depicted on maps, they are divided into paved and unpaved roads. Paved roads include freeways, improved highways, highways, and improved unpaved roads. Topographic maps show all paved roads in the area. The width and surface material of motorways and highways are indicated directly on their symbols. For example, on the highway the signature 8(12)A means: 8 - width of the covered part of the road in meters; 12 - width of the road from ditch to ditch; A- coating material (asphalt). On improved dirt roads, usually only a label is given for the width of the road from ditch to ditch. Freeways, improved highways, and highways are highlighted in orange on maps, improved dirt roads - yellow or orange.

Figure 10.11. Highways and dirt roads

Topographic maps show unpaved dirt (country) roads, field and forest roads, caravan routes, trails and winter roads. If there is a dense network of roads of a higher class, some secondary roads (field, forest, dirt) may not be shown on maps of scales 1:200,000, 1:100,000, and sometimes even 1:50,000.
Sections of dirt roads passing through wetlands, lined with bundles of brushwood (fascines) on wooden beds and then covered with a layer of earth or sand, are called fascines sections of roads. If on such sections of roads, instead of fascines, a flooring of logs (poles) or simply an embankment of earth (stones) is made, then they are called ruts and rowings, respectively. Fascinal sections of roads, roads and boats are indicated on maps by dashes perpendicular to the conventional sign of the road.
On highways and dirt roads they show bridges, pipes, embankments, excavations, tree plantings, kilometer posts and passes (in mountainous areas).
Bridges depicted on maps with symbols of different designs depending on the material (metal, reinforced concrete, stone and wood); in this case, two-tier, as well as lifting and drawbridges. Bridges on floating supports are distinguished by a special symbol. Next to the symbols of bridges having a length of 3 m or more and located on roads (except for highways and improved highways), their numerical characteristics are signed in the form of a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the length and width of the bridge in meters, and the denominator - the load capacity in tons Before the fraction, indicate the material from which the bridge is built, as well as the height of the bridge above the water level in meters (on navigable rivers). For example, the signature next to the bridge symbol (Fig. 10.12) means that the bridge is made of stone (material of construction), the numerator is the length and width of the roadway in meters, the denominator is the load capacity in tons.

Rice. 10.12. Overpass over the railway

When designating bridges on highways and improved highways, only their length and width are given. Characteristics of bridges less than 3 m long are not given.
Hydrography (water bodies). Topographic maps show the coastal part of the seas, lakes, rivers, canals (ditches), streams, wells, springs, ponds and other bodies of water. Their names are written next to them. The larger the map scale, the more detailed water bodies are depicted.
Lakes, ponds and other bodies of water shown on maps if their area is 1 mm2 or more on the map scale. Smaller bodies of water are shown only in arid and desert areas, as well as in cases where they serve as reliable landmarks.

Rice. 10.12. Hydrography

Rivers, streams, canals and main ditches Topographic maps show everything. It has been established that on maps of scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, rivers up to 5 m wide, and on maps of scale 1:100,000 - up to 10 m are indicated by one line, wider rivers - by two lines. Channels and ditches with a width of 3 m or more are depicted by two lines, and those less than 3 m wide - by one.
Width and depth of rivers (channels) in meters is written as a fraction: the numerator is the width, the denominator is the depth and nature of the bottom soil. Such signatures are placed in several places along the river (canal).
River flow speed (m/s), represented by two lines, point in the middle of the arrow showing the direction of the flow. On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low-water periods in relation to sea level (water edge marks) is also indicated.
Shown on rivers and canals dams, gateways, ferries (transportation), fords and give the corresponding characteristics.
Wells denoted by blue circles next to which a letter is placed TO or signature art. To. (artesian well).
Ground water pipelines are shown by solid blue lines with dots (every 8 mm), and underground ones by broken lines.
To make it easier to find and select water supply sources on the map in steppe and desert areas, the main wells are marked with a larger symbol. In addition, if there is data, an explanatory signature of the ground level mark is given to the left of the symbol of the well, and to the right - the depth of the well in meters and the filling rate in liters per hour.
Soil -vegetable cover are usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include conventional signs for forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps and salt marshes, as well as conventional signs depicting the nature of the soil cover: sand, rocky surface, pebbles, etc. When designating soil and vegetation cover, a combination of conventional symbols is often used signs. For example, in order to show a swampy meadow with bushes, the area occupied by the meadow is marked with a contour, inside which the symbols of swamp, meadow and bushes are placed.
The contours of areas of terrain covered with forests and shrubs, as well as the contours of swamps and meadows, are indicated on maps by dotted lines. If the boundary of a forest, garden or other land is a linear local object (ditch, fence, road), then in this case the symbol of a linear local object replaces the dotted line.
Forests depicted by a complex of symbols consisting of linear signs of the boundaries of massifs, green coloring of forested areas, explanatory inscriptions and icons. The maps show the composition of the main species, the average height and diameter of trunks, and the distances between trees.

Rice. 10.13. Forests

The indicated characteristics apply only to the trees of the upper tier, forming the canopy observed from aerial photographs. If one species is written in front of the tree icon, it means that at least 80% of the trees in the plantation belong to it; when two rocks are indicated, the dominant one in the given massif is recorded first.
Sign of the open forest show the totality of trees at a stand density of 0.2. If the area of ​​open forest is not limited by a contour, this means that it contains a large number of individual trees.
I'm familiar free standing tree denote only a tree standing isolated and serving as a landmark.
Sign burnt forest placed if the planting was damaged by fires or died from forest pests.
Logging areas with preserved stumps and individual trees are shown with a sign felling. If more than 50% of the trees on the site are felled, a sign is used windfall.
Oppressed forest stand heights up to 6 m are shown as short (dwarf).
Maps of scales 1:10,000 - 1:50,000 show everything clearings, indicate their width and block numbers; at smaller scales, some of the clearings may be missed.

Rice. 10.14. Shrubs

Areas covered with forest growth (height up to 4 m), continuous bushes, forest nurseries inside the contour on the map are filled with appropriate symbols and painted over with pale green paint. In areas of continuous shrubs, if data is available, the type of shrub is shown with special symbols and its average height in meters is indicated.

Swamps are depicted on maps with horizontal blue shading, dividing them according to the degree of passability on foot into passable (intermittent shading), difficult to pass and impassable (solid shading). Swamps with a depth of no more than 0.6 m are considered passable; Their depth is usually not indicated on maps.

Rice. 10.15. Swamps

The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. Difficult and impassable swamps are shown on maps with the same symbol.
Salt marshes on maps they are shown with vertical blue shading, dividing them into passable (intermittent shading) and impassable (solid shading).

On topographic maps, as their scale decreases, homogeneous topographic symbols are combined into groups, the latter into one generalized symbol, etc. In general, the system of these notations can be represented as truncated pyramid, at the base of which there are signs for topographic plans at a scale of 1:500, and at the top - for survey topographic maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
Colors topographic symbols are the same for maps of all scales. Line marks of lands and their contours, buildings, structures, local objects, strong points and boundaries are printed upon publication black color, relief elements - brown; reservoirs, watercourses, swamps and glaciers - blue(mirror of water - light blue); area of ​​trees and shrubs - green(dwarf forests, dwarf trees, shrubs, vineyards - light green), neighborhoods with fire-resistant buildings and highways - orange, neighborhoods with non-fire-resistant buildings and improved dirt roads - yellow.
Along with topographic symbols for topographic maps, conventional abbreviations of proper names political and administrative units (for example, Lugansk region - Lug.) and explanatory terms (for example, power plant - el.st., southwestern - SW, working village - r.p.).
Standardized fonts for inscriptions on topographic maps, they allow, in addition to topographic symbols, to provide significant information. For example, fonts for the names of settlements reflect their type, political and administrative significance and population, for rivers - the size and possibility of navigation; fonts for height marks, characteristics of passes and wells make it possible to highlight the main ones, etc.
Topographic symbols, conventional abbreviations of inscriptions and fonts for topographic maps are combined by scale groups into a series of tables, updated on average every ten years.
You can learn more about the symbols on the Internet: http://hibaratxt.narod.ru/karty/indexsusl.html; http://www.giscraft.ru/info/signs/content.shtml.

The main content of forest plans and maps is forest situation : boundaries of forestry enterprises, forest districts and timber resource bases; circumferential boundaries of forest areas, a network of quarterly clearings and sight lines, boundaries of allotments; quantitative and qualitative characteristics of forest stands; boundaries and indicators of non-forest areas (hayfields, arable lands, swamps, fire breaks, etc.) and non-forested areas (clearings, burnt areas, wastelands, etc.): administrative and industrial buildings and structures of forestry and forest industry enterprises; land and waterways for forest transport. When mapping forest areas, their value, productivity, tree stand class and stock are characterized. Other elements of the area on forest maps and plans are shown to the extent necessary to link the forest situation to the area, as well as for a comprehensive study of the natural and economic conditions of forestry and industrial use of forests. Data about these terrain elements, as well as part of the forest situation, are transferred to forest plans and maps from topographic and other general geographical maps.
Settled areas (with non-scale symbols), rivers, streams, canals and reservoirs with their names, roads, permanent paths (in sparsely developed forests), service buildings, fire towers, overpasses, upper and lower warehouses, forest nurseries, gardens, apiaries and other objects located on the lands of the state forest fund, as well as information about the relief - horizontal lines and other conventional signs *. Special signs show the ridge and drainage lines of the relief if the boundaries of neighborhoods and forest areas pass along them.
In addition to the data listed above, information about communication lines, railway stations and piers, timber transshipment bases, public transport routes (without indicating the class of roads), bridges (the main symbol), timber transport roads, boundaries of districts and regions.
One of the features of the cartographic image on forest plans and maps is its two-plane nature. The forest situation is shown in the first plan (with the brightest and largest signs), as well as by painting the areas in different colors, and in the second (with single-color signs and smaller inscriptions) - all other elements of the area. When depicting a forest situation, use alphabetic digital designations, coloring, cartograms. Symbol tables are usually drawn on the margins of plans and maps.
On forest management tablets Inside each block, an inscription is placed in the form of a fraction, where its number is indicated in the numerator, the area is indicated in the denominator, and if the size of the block allows, the age class, quality class and reserve group of the exploitable planting are also indicated.
The numbers and areas of the blocks, the numbers of rotation angles of the boundary lines, the direction and length of each section, and the names of adjacent land uses are inscribed. The situation on the territory of adjacent land uses is not shown on the tablets.
On reforestation plans characteristics of sections are shown in the form of a fraction, for example. Here 4 is the section number, V- age class; II- quality class (an indicator of forest productivity), 1 - marketability class of ripe and overmature plantings; for production forests; Arabic numerals (1 - 5) also indicate the reserve group per 1 hectare. For clearings and burnt areas, the numbers of the plots and the year of clearing or burning are shown as a fraction (numerator), the quality class of the growing plantation or the main species and the type of clearing, indicated by a code (denominator). On the diagrams of forestry enterprises (lespromkhozes), block numbers are inscribed, the boundaries of forestries, block clearings, fire breaks, offices of forestry enterprises, forest districts, logging stations and sites are shown, cordons, logging and forestry roads, lower warehouses, timber transshipment bases.
The quality indicators of plantings are conveyed with paints of various colors and tones. A table of symbols for each species sets its own color: for pine - orange, larch - brown, birch - blue, etc. By color tone, each species that prevails on the site is divided into four age groups: young, middle-aged, ripening, ripe and overripe. Forest crops are distinguished by horizontal shading of the appropriate color, and plantings created by reconstruction are distinguished by vertical shading.
The method described above is used to show species and age groups on forest plans, diagram maps of forestry enterprises, and maps of regional forests. Other quality indicators display enlarged sections on single-color copies of maps by coloring areas.
In flat areas with poorly defined relief, horizontal lines are not applied.

10.4. THE CONCEPT OF CARTOGRAPHIC GENERALIZATION

Cartographic generalization - This is the process of selecting and summarizing the objects depicted on the map in accordance with the purpose and scale of the map, as well as the characteristics of the mapped territory.
Selection and generalization of mapped objects are two interrelated and complementary processes. The map has limited graphical display capabilities minimum sizes individual objects, their number in a certain area. In order not to turn the map into an image replete with minor details that make it difficult to perceive its content, it is necessary to identify what is common, which will allow you to combine individual objects into groups according to species, generic and other characteristics, and find the most significant features in them. This process is carried out by summarizing the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects shown on the map, simplifying their outline outlines, discarding small unimportant details, as well as other techniques.
TO factors cartographic generalization include:

• purpose of the card;
• scale;
• features of the mapped territory.

Purpose - the leading factor of generalization, since it determines the content of the map, scale, and design features. What will be shown on the map and with what degree of detail depends on the purpose. This situation is clearly illustrated in Fig. 10.16, which shows fragments of maps of the same scale. One of the cards (Fig. 10.16, A) is intended for reference purposes, the other (Fig. 10.16, b)- for studying geography at school. The information sheet shows settlements, road networks, and administrative boundaries in detail. On the school map, the number of settlements is extremely reduced (given in accordance with the school curriculum), rivers and roads are schematized, their drawing is enlarged, since the map is viewed at a distance in lessons.

Rice. 10.16. Generalization of cartographic image
depending on the purpose of the card.

Maps intended for precise measurement work are created on a large scale, for visual study of large areas - on a small scale, etc.
Scale, along with the purpose of the map, determines the detail of the cartographic image. For example, an image of an area of ​​1 km2 on a map at a scale of 1:25,000 will take 1600 mm2, and on a scale of 1:1,000,000 it will take only 1 mm2. Hence, it is obvious that it is impossible to save all image elements when changing the scale (Fig. 10.18). Scale also affects the geometric accuracy of the cartographic image. The degree of generalization of the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the objects depicted on the map largely depends on it. It makes it necessary to move from showing the individual characteristics of objects to showing their species (generic) affiliation. Changing the scale leads to a change in the appearance of the symbols of the image. This can be seen from the map fragments shown in Fig. 10.18, A. On a scale of 1:5,000, an area overgrown with bushes is shown with an area symbol; on a scale of 1:25,000, the same territory is marked with an out-of-scale symbol.
Simplification of plan outlines associated with a change in scale is revealed when comparing fragments of maps with the relief depicted by contour lines in Fig. 10.18, b : on a fragment of a map at a scale of 1: 50,000, compared to a fragment at a scale of 1: 10,000, there are fewer contour lines, their bends, etc.

Rice. 10.18. Generalization of a cartographic image depending on the scale of the map: a - local objects, b - relief

Cartographic generalization is influenced by special of the mapped territory . Thus, the same object has different meanings in different geographical conditions. In this regard, in some cases it is displayed on the map, in others it is not. For example, a dirt road, a path, or a separate building in a populated area play a relatively small role and may not be shown on the map. In sparsely populated or hard-to-reach areas, they turn into significant objects that facilitate orientation and movement on the ground, so showing them on the map is necessary.

10.5. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE AREAS
TERRAINS ACCORDING TO TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

Topographic maps characterize the territories depicted on them in detail and in many ways. From them it is possible to establish the main features of the hydrographic network, to determine from the image of the relief its character, dissection, etc., to identify the location of vegetation types and their connection with the relief, the connection of agricultural land with settlements, relief and river network, to establish the types of layouts of settlements and patterns in their placement, etc.

The procedure for describing terrain areas is as follows.

1. Geographical and rectangular coordinates of the extreme points of the site.
2. Characteristics of the relief: type of relief (flat, hilly, erosive, etc.), landforms, characteristic lines and points, height difference, maximum and minimum steepness of slopes.
3. Hydrography:
a) rivers - direction and speed of flow, width and depth of the channel, slope, heights of the edges, structure of the channel (sinuosity, presence of islands, oxbow lakes, branches, channels, etc.), suitability for navigation and rafting;
b) lakes - the nature of the coastline, the shape of the lake, depth, water edges, nature of the location, connection with the terrain and rivers; other elements of hydrography (canals, ditches, springs, wells, etc.).
4. Swamps; - location depending on the nature of the relief, characteristics of cross-country ability and vegetation, economic use.
5. Vegetation - types of vegetation, dependence on the nature of the relief and hydrographic network, quantitative and qualitative characteristics (for example, when characterizing forests - forest area, percentage of forest cover, species, age composition, etc.), degree of agricultural development of the territory.
6. Settlements - type, location (confined to rivers, lakes, watersheds, road networks), layout (compact and scattered, quarterly and unsystematic, ordinary, etc.), economic and cultural significance, placement of economic and cultural sites, connection with communication routes.
7. Communication routes and means of communication - their types, the influence of relief and other terrain features on their character (embankments, excavations), structures on them (bridges and their characteristics), intersections and junctions of roads, the nature of casings.

Example descriptions of the area between the southern frame of the map N-34-37-В-в-4.and parallel 54°41′, between the western frame of the map and coordinate line 4312.

Coordinates of the extreme points of the site

	a) rectangular		b) geographical		Angle
				18°03"45" in. d.
				18°03"45" in. d.
				18°05"05" E. d.	north-east
				18°05"10" in. d.	southeast

The terrain of the area is flat-erosive. The dismemberment of the relief is due to the work of flowing waters - this is evidenced by the deeply incised valley r. Cubolts And large number ravines, gullies, gullies and hollows on its slopes. The largest ravine is located to the south and east of the village. Veliki Brody- its length is greater than 1 Tom. In the eastern part of the site there are three small hills from 5 to 10 m high, separated by saddles that serve as a watershed between r. Kuboltoy And CleanOuch. On top of a hill located in a forest clearing Korshuki, there is a triangulation point on the mound with an elevation of 159.7 m. The slopes of the hills are gentle, their steepness does not exceed 2°. Valley slopes r. Cubolts have a large steepness (from 3 to 10°, and in some places even more).
The highest heights (more than 180 m) are located southwest of the village. Veliki Brody. The height difference within the site is about 53 m.
The hydrographic network is represented by rivers, streams, and ponds. R. Cubolta, flows through the middle of the site in a northerly direction. Its length within the site is 2.3 km. The current is slow - 0.1 m/sec.
In the r. Cuboltu 3 small streams with a length of up to 0.5 km flow into the area.
Across the river near the village Veliki Brody there is a stone bridge 30 m long, 6 m wide, with a load capacity of 20 tons. The river floodplain reaches 200 m wide. The banks are steep - the height of the cliffs ranges from 1 to 5 m. In the south-eastern part, a sandy scree stretches along the right bank. North of the village Veliki Brody An artificial pond was created by constructing a dam in the upper part of the ravine, which retains water flowing down the slope.
Natural vegetation covers about 15% of the territory. Right Bank r. Cubolts occupies a forest area Green guy, cut through by a network of clearings and roads. This forest is mixed with a predominance of pine and birch. The average height and thickness of trees are 15 and 0.25 m, respectively. The southwestern part of the forest area is represented by open forest with windbreaks and continuous shrubs, the southern part is represented by cleared forest with continuous shrubs; There is an area of ​​burnt and dead forest adjacent to the southeast. The second forest area is located on the left bank of the river. Cubolts. This forest is coniferous with a predominance of pine.
Most of the site's territory is plowed; there are separate groups of shrubs among the arable land.
Rural settlements. Village Veliki Brody located on the slope of the river valley. Cubolts. At the time the map was compiled, approximately 300 people lived in it. The village is divided into parts by two hollows. The main part south of the ravine has several streets. The buildings are located both on both and on one side of the street. The estate plots are occupied by vegetable gardens and orchards. In the northern part of the village there is a stone church and outbuildings.
On the watershed of the river. Cubolts And Cheatstoy there is another village Mostishche. Residential buildings are concentrated south of the improved dirt road. To the north of it are industrial buildings and a mill. Behind the fence there is a corral for cattle. Adjacent to the village to the northeast is an orchard with an area of ​​about 30 hectares, behind which there is an apiary.
The road network of country and field roads is quite dense and provides both connections between settlements and economic needs. Between villages Veliki Brody and village Mostishche There is a road with a stone surface, the width of the carriageway is 5 m. The section of the road from the village. Mostishche it has a steep descent to the stream (up to 6°). Der. Mostishche connected by telephone line to the city. Zagoyans.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. How do you understand the expression “read the map”?
2. What general rules must be followed when reading cards?
3. Define “cartographic symbols”.
4. How are cartographic symbols classified?
5. What objects are depicted on maps with large-scale symbols?
6. What objects are depicted on maps using out-of-scale symbols?
7. What does the main point of an out-of-scale symbol show?
8. Where is the main point of off-scale symbols?
9. For what purposes are explanatory captions and digital symbols used on maps?
10. Name the complex of symbols used to depict forest vegetation on topographic maps.
11. What is the main content of forest plans and maps?
12. What is shown on forest management tablets, forest district plans and forest plantation plans of forest districts?
13. How do the characteristics of the stands on forest plans show?
14. What information is displayed on forest plans various colors and what are their different tones used for?
15. How are swamps depicted on topographic and forest maps?
16. What is biplane forest maps?
17. Define “cartographic generalization.”
18. How does the degree of generalization depend on the purpose of the map, scale and features of the mapped territory?
19. Expand the procedure for describing the area using a topographic map.

The whole world can fit on one piece of map, with all the oceans, continents, mountains and plains, countries, cities, minerals, animals and birds. You just need to be able to read the map correctly. In this lesson we will learn what maps were in ancient times, and what types of maps exist now, what are the advantages of a map over a globe, what is the scale, and the legend of the map. Let's learn how to use the scale of depths and heights and determine the coordinates of earthly objects.

Topic: The planet we live on

People started drawing maps before they even thought about whether the Earth was round or flat. Scientists have discovered a drawing on a bone in Kamchatka depicting a path to a place rich in prey. This is probably one of the oldest maps. Maps were drawn on pieces of bark and cut out on wooden planks, which were convenient to take on the road. Some peoples scratched maps with a sharp object on wet clay tiles, which, after drying, became durable, with a clear image.

This world map, in the center of which the city of Babylon is located, more than 3 thousand years.

Rice. 1. World map of Ancient Babylon ()

Rock paintings of areas in caves where people lived thousands of years ago were also found.

Rice. 2. Rock painting of the area ()

With the invention of paper, maps began to be drawn on it. All the information obtained by scientists and travelers during their travels through different lands was recorded on the maps.

Rice. 3. Ancient world map on paper ()

Making the map was a long process, because all the details were drawn by hand, so the maps were very expensive.

For a long period of time, only four were present on the maps: Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America. Many years passed before sailors discovered Australia and Antarctica.

When you look for a country on the globe, you only see one hemisphere. And to see something else, you need to turn the globe.

It is impossible to indicate a large number of geographical objects on a globe without increasing its size. And the globe large size inconvenient for travel use.

Scale- this is the ratio of the length of lines on a map or drawing to the actual length. The scale of the physical map of Russia tells us that every centimeter of the map corresponds to 200 km on the ground.

Rice. 7. Physical map of Russia ()

The map can show two halves of the Earth at once. If you divide the globe along the equator, you get map of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres,

Rice. 5. Northern and Southern Hemispheres

and if along the line of the prime meridian - Western and Eastern Hemispheres.

Rice. 6. Western and Eastern Hemispheres

On mineral map special icons mark places of mineral deposits.

Rice. 9. Map of mineral resources ()

On animal habitat maps habitats indicated various types birds and animals.

Rice. 10. Map of birds and animals ()

On contour maps there are no color codes and all kinds of geographical objects are depicted, but not labeled. They are convenient for planning routes.

Rice. 11. Outline map

On political map the world depicts countries and their borders.

Rice. 12. Political map of Eurasia ()

On synoptic maps Symbols indicate weather observations.

Rice. 13. Synoptic map ()

Different cards are combined into atlases.

Rice. 14. Geographical atlas ()

Maps depict different territories. There are maps of districts, cities, regions, states, continents, oceans, hemisphere maps and world maps.

Legend on the map are the same as on the globe. They are called legend and are usually placed at the bottom of the card.

We'll find it on physical map Russia West Siberian Plain.

Rice. 16. West Siberian Plain ()

Small horizontal lines covering a large part of its territory mean swamps.

Here are some of the most big world swamps - Vasyugan. Lines represent rivers, borders and roads, and circles represent cities.

Rice. 17. Vasyugan swamps

The seas and mountains have real outlines and are colored different colors. Blue and cyan are water bodies, yellow are highlands, green are lowlands, brown are mountains.

At the bottom of the map there is a scale of depths and heights, with which you can see what height or depth a particular shade of color on the map means.

The deeper the ocean, the darker the color. On the map of the Arctic Ocean, the darkest shade of blue is in the Greenland Sea, where the depth reaches 5 thousand 527 meters; the lightest shade of pale blue, where the sea depth is 200 meters.

Rice. 18. Physical map of the Arctic Ocean

The higher the mountains, the darker the color they are marked with. Thus, the Ural Mountains, which are considered relatively low (the highest peaks are from 1000 to 2000 m above sea level), are colored light brown on the map.

Rice. 19. Ural Mountains

The Himalayas - the highest mountains in the world (10 peaks with a height of more than 8 km) are indicated in dark brown.

Rice. 20. Himalayan mountains

Chomolungma (Everest), the highest peak in the world (8848 m), is located in the Himalayas.

Using the altitude scale, it is easy to determine the height of the Caucasus Mountains.

Rice. 23. Caucasus Mountains

Their brown color indicates that the height of the mountains is more than 5 thousand meters. The most famous peaks - Mount Elbrus (5642 m) and Mount Kazbek (5033 m) are covered with eternal snow and glaciers.

Using a map, you can determine the exact location of an object. To do this you need to know it coordinates: latitude and longitude, which are determined by a degree grid formed by parallels and meridians.

Rice. 26. Degree grid

The equator serves as the origin of reference - at it the latitude is 0⁰. Latitude is measured from 0⁰ to 90⁰ on both sides of the equator and is called north or south. For example, the coordinate 60⁰ north means that this point lies in the Northern Hemisphere and is at an angle of 60⁰ to the equator.

Rice. 27. Geographical latitude

Longitude is measured from 0⁰ to 180⁰ on both sides of the Greenwich meridian and is called western or eastern.

Rice. 28. Geographical longitude

Coordinates of St. Petersburg - 60⁰ N, 30⁰ E.

Moscow coordinates - 55⁰N, 37⁰E.

Rice. 29. Political map of Russia ()

1. Vakhrushev A.A., Danilov D.D. The world around us 3. M.: Ballas.
2. Dmitrieva N.Ya., Kazakov A.N. The world around us 3. M.: Fedorov Publishing House.
3. Pleshakov A.A. The world around us 3. M.: Education.

1. Academician ().
2. Survival().

1. Locate the Pacific Ocean on a physical map of the world. Determine its deepest place, indicate its name and depth. Describe how you identified this location.
2. Make a short test (4 questions with three answer options) on the topic “Geographical maps”.
3. Prepare a memo with the rules for working with cards.

A comprehensive geographical description of your area includes the following approximate plan:

1. Name, area, population, official symbols.

2. Geographical location: in what part of the country and in what part of which subject of the country is this territory located; Which neighboring territories does it border with? Geographical location: central, peripheral, border, coastal.

3. Brief history of settlement and development of this territory.

Relief and geological structure territories.

4. Climate and weather: type of climate, prevailing air masses; maximum, minimum and average annual air temperature, average annual precipitation, type of moisture in the area; weather by season (temperature, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, wind direction).

5. Inland waters: names of rivers and lakes and their brief description; the presence or absence of swamps, glaciers, artificial reservoirs and watercourses; Which river basin/basins does this area belong to?

6. Soil and vegetation cover: characteristic vegetation, soils, brief description of landscapes.

7. Natural resources: types; their quantitative and qualitative characteristics and location throughout the territory.

8. Population: number, distribution by territory; gender and age structure; demographic situation; migration; quantity and quality of labor resources; level of urbanization; cities and their functions; characteristics of the rural population; ethnic composition.

9. Economy: composition and structure; branches of specialization (main branches) and their spatial organization; industrial and transport hubs; intra-farm relations.

10. Foreign economic relations (within one’s own country).

11. Participation of local enterprises in international division labor: what products are exported abroad and to which countries, and what products come from which countries.

12. Problems and prospects for the development of this territory.

A comprehensive geographical description of your area should be based on statistical and cartographic information.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

The role of geographical science in solving important problems of the country's development

Ticket methods of geographical research and the main sources of geographical.. geographical differences in the economic activities of the population of Russia.. a consequence of the large territory of Russia was the rather diverse nature of our country, which determined the differences..

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An industrial hub is a localized production-territorial combination of a complex nature, where enterprises located relatively close to each other are interconnected by those

Sectoral and territorial structure of the Russian economy and its changes in recent decades
The national economy of Russia, like that of any other country, is divided into two spheres: production and non-production. In turn production sector is divided into interindustry complexes

Environmental problems of your area and possible ways to solve them
Environmental problems that arise in different regions of the country are different and depend primarily on the composition and structure of the national economy in that particular area. So, if this is what

Comparative characteristics of the EGP of two districts (by teacher’s choice)
Comparative characteristics of the economic and geographical position of the European North (Northern economic region) and the European South (North Caucasus economic region). From the title