Report: Modern methods for studying human psychogenetics. Modern research methods

29.09.2019

To study the structure of the human body and its functions, various research methods are used. To study the morphological characteristics of a person, two groups of methods are distinguished. The first group is used to study the structure of the human body on cadaveric material, and the second - on a living person.
IN first group includes:
1) the method of dissection using simple tools (scalpel, tweezers, saw, etc.) - allows you to study. structure and topography of organs;
2) a method of soaking corpses in water or a special liquid for a long time to isolate the skeleton and individual bones to study their structure;
3) the method of sawing up frozen corpses - developed by N. I. Pirogov, allows one to study the relationships of organs in a single part of the body;
4) corrosion method - used to study blood vessels and other tubular formations in internal organs by filling their cavities with hardening substances (liquid metal, plastics), and then destroying organ tissue with strong acids and alkalis, after which an impression of the filled formations remains;
5) injection method - consists of introducing dyes into organs that have cavities, followed by clarification of the organ parenchyma with glycerin, methyl alcohol, etc. It is widely used for studying the circulatory and lymphatic systems, bronchi, lungs, etc.;
6) microscopic method - used to study the structure of organs using instruments that provide a magnified image. Co. second group relate:
1) X-ray method and its modifications (fluoroscopy, radiography, angiography, lymphography, X-ray kymography, etc.) - allows you to study the structure of organs, their topography on a living person in different periods his life;
2) somatoscopic (visual examination) method of studying the human body and its parts - used to determine the shape of the chest, the degree of development of individual muscle groups, curvature of the spine, body constitution, etc.;
3) anthropometric method - studies the human body and its parts by measuring, determining body proportions, the ratio of muscle, bone and fat tissues, the degree of joint mobility, etc.;
4) endoscopic method - makes it possible to examine the inner surface of the digestive and respiratory systems, the cavities of the heart and blood vessels, and the genitourinary apparatus on a living person using light-guide technology.
In modern anatomy, new research methods are used, such as computed tomography, ultrasound echolocation, stereophotogrammetry, nuclear magnetic resonance, etc.
In turn, histology, the study of tissues, and cytology, the science of the structure and function of cells, emerged from anatomy.
Experimental methods were usually used to study physiological processes.
In the early stages of the development of physiology, it was used extirpation method(removal) of an organ or part thereof, followed by observation and recording of the obtained indicators.
Fistula method is based on inserting a metal or plastic tube into a hollow organ (stomach, gall bladder, intestines) and fixing it to the skin. Using this method, the secretory function of organs is determined.
Catheterization method used to study and record processes that occur in the ducts of the exocrine glands, in blood vessels, and the heart. Various medications are administered using thin synthetic tubes - catheters.
Denervation method based on cutting the nerve fibers innervating the organ in order to establish the dependence of the organ’s function on the influence of the nervous system. To stimulate organ activity, electrical or chemical stimulation is used.
In recent decades, they have found widespread use in physiological research. instrumental methods(electrocardiography, electroencephalography, recording the activity of the nervous system by implanting macro- and microelements, etc.).
Depending on the form of conduct, a physiological experiment is divided into acute, chronic and in conditions of an isolated organ.
An acute experiment designed for artificial isolation of organs and tissues, stimulation of various nerves, recording electrical potentials, administration of drugs, etc.
Chronic experiment used in the form of targeted surgical operations (fistulas, neurovascular anastomoses, transplantation of various organs, implantation of electrodes, etc.).
The function of an organ can be studied not only in the whole organism, but also isolated from it. In this case, the organ is provided with all the necessary conditions for its life, including the supply of nutrient solutions to the vessels of the isolated organ (perfusion method).
The use of computer technology in conducting physiological experiments has significantly changed its technique, methods of recording processes and processing the results obtained.

Cytology
Well, let's understand each concept.
Centrifugation - separation of heterogeneous systems into
fractions (portions), depending on their density. All this
occurs due to centrifugal force. (Separation
cell organelles)
Microscopy is perhaps one of the main methods
studying microobjects.
Chromatography is a method of separating a mixture of substances that
based on different speeds of movement of substances in the mixture through
absorbent depending on their mass. (Separation
chlorophylls a and b)
Heterosis - increasing the viability of hybrids
due to inheritance of a certain set of alleles
different genes from their different parents.
Monitoring is a continuous process of observation and
registration of object parameters, in comparison with the specified ones
criteria.
Of all this, only 4 and 5 do not apply to cytology
Answer:

Centrifugation

Using Centrifugation

For biochemical
study of cellular
cell components
needs to be destroyed -
mechanically, chemically
or ultrasound.
Released
components end up in
liquid in suspension
condition and may be
isolated and cleared from
with help
centrifugation.

Centrifugation

Chromatography and electrophoresis

Chromatography is a method based on
that in a stationary medium through which
solvent leaks, each of
components of the mixture move with their
own speed, regardless of others;
the mixture of substances is separated.
Electrophoresis is used for
separation of charge-carrying particles widely
used for highlighting and identification
amino acids.

Chromatography

Electrophoresis

Basic methods for studying cells

Using light
microscope
Use of electronic
microscope

METHODS FOR STUDYING HUMAN GENETICS

STUDY METHODS
HUMAN GENETICS

Man is not the most convenient object for
genetic research. He's too late
matures for sexual relations, scientific
curiosity for the sake of it experimentally
it is impossible to cross (the public will condemn), he
gives too few children, which in addition cannot be
subsequently placed in a sterile box and
study (again, the public will condemn). This
Mendel's peas are not for you.

This determines the set of methods that
genetics have in relation to a person:
- GENEALOGICAL
- TWIN
- CYTOGENETIC
- BIOCHEMICAL
- MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL
- POPULATION-STATISTICAL.

Twins are children born at the same time
one mother. They are monozygotic
(identical, when one zygote splits and
gave two embryos) and dizygotic (fraternal,
when several are fertilized separately
eggs and several separate ones appear
embryos). Monozygotic twins
genetically absolutely identical, but
dizygotes are as far apart from each other as
any other siblings. For
The twin method requires both
twins.

If monozygotic twins are separated
childhood (as in “Two: Me and My Shadow” or “Trap
for parents"), then their difference will indicate the role
environmental factors in the formation of these differences.
After all, initially their genetic material
identical, which means that the living environment influenced
expression of certain genes. If we
compare the frequencies of symptoms in pairs
mono- and dizygotic twins (living together
and separately), then we will understand the role not only
our heredity, but also our environment
life.

Thanks to this method we learned that
there is a genetic
predisposition to schizophrenia,
epilepsy and diabetes mellitus. If two
separately living monozygotic twins with
with age one of these appears
diseases, it means there is probably something involved
heredity.

CYTOGENETIC METHOD.
This is looking at chromosomes under a microscope. IN
Normally, each of us has 46 chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes
and 2 sex chromosomes). There's too much in the microscope
you won't see it, but you can count the chromosomes
(is it exactly 46), check if everything is okay with them (all
if the shoulders are in place), paint with dyes and lay out
in pairs So in men with Klinefelter syndrome
we will find an extra X chromosome in women with
Shershevsky-Turner syndrome on the contrary - one X
chromosomes will be missing. For Down syndrome
there will be not two, but three 21 chromosomes.

But it's all about quantity. There are also
problems with chromosome quality. In children with
Cry-cat syndrome is missing
one arm of the fifth chromosome. By using
cytogenetic method we can
count chromosomes and check them
structure.

BIOCHEMICAL METHOD.
Every protein in our body is encoded by a gene in
DNA. This means that if we see that some protein
doesn't work correctly, it probably does
there is a problem with the gene encoding it.
The biochemical method will allow through violations
in metabolism reach genetic
problems. Hereditary diabetes mellitus
This is exactly how it appears. And also phenylketonuria
(seen on Orbit and Dirol chewing gum
it is written: "Contraindicated for patients
phenylketonuria: contains phenylalanine?).

MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL
METHOD.
Have you heard about DNA sequencing? This
the method allows you to determine the nucleotide
DNA sequence and based on
to judge the presence or absence of this
genetic diseases or
predispositions to them.

POPULATION-STATISTICAL METHOD.
This includes the study of gene frequencies and genotypes, and
also hereditary diseases in the population.
For example, in a separate city or country. Those. doctor
detects diabetes mellitus, and now it is already
first to the municipal, then to the regional, and
then into all-Russian statistics. And we get
figures that for 3 years from 2013 to 2015 the number
diabetics in Russia increased by 23%. Now we
we can plan how much medication is needed
send to hospitals next year.

Studying a person's ancestry in a big way
number of generations constitutes the essence
method
twin
genealogical
biochemical
cytogenetic

What method was used?
inheritance of color blindness has been established in
person?
hybridological
genealogical
twin
biochemical

« Modern methods research on the psychophysiology of memory"

Introduction

Chapter 1. Modern methods of memory research

1.1 Microelectrode method

1.2 Electroencephalography (EEG)

1.3 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Chapter 2. Visual methods for studying memory

2.1 Positron emission tomography

2.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance introscopy

Conclusion

Sources and literature

Introduction

Memory is a psychophysiological process consisting of remembering, storing and reproducing information.

The founder of psychophysiology is the English doctor David Gargley. During the period of formation of psychophysiology as a science Special attention focused on the study of the central nervous system and its physiological manifestations. One of the important directions (in the study of the central nervous system) is the search for brain structures responsible for memory. Not a single physiological function has been so closely and comprehensively studied by biologists, physiologists, psychologists, neurologists and other sciences. The accumulated clinical and experimental material made it possible to express whole line theories explaining memory processes.

1. The theory of associations by contiguity, similarity, contrast.

2. Gestalt psychology.

3. Behavioral theory.

4. Theory of psychoanalysis.

5. Semantic theory.

6. Biochemical theory.

7. Neural theory.

8. Wave theory of memory units.

The listed theories allow us to trace the direction of the scientists’ thoughts and the limitations of the research methods used.

The development of technological progress and the introduction of new research methods make it possible to rise to a qualitatively new level of research into the secrets of human memory.

The study of memory has not only scientific, but also practical interest: writing school textbooks, training programs, scheduling school activities. The study of the volume of short-term memory, carried out in preschoolers using the formula KP = 7 + 2, is only from 5 to 9 pictures, numbers, words. Based on the volume of short-term memory, one can predict the success of learning or developmental delays. OKP=2+1 is a training point. When studying preschoolers, it is necessary to reflect in the child’s chart: the type of central nervous system: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic; biorhythmic activity of the central nervous system: “lark”, “owl”, “pigeon”; the prevailing type of memory: auditory, auditory-musical, “auditory-motor”, or visual, visual-logical.

The collected information allows you to individually develop the child, using his own type of memory, and smoothly guide a group of children in the cognitive process. In persons with an auditory type of memory for learning foreign languages, medical terms, formulas in physics and chemistry, the first phase of slow sleep, lasting 90-100 minutes, can be used. The biochemical and electrical activity of the brain during this phase of sleep still remains at the level of wakefulness, and auditory information can be assimilated. Young professionals who go on business trips abroad, having an auditory type of memory, can quickly master colloquial speech. Memory reaches its maximum development by the age of 25, remains at a high level until 40-45 years, then begins to deteriorate. In this regard, there is an age limit for accepting documents for full-time university and subsequent postgraduate education.

Electroencephalographic research methods and complementary tomographic and vascular biochemical methods made it possible to create maps of brain structures involved in remembering and reproducing information and to diagnose the causes of memory impairment. The first generation of devices, which allows one to see the subtle energy shell surrounding the human body - the aura, allows one to observe the emotional manifestations of memories. Reading information from the emotional and mental shells of the aura is not yet available. This secret side of human memory will also be revealed to the future generation of scientists.

Chapter 1. Modern methods of memory research

1.1 Microelectrode method

The study of man and the secrets of his memory keeps pace with technological progress. Graphic electrophysiological research methods using microelectrodes have appeared. They got their name because the diameter of their recording surface is about one micron. Microelectrodes are available in metal and glass. A metal microelectrode is a rod made of a special high-resistance insulated wire with a recording tip. A glass microelectrode with a diameter of about 1 mm is made of special glass - Pyrex, with a thin unsoldered tip filled with an electrolyte solution. Microelectrodes are applied to the parts of the brain being studied that are responsible for memory in animals, and a graphical recording of the impulse activity of neurons is observed.

1.2 Electroencephalography (EEG)

The first highly informative, non-invasive method for studying the central nervous system in humans was electroencephalography.

The scalp in the places where the electrodes are applied is wiped with alcohol, degreased, then a special electrically conductive paste-gel is applied.

There are two ways to record EEG: bipolar and monopolar. With a bipolar lead, the potential difference between two active electrodes is recorded. This method is used clinically to diagnose the localization of a pathological focus in the brain. In psychophysiology, the method of monopolar abduction is used. One electrode is placed over the area of the brain being studied, the other on the earlobe or mastoid process, where electrical processes are minimal and can be taken as zero.

To compare EEG results obtained in laboratories around the world, it was necessary to create a unified standard system for applying electrodes, called the “10-20” system. In accordance with this system, psychophysiologists are required to take three measurements of the skull of the subject:

1. Longitudinal size of the skull - the distance from the bridge of the nose to the occipital protuberance.

2. The transverse size of the skull is the distance between the external auditory canals.

3. Head circumference, measured at the same points.

These dimensions are used to draw a grid, at the intersections of which electrodes are applied. Electrodes located along midline, marked with index Z; electrode leads from the left half of the head are numbered with odd indices, and from the right half of the head are numbered with even indices.

Electrode leads in the “10-20” system:

1. frontal (frontal) F 1 ...

2. central C 1 ...

3. parietal (parietal) P 1 ...

4. temporal (temporal) T 1 ...

5. occipital (occipital) O 1 ...

In healthy people in a state of wakefulness, an alpha rhythm with a frequency of 8-13 Hz is recorded in the occipital areas of the brain responsible for visual memory and spatial orientation. This rhythm was first recorded and described by Hans Berger under the name alpha rhythm. It is very important to note that with optic nerve atrophy, long-term or congenital blindness, the alpha rhythm disappears. But in the parietal region, responsible for tactile memory, which is well developed in the blind - compensating for the loss of vision - a mu rhythm appears close in frequency to the alpha rhythm. In the experiment, we can observe a change in the alpha rhythm to the mu rhythm; the patient is blindfolded and asked to identify familiar objects by touch.

In people suffering from visual memory and spatial orientation disorders, wandering and getting lost on city streets, the alpha rhythm is barely visible due to inhibition in the occipital region. After a course of magnetic therapy on the occipital region, visual orientation in space and alpha rhythm are restored.

In persons with auditory, musical memory, musicians, composers in the left temporal region, responsible for this type memory, a frequency close to the alpha rhythm is recorded - the Kappa rhythm.

When tested, when performing piece of music From memory, we can easily track the change from the alpha rhythm to the Kappa rhythm.

The composer Mozart had a phenomenal auditory memory. At the age of 14, he came to Rome, where he heard a piece of church music in St. Peter's Basilica. The notes were kept in the greatest secrecy and constituted a secret at the papal court. Young Mozart, coming home, reproduced the music he heard from memory. Many years later, it was possible to compare Mozart's recording with the original notes; as it turned out, there was not a single error in Mozart's notes.

What is the EEG of dancers and figure skaters who are overwhelmed with emotions and have excellent command of auditory, visual, and motor memory? As soon as music starts to sound, the Betta rhythm appears in all areas of the brain, oscillations in the range from 14 to 30 Hz.

We observe the beta rhythm during the paradoxical phase of sleep with rapid movements of the eyeballs and spoken speech. Parents in this situation, alarmed by the violent manifestations of sleep, rush to wake up and calm the child, explaining that this is just a dream. We also observe the beta rhythm in the rare pathology of sleepwalking (somnambulism), which requires medical intervention and parental supervision of the child.

In persons with a verbal-logical, visual-logical type of memory, who are slow to work, and who are able to maintain concentration and attention for a long time without fatigue, a special Gamma rhythm with a frequency of more than 30 Hz is drawn on the EEG.

Drivers, pilots, military personnel, rescuers, and doctors, whose work is often associated with significant emotional stress requiring immediate decision-making, register a Theta rhythm with a frequency of 4 to 8 Hz.

In a calmly sitting person, the Delta rhythm is recorded on the EEG. In the first phase of slow-wave sleep, which lasts 90-100 minutes, biochemical and electrical activity is close to wakefulness, and the person successfully assimilates auditory information. This allowed students with auditory memory to learn foreign languages in a shorter time.

During the daytime, while awake, the Delta rhythm indicates a tumor of the cerebral cortex.

EEG allows you to monitor the activity of various parts of the brain when solving problems, counting in your head, performing short-term memory tasks, and identify the causes of forgetfulness or progressive memory deterioration.

1.3 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Another non-invasive method for studying memory in humans is magnetoencephalography. MEG is recorded using sensors that are highly sensitive to electromagnetic fields. MEG can be presented as profiles of magnetic fields on the surface of the skull, or as a curved line. MEG complements the information about brain activity obtained from EEG.

Chapter 2. Visual methods for studying memory

2.1 Positron emission tomography

IN last years Positron emission tomography of the brain began to be used to study memory. The patient is intravenously injected with one of the isotopes: oxygen - 15, nitrogen - 13, fluorine - 18, or a glucose analogue - deoxygmonosis. In the brain, isotopes emit positrons, which collide with electrons to produce a pair of protons. There is a PET camera above the patient’s head that detects protons; information from the camera is sent to a computer, which provides an image of the location of pain activity in brain slices. Thus, the researcher can obtain a layer-by-layer image of the brain structures involved in remembering and reproducing information.

2.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMR)

Nuclear magnetic resonance introscopy is used to study the processes of remembering and reproducing information. For the study, the patient is placed in a cylindrical tube with a constant magnetic field 30,000 times stronger than Earth's. The patient's body is exposed to radio waves, tissue protons absorb their energy. After the radio waves are turned off, the protons give off energy, which is recorded as a magnetic resonance signal. After processing the signal, an image appears on the computer, characterizing the activity of biochemical processes and the speed of blood flow in the tissues. NMR has become the most powerful visual research method in the psychophysiology of human memory.

For the first time, it was noted that when memorizing the information being studied, biochemical activity appears in the left hemisphere of the brain, and when remembering and reproducing information, biochemical activity appears in the right hemisphere of the brain. When the patient silently recalled episodes of his own life, activity appeared in the anterior parts of the cerebral cortex. When remembering historical events, the activity of the posterior parts of the cerebral cortex was manifested. Remembering visual images leads to activation of the occipital regions, and auditory information leads to activation of the temporal auditory areas of the brain.

Thus, it was concluded that recollection reactivates those areas of the brain that were active when remembering. Visual research methods made it possible to create a map of the activated brain centers when remembering and reproducing information.

Conclusion

The study of human psychophysiology, which began in ancient times, has covered a long research path. In each era, with the introduction of new research methods, some aspect of human memory was revealed. In our enlightened 21st century, with the introduction of the microelectrode method, EEG, tomography, NMR, for the first time it was possible to create maps of brain structures involved in memory processes. The use of NMR allowed us to visually observe that the processes of memorizing and reproducing information occur in the auditory type of memory in the temporal region, the visual type of memory in the occipital regions of the brain, the musical and motor type of memory, additionally the parietal zones are activated, where the tactile and motor memory zones are located.

Psychophysiological research methods have found their practical application in studying the volume of short-term memory in preschoolers, in order to determine the success of a child’s education at school, as well as teaching foreign languages to people with an auditory type of memory during the slow phase of sleep, lasting 90-100 minutes.

The future generation of scientists will have to study and use for practical purposes the information recorded on the emotional and mental shells of the human aura.

Sources and literature

1. Aleksandrov Yu.I. Psychophysiology. Peter, 2007.

2. Bekhtereva N.P. Neurophysiological aspects mental activity. L.: Nauka, 1971.

3. Danilova N.N. Psychophysiology. M.: Aspect-Press, 2002.

4. Kuzin V.S. Psychology. M, 1999.

5. Luria A.R. A little book about big memories. M.: MSU, 1968.

6. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. Peter, 2005.

7. Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 2003.

8. Sergeev B.F. Secrets of memory. M, 1974.

Short description:

Sazonov V.F. Modern research methods in biology [Electronic resource] // Kinesiologist, 2009-2018: [website]. Update date: 02.22.2018..__.201_). Materials on modern research methods in biology, its branches and related disciplines.

Materials on modern research methods in biology, its branches and related disciplines

Drawing: Basic branches of biology.

Currently, biology is conventionally divided into two large groups of sciences.

Biology of organisms: sciences of plants (botany), animals (zoology), fungi (mycology), microorganisms (microbiology). These sciences study individual groups of living organisms, their internal and external structure, lifestyle, reproduction and development.

General biology: molecular level (molecular biology, biochemistry and molecular genetics), cellular (cytology), tissue (histology), organs and their systems (physiology, morphology and anatomy), populations and natural communities (ecology). In other words, general biology studies life at various levels.

Biology is closely related to other natural sciences. Thus, at the junction between biology and chemistry, biochemistry and molecular biology appeared, between biology and physics - biophysics, between biology and astronomy - space biology. Ecology, located at the intersection of biology and geography, is now often considered as an independent science.

Students' tasks for the training course Modern methods of biological research

1. Familiarization with a variety of research methods in various fields of biology.

Decision and reporting:
1) Writing a review educational essay on research methods in various fields of biology. Minimum requirements for the content of the abstract: description of 5 research methods, 1-2 pages (font 14, spacing 1.5, margins 3-2-2-2 cm) for each method.
2) Providing a report (preferably in the form of a presentation) on one of the modern methods of biology: volume 5±1 page.
Expected learning outcomes:
1) Superficial familiarity with a wide range of research methods in biology.
2) In-depth understanding of one of the research methods and transfer of this knowledge to the student group.

2. Conducting educational training scientific research from goal setting to conclusions using necessary requirements to prepare a scientific report on the study.

Solution:
Obtaining primary data in laboratory classes and at home. It is allowed to conduct part of such research outside the classroom.

3. Introduction to general research methods in biology.

Solution:
Lecture course and independent work with sources of information. Report on the example of facts from the history of biology: volume 2±1 page.

4. Application of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities to conduct and formalize your own research in the form of research work, course work and/or final qualifying work.

Definition of concepts

Research methods - these are ways to achieve the goal of research work.

Scientific method is a set of techniques and operations used in constructing a system of scientific knowledge.

Scientific fact is the result of observations and experiments that establishes the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of objects.

Methodological basis scientific research is a set of methods scientific knowledge, used to achieve the purpose of this study.

General scientific, experimental methods, methodological basis -.

Modern biology uses unification methodological approaches, it uses “the unity of descriptive-classifying and explanatory-nomothetic approaches; the unity of empirical research with the process of intensive theorization of biological knowledge, including its formalization, mathematization and axiomatization” [Yarilin A.A. “Cinderella” becomes a princess, or the place of biology in the hierarchy of sciences. // “Ecology and Life” No. 12, 2008. P. 4-11. P.11].

Objectives of research methods:

1. “Strengthening the natural cognitive abilities of man, as well as their expansion and continuation.”

2. “Communicative function”, i.e. mediation between the subject and object of research [Arshinov V.I. Synergetics as a phenomenon of post-non-classical science. M.: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1999. 203 p. P.18].

General research methods in biology

Observation

Observation is the study of external signs and visible changes in an object over a certain period of time. For example, monitoring the growth and development of a seedling.

Observation is the starting point of any natural science research.

In biology, this is especially noticeable, since the object of its study is man and the living nature that surrounds him. Already at school, in zoology, botany, and anatomy lessons, children are taught to conduct the simplest biological research by observing the growth and development of plants and animals, and the state of their own body.

Observation as a method of collecting information is chronologically the very first research technique that appeared in the arsenal of biology, or rather, its predecessor, natural history. And this is not surprising, since observation is based on human sensory abilities (sensation, perception, representation). Classical biology is primarily observational biology. But, nevertheless, this method has not lost its significance to this day.

Observations can be direct or indirect, they can be carried out with or without technical devices. So, an ornithologist sees a bird through binoculars and can hear it, or can record sounds with the device outside the range of the human ear. The histologist observes the fixed and stained tissue section using a microscope. And for a molecular biologist, an observation can be recording changes in the concentration of an enzyme in a test tube.

It is important to understand that scientific observation, unlike ordinary observation, is not simple, but purposeful the study of objects or phenomena: it is carried out to solve a given problem, and the observer’s attention should not be distracted. For example, if the task is to study the seasonal migrations of birds, then we will notice the timing of their appearance in nesting sites, and not anything else. So observation is selective allocation from reality certain part, in other words, aspect, and the inclusion of this part in the system being studied.

In observation, not only the accuracy, accuracy and activity of the observer is important, but also his impartiality, his knowledge and experience, right choice technical means. The formulation of the problem also presupposes the existence of an observation plan, i.e. their planning. [Kabakova D.V. Observation, description and experiment as the main methods of biology // Problems and prospects for the development of education: materials of the international. scientific conf. (Perm, April 2011).T. I. Perm: Mercury, 2011. pp. 16-19].

Descriptive method

Descriptive method - this is the recording of the observed external signs of the objects of study, highlighting the essential and discarding the unimportant. This method was at the origins of biology as a science, but its development would have been impossible without the use of other research methods.

Descriptive methods allow you to first describe and then analyze phenomena occurring in living nature, compare them, finding certain patterns, and also generalize, discover new species, classes, etc. Descriptive methods began to be used in ancient times, but today they have not lost their relevance and are widely used in botany, ethology, zoology, etc.

Comparative method

Comparative method is a study of the similarities and differences in the structure, course of life processes and behavior of various objects. For example, comparison of individuals of different sexes belonging to the same biological species.

Allows you to study research objects by comparing them with each other or with another object. Allows you to identify similarities and differences between living organisms, as well as their parts. The data obtained make it possible to combine the studied objects into groups based on similarities in structure and origin. Based on the comparative method, for example, a taxonomy of plants and animals is built. This method was also used to create the cell theory and to confirm the theory of evolution. Currently, it is used in almost all areas of biology.

This method was established in biology in the 18th century. and has proven to be very fruitful in solving many major problems. Using this method and in combination with the descriptive method, information was obtained that made it possible in the 18th century. lay the foundations for the taxonomy of plants and animals (C. Linnaeus), and in the 19th century. formulate the cell theory (M. Schleiden and T. Schwann) and the doctrine of the main types of development (K. Baer). The method was widely used in the 19th century. in substantiating the theory of evolution, as well as in restructuring a number of biological sciences on the basis of this theory. However, the use of this method was not accompanied by biology moving beyond the boundaries of descriptive science.
The comparative method is widely used in various biological sciences in our time. Comparison acquires special value when it is impossible to define a concept. For example, an electron microscope often produces images whose true content is unknown in advance. Only comparing them with light microscopic images allows one to obtain the desired data.

Historical method

Allows you to identify patterns of formation and development of living systems, their structures and functions, compare them with previously known facts. This method, in particular, was successfully used by Charles Darwin to build his evolutionary theory and contributed to the transformation of biology from a descriptive science into an explanatory science.

In the second half of the 19th century. Thanks to the works of Charles Darwin, the historical method put on a scientific basis the study of the patterns of the appearance and development of organisms, the formation of the structure and functions of organisms in time and space. With the introduction of this method, significant qualitative changes occurred in biology. The historical method transformed biology from a purely descriptive science into an explanatory science, which explains how diverse living systems arose and how they function. Currently, the historical method, or "historical approach" has become a universal approach to the study of life phenomena in all biological sciences.

Experimental method

Experiment - this is a verification of the correctness of the put forward hypothesis with the help of targeted influence on the object.

An experiment (experience) is an artificial creation under controlled conditions of a situation that helps to reveal the deeply hidden properties of living objects.

The experimental method of studying natural phenomena is associated with active influence on them by conducting experiments (experiments) under controlled conditions. This method allows you to study phenomena in isolation and achieve repeatability of results when reproducing the same conditions. The experiment provides a deeper insight into the essence of biological phenomena than other research methods. It was thanks to experiments that natural science in general and biology in particular reached the discovery of the basic laws of nature.
Experimental methods in biology serve not only to conduct experiments and obtain answers to questions of interest, but also to determine the correctness of the hypothesis formulated at the beginning of studying the material, as well as to correct it during the work process. In the twentieth century, these research methods become leading in this science thanks to the emergence modern equipment for conducting experiments, such as, for example, a tomograph, electron microscope, etc. Currently, in experimental biology, biochemical techniques, X-ray diffraction analysis, chromatography, as well as the technique of ultrathin sections, various cultivation methods, and many others are widely used. Experimental methods combined with a systems approach have expanded the cognitive capabilities of biological science and opened new roads for the application of knowledge in almost all areas of human activity.

The question of experiment as one of the foundations in the knowledge of nature was raised back in the 17th century. English philosopher F. Bacon (1561-1626). His introduction to biology is associated with the works of V. Harvey in the 17th century. on the study of blood circulation. However, the experimental method widely entered biology only at the beginning of the 19th century, and through physiology, in which they began to use a large number of instrumental techniques that made it possible to register and quantitatively characterize the association of functions with structure. Thanks to the works of F. Magendie (1783-1855), G. Helmholtz (1821-1894), I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905), as well as the classics of the experiment C. Bernard (1813-1878) and I.P. Pavlova (1849-1936) physiology was probably the first of the biological sciences to become an experimental science.
Another direction in which the experimental method entered biology was the study of heredity and variability of organisms. Here the main merit belongs to G. Mendel, who, unlike his predecessors, used experiment not only to obtain data about the phenomena being studied, but also to test the hypothesis formulated on the basis of the data obtained. The work of G. Mendel was a classic example of the methodology of experimental science.

In substantiating the experimental method, the work carried out in microbiology by L. Pasteur (1822-1895), who first introduced the experiment to study fermentation and refute the theory of spontaneous generation of microorganisms, and then to develop vaccination against infectious diseases, was important. In the second half of the 19th century. Following L. Pasteur, significant contributions to the development and substantiation of the experimental method in microbiology were made by R. Koch (1843-1910), D. Lister (1827-1912), I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916), D.I. Ivanovsky (1864-1920), S.N. Vinogradsky (1856-1890), M. Beyernik (1851-1931), etc. In the 19th century. biology has also been enriched by the creation of methodological foundations for modeling, which is also the highest form of experiment. The invention by L. Pasteur, R. Koch and other microbiologists of methods for infecting laboratory animals with pathogenic microorganisms and studying the pathogenesis of infectious diseases on them is a classic example of modeling that carried over into the 20th century. and supplemented in our time by modeling not only various diseases, but also various life processes, including the origin of life.
Starting, for example, from the 40s. XX century The experimental method in biology has undergone significant improvements due to an increase in the resolution of many biological techniques and the development of new experimental techniques. Thus, the resolution of genetic analysis and a number of immunological techniques was increased. Cultivation of somatic cells, isolation of biochemical mutants of microorganisms and somatic cells, etc. were introduced into research practice. The experimental method began to be widely enriched with methods of physics and chemistry, which turned out to be extremely valuable not only in quality independent methods, but also in combination with biological methods. For example, the structure and genetic role of DNA have been elucidated through the combined use of chemical methods for isolating DNA, chemical and physical methods for determining its primary and secondary structure, and biological methods (transformation and genetic analysis of bacteria) to prove its role as genetic material.
Currently, the experimental method is characterized by exceptional capabilities in the study of life phenomena. These capabilities are determined by the use of microscopy different types, including electronic with the technique of ultrathin sections, biochemical methods, high-resolution genetic analysis, immunological methods, various methods of cultivation and intravital observation in cultures of cells, tissues and organs, labeling of embryos, in vitro fertilization, the labeled atom method, X-ray diffraction analysis, ultracentrifugation, spectrophotometry, chromatography, electrophoresis, sequencing, construction of biologically active recombinant DNA molecules, etc. New quality inherent in experimental method, caused qualitative changes in modeling. Along with modeling at the organ level, modeling at the molecular and cellular levels is currently being developed.

Simulation method

Modeling is based on such a technique as analogy - this is an inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect based on their similarity in a number of other respects.

Model - this is a simplified copy of an object, phenomenon or process, replacing them in certain aspects.

A model is something that is more convenient to work with, that is, something that is easier to see, hear, remember, record, process, transfer, inherit, and that is easier to experiment with, compared to the modeling object (prototype, original).
Karkishchenko N.N. Basics of biomodeling. - M.: VPK, 2005. - 608 p. P. 22.

Modeling - this is, accordingly, the creation of a simplified copy of an object, phenomenon or process.

Modeling:

1) creation of simplified copies of objects of knowledge;

2) study of objects of knowledge on their simplified copies.

Simulation method - this is the study of the properties of a certain object by studying the properties of another object (model), which is more convenient for solving research problems and is in a certain correspondence with the first object.

Modeling (in a broad sense) is the main method of research in all fields of knowledge. Modeling methods are used to assess the characteristics of complex systems and make scientifically based decisions in various areas of human activity. An existing or designed system can be effectively studied using mathematical models (analytical and simulation) in order to optimize the process of system functioning. The system model is implemented on modern computers, which in this case act as a tool for experimenting with the system model.

Modeling allows you to study any process or phenomenon, as well as directions of evolution, by recreating them in the form of a simpler object using modern technologies and equipment.

Modeling theory – the theory of replacing the original object with its model and studying the properties of the object on its model.
Modeling – a research method based on replacing the original object under study with its model and working with it (instead of the object).
Model (original object) (from the Latin modus - “measure”, “volume”, “image”) - an auxiliary object that reflects the most significant patterns for research, the essence, properties, features of the structure and functioning of the original object.
When people talk about modeling, they usually mean modeling a system.
System – a set of interconnected elements united to achieve a common goal, isolated from the environment and interacting with it as an integral whole and exhibiting basic systemic properties. The paper identifies 15 main system properties, which include: emergence (emergence); integrity; structure; integrity; subordination to the goal; hierarchy; infinity; ergacity; openness; irreversibility; unity of structural stability and instability; nonlinearity; potential multivariance of actual structures; criticality; unpredictability in a critical area.
When modeling systems, two approaches are used: classical (inductive), which developed historically first, and systemic, developed in Lately.

Classic approach. Historically, the classical approach to studying an object and modeling a system was the first to emerge. The real object to be modeled is divided into subsystems, initial data (D) for modeling are selected and goals (T) are set, reflecting individual aspects of the modeling process. Based on a separate set of initial data, the goal of modeling a separate aspect of the system’s functioning is set; on the basis of this goal, a certain component (K) of the future model is formed. A set of components is combined into a model.
That. the components are summed up, each component solves its own problems and is isolated from other parts of the model. We apply the approach only to simple systems, where the relationships between components can be ignored. Two distinctive aspects can be noted classical approach: 1) there is a movement from the particular to the general when creating a model; 2) the created model (system) is formed by summing up its individual components and does not take into account the emergence of a new systemic effect.

Systems approach – a methodological concept based on the desire to build a holistic picture of the object under study, taking into account the elements of the object that are important for the problem being solved, the connections between them and external connections with other objects and environment. With the increasing complexity of modeling objects, the need arose to observe them from a higher level. In this case, the developer considers this system as some subsystem of a higher rank. For example, if the task is to design an enterprise automated control system, then from the position systematic approach We must not forget that this system is an integral part of the association’s automated control system. The basis of the systems approach is the consideration of the system as an integrated whole, and this consideration during development begins with the main thing - the formulation of the purpose of operation. It is important for the systems approach to determine the structure of the system - the set of connections between the elements of the system, reflecting their interaction.

There are structural and functional approaches to studying the structure of a system and its properties.

At structural approach the composition of the selected elements of the system and the connections between them are revealed.

At functional approach Algorithms of system behavior are considered (functions - properties leading to achieving the goal).

Modeling types

1. Subject modeling , in which the model reproduces geometric, physical, dynamic or functional characteristics object. For example, bridge model, dam model, wing model
airplane, etc.
2. Analog Modeling , in which the model and the original are described by a single mathematical relationship. An example is electrical models used to study mechanical, hydrodynamic and acoustic phenomena.
3. Iconic modeling , in which diagrams, drawings, and formulas act as models. The role of iconic models has especially increased with the expansion of the use of computers in the construction of iconic models.
4. Closely related to the iconic mental simulation , in which the models acquire a mentally visual character. An example would be in in this case serve as a model of the atom, proposed at one time by Bohr.
5. Model experiment. Finally, a special type of modeling is the inclusion in an experiment not of the object itself, but of its model, due to which the latter acquires the character of a model experiment. This type of modeling indicates that there is no hard line between the methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge.
Organically connected with modeling idealization - mental construction of concepts, theories about objects that do not exist and are not realizable in reality, but those for which there is a close prototype or analogue in real world. Examples of ideal objects constructed by this method are the geometric concepts of a point, line, plane, etc. All sciences operate with ideal objects of this kind - an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, a socio-economic formation, a state, etc.

Modeling methods

1. Full-scale modeling - an experiment on the object under study itself, which, under specially selected experimental conditions, serves as a model of itself.
2. Physical modeling – an experiment on special installations that preserve the nature of phenomena, but reproduce the phenomena in a quantitatively modified, scaled form.
3. Math modeling – the use of models of a physical nature that differ from the simulated objects, but have a similar mathematical description. Full-scale and physical modeling can be combined into one class of physical similarity models, since in both cases the model and the original are identical in physical nature.

Modeling methods can be classified into three main groups: analytical, numerical and simulation.

1. Analytical modeling methods. Analytical methods make it possible to obtain the characteristics of a system as some functions of its operating parameters. Thus, the analytical model is a system of equations, the solution of which produces the parameters necessary to calculate the output characteristics of the system (average task processing time, throughput, etc.). Analytical methods give exact values characteristics of the system, but are used to solve only a narrow class of problems. The reasons for this are as follows. Firstly, due to the complexity of most real systems, their complete mathematical description (model) either does not exist, or analytical methods for solving the created mathematical model have not yet been developed. Secondly, when deriving the formulas on which analytical methods are based, certain assumptions are made that do not always correspond to the real system. In this case, the use of analytical methods must be abandoned.

2. Numerical modeling methods. Numerical methods involve transforming the model into equations that can be solved using computational mathematics. The class of problems solved by these methods is much wider. As a result of applying numerical methods, approximate values (estimates) of the output characteristics of the system are obtained with a given accuracy.

3. Imitation modeling methods. With the development of computer technology, simulation modeling methods have become widely used for the analysis of systems in which stochastic influences are predominant.
The essence of simulation modeling (IM) is to simulate the process of system functioning over time, observing the same ratios of operation durations as in the original system. At the same time, the elementary phenomena that make up the process are simulated, their logical structure and the sequence of their occurrence in time are preserved. As a result of using MI, estimates of the system's output characteristics are obtained, which are necessary when solving problems of analysis, control and design.

In biology, for example, it is possible to build a model of the state of life in a reservoir after some time when one, two or more parameters change (temperature, salt concentration, presence of predators, etc.). Such techniques became possible thanks to the penetration into biology of the ideas and principles of cybernetics - the science of control.

The classification of types of modeling can be based on various characteristics. Depending on the nature of the processes being studied in the system, modeling can be divided into deterministic and stochastic; static and dynamic; discrete and continuous.
Deterministic Modeling is used to study systems whose behavior can be predicted with absolute certainty. For example, the distance traveled by a car when uniformly accelerated motion in ideal conditions; a device that squares a number, etc. Accordingly, a deterministic process occurs in these systems, which is adequately described by a deterministic model.

Stochastic (probability-theoretic) modeling is used to study a system whose state depends not only on controlled, but also on uncontrolled influences, or in which there is a source of randomness. Stochastic systems include all systems that include humans, for example, factories, airports, computer systems and networks, shops, consumer services, etc.
Static modeling serves to describe systems at any point in time.

Dynamic modeling reflects changes in the system over time (output characteristics of the system in this moment time are determined by the nature of input influences in the past and present). Examples of dynamic systems are biological, economic, social systems; such artificial systems as a factory, enterprise, production line, etc.
Discrete modeling is used to study systems in which input and output characteristics are measured or changed discretely over time, otherwise continuous modeling is used. For example, an electronic clock, an electric meter are discrete systems; sundials, heating devices - continuous systems.
Depending on the form of representation of the object (system), mental and real modeling can be distinguished.
At real (full-scale) modeling, the study of system characteristics is carried out on a real object, or on part of it. Real modeling is the most adequate, but its capabilities, taking into account the characteristics of real objects, are limited. For example, carrying out real modeling with an enterprise automated control system requires, firstly, the creation of an automated control system; secondly, conducting experiments with the enterprise, which is impossible. Real modeling includes production experiments and complex tests, which have a high degree of reliability. Another type of real modeling is physical. In physical modeling, research is carried out on installations that preserve the nature of the phenomenon and have a physical similarity.
mental modeling is used to simulate systems that are practically impossible to implement over a given time interval. The basis of mental modeling is the creation of an ideal model based on an ideal mental analogy. There are two types of mental modeling: figurative (visual) and symbolic.
At figuratively In modeling, on the basis of human ideas about real objects, various visual models are created that display the phenomena and processes occurring in the object. For example, models of gas particles in the kinetic theory of gases in the form of elastic balls acting on each other during a collision.
At iconic modeling describes the simulated system using conventional signs, symbols, in particular, in the form of mathematical, physical and chemical formulas. The most powerful and developed class of iconic models are represented by mathematical models.
Mathematical model is an artificially created object in the form of mathematical, symbolic formulas that displays and reproduces the structure, properties, interconnections and relationships between the elements of the object under study. Further, only mathematical models and, accordingly, mathematical modeling are considered.
Math modeling – a research method based on replacing the original object under study with its mathematical model and working with it (instead of the object). Mathematical modeling can be divided into analytical (AM) , imitation (IM) , combined (CM) .
At AM an analytical model of the object is created in the form of algebraic, differential, finite-difference equations. The analytical model is studied either by analytical methods or by numerical methods.
At THEM a simulation model is created, and the statistical modeling method is used to implement the simulation model on a computer.
At KM decomposition of the system functioning process into subprocesses is carried out. For those of them, where possible, analytical methods are used, otherwise simulation methods are used.

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1. One of the main methods for studying the structure of organs, as well as at the descriptive stage of anatomy development, is the dissection of a corpse.

2. The anthropometry method is used to measure external anatomical structures and their relationships, to identify the individual characteristics of a person’s structure.

3. The injection method is used to study body cavities, tubular structures - vessels, bronchi, urinary tract, intestines and others - by filling them with a colored mass.

4. Corrosion method - melting tissue around hollow organs pre-filled with a hardening mass with acid or alkali.

5. The method of clearing organ tissues is the creation of a transparent environment around the pre-colored structure being studied by impregnation with a special liquid.

6. The method of microscopic anatomy is the study of relatively small structures with optical instruments with low magnification.

7. X-ray methods: fluoroscopy - examination of structures under X-rays, radiography - recording structures on X-ray film to study the shape of organs and their functional characteristics in a living person. Computed tomography is also applicable for the study of cadaveric material - layer-by-layer study of organ tissue.

8. The method of transillumination by reflected rays allows you to study small structures lying close to the surface of the organ.

9. Endoscopy - examination of the surface of the mucous membranes of a living person, the color and relief of many internal organs after the introduction of special optical devices inside.

10. Experimental method on animals - to clarify the function of an organ and study its changes under various external influences.

11. Mathematical method - for calculating various quantitative indicators in the relationships of anatomical structures and for obtaining averaged data.

12. Illustration method - creating graphic diagrams of various complex structures by synthesizing individual details of their structure.

13. The ultrasound scanning method is used mainly in a living person to detect changes in the shape and structure of internal organs.

14.Electromagnetic scanning (nuclear magnetic resonance) - a detailed study of the structures of living human organs, based on different intensities of magnetic fields.

These methods are often used in combination in anatomical studies. For example, injection of vessels with a contrast mass, then radiography, preparation, morphometry, mathematical processing, etc.

Structural organization of the human body

One of the basic concepts of anatomy is morphological structure or form, which represents the organization of the morphological substrate in space and has a specific function. Just as there can be no function without structure, there can be no morphological structure without function.

From a morphological point of view, the following levels of organization of the human body structure can be distinguished:

1) organismic (the human body as a whole);

2) organ system (organ systems);

3) organ(s);

4) fabric (fabrics);

5) cellular (cells);

6) subcellular (cellular organelles and corpuscular-fibrillar-membrane structures).

It should be noted that in the presented hierarchical diagram of the structural organization of the human body, a clear subordination can be traced. Organismic, systemic and organ levels of the human body structure are anatomical objects of study. Tissue, cellular and submicroscopic - objects of histological, cytological and ultrastructural studies.

It is advisable to begin the study of the structural organization of the human body from the simplest morphological level - the cellular level, the main element of which is the cell. The adult human body consists of a huge number of cells (approximately 10 12-14). There are over 14 billion of them in the central nervous system alone.

Cell– the basic elementary structural unit of the body. Textile - a historically developed system of the body, which consists of cells of a certain general structure and function and an intermediate substance associated with them.

Tissues in the body do not exist in isolation. They participate in the construction of organs.

Organ(from organon– tool) is a part of the body that is a relatively integral formation, occupies a certain position, and has a certain shape, structure, and function. An organ has certain relationships with other parts of the body and is built from several tissues, of which, however, one or two predominate, which determines the specific function of one or another organ. For example, the main working tissue of the liver is epithelial; it is built mainly from the hepatic epithelium, which makes up the liver parenchyma. Between the lobules of the liver there are layers of connective tissue, which together with the capsule form the stroma of this organ. The liver has a widely branched network of blood vessels and bile ducts that carry bile, the structure of which involves smooth muscle tissue. The autonomic nerves that accompany the blood vessels enter the gates of the liver. Thus, all main types of tissues are involved in the structure of the liver. The liver occupies a certain place - the right hypochondrium and the epigastric region of the abdominal cavity, has a certain shape, structure and performs certain functions. During the process of ontogenesis, the number of organs changes; a number of organs exist only in the intrauterine period of development and are absent at later stages of development, for example, gill arches, cloaca, placenta with umbilical cord, etc.

In animals and humans, many organs functionally complement each other. Such collections of organs constitute organ systems and apparatuses.

Organ system- this is a set of organs anatomically and topographically connected to each other, having a similar structure, a common origin in phylo- and ontogenesis and performing a common function. For example, the digestive system, consisting of many organs that developed from all parts of the primary intestine, in the body performs the function of digestion as a whole and providing it with nutrients.

Unlike organ systems, there are groups of organs that do not have the same structure and common sources of development, but perform the same function. They're called apparatus. The apparatus combines organs of several systems to perform a complex act. For example, the movement apparatus combines the skeletal system, bone joints, and muscular system. The vocal apparatus - cartilage, ligaments, muscles, laryngeal cavities, oral and nasal cavities.

All human organs can be divided into organs of vegetative and animal, that is, plant and animal life. The first include the digestive, respiratory, genitourinary, cardiovascular and endocrine systems, as they provide body functions inherent in any biological object, including plants. While the musculoskeletal system, sensory organs and nervous system are found only in animals. The organs of animal life are called "soma", within which are the thoracic and abdominal cavities, which contain the entrails. Not a single organ system can exist separately, since together they, mutually complementing and serving each other, represent a qualitatively new structural and functional whole - the organism. At the same time, the body constantly regulates the work of individual organs and systems with the help of the nervous and endocrine systems, which jointly carry out neurohumoral regulation.

The body consists of a number of structures at different levels: from subcellular to the body as a whole. The science of the structure of the body at different levels of organization of its constituent structures in connection with their functions and development is called morphology(from Greek . morphos- form). This term was introduced into natural science at the end of the 18th century by the great German poet Goethe. Anatomy is a narrower concept, since, unlike histology, embryology and pathology, it is a section of morphology that studies mainly those visible to the naked eye, that is, macroscopic objects. Morphology also includes the pathological anatomy mentioned above.