Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries that became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign and world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to contribute to the training of new personnel for the development of marine research.
Prerequisites
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made their discoveries largely because this century saw the need to search for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia’s connections with other countries. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, our country finally strengthened its status in the international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign countries.
Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century emerged as talented navigators just at the same time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And this is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for maritime research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets and maritime affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under review, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.
Plan for a round-the-world expedition
Such a project became possible largely thanks to the successful military actions of our country at the end of the 18th century. At this time, Russia received the opportunity to build its fleet on the Black Sea, which, of course, was supposed to stimulate maritime affairs. Russian navigators at this time were seriously thinking about creating convenient trade routes. This was further facilitated by the fact that our country owned the territory North America Alaska. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.
I.F. At the end of the 18th century, Kruzenshtern presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, he was rejected then. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He received approval.
Preparation
I.F. Krusenstern came from noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, as his student, took part in the war against Sweden, showing himself well then. After this, he was sent for an internship to England, where he received an excellent education. Upon returning to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.
His closest assistant in this matter was his comrade Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He became friends with him in the cadet corps. Friend also proved himself to be a talented naval officer during the years Russo-Swedish War 1788-1790. Soon two ships named “Neva” and “Nadezhda” were equipped. The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.
Swimming
Russian sailors rounded Cape Horn and, entering the Pacific Ocean, separated. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian trading city of Novo-Arkhangelsk, captured by the Indians. During this voyage he also spent the first time in the history of navigation sailing ship around South Africa.
The ship "Nadezhda" under the leadership of Kruzenshtern set off for the Sea of Japan. The merit of this researcher is that he carefully examined the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to investigate what the leadership of the Pacific Fleet had long been interested in. Kruzenshtern entered the Amur Estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.
Krusenstern's contribution to science
Russian travelers significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books that presented the results of their research. Kruzenshtern published “A Journey Around the World,” but the atlas he published with hydrographic applications is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map and conducted valuable research on the seas and oceans. So, he studied water pressure and temperature, sea currents, ebbs and flows.
Social activities
His further career was closely connected with the naval corps, where he was first assigned as an inspector. Subsequently, he began teaching there, and then headed it altogether. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Maritime Academy. Krusenstern introduced new disciplines into the educational process. This has significantly improved the quality of maritime teaching.
In addition, he helped in organizing other expeditions, in particular, he contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian Geographical Society, which was destined to occupy one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. Special significance for the development of geography he published the Atlas of the South Sea.
Preparation of a new expedition
Several years after his trip, Kruzenshtern insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed equipping two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships each. Before this, the navigator came almost close to Antarctica, but ice prevented him from going further. Then he assumed that the sixth continent either did not exist or was impossible to get to.
In 1819 Russian leadership decided to equip a new squadron for sailing. Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a number of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: Mirny and Vostok. The first one was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was durable and waterproof. However, the second one, built in Great Britain, was less stable, so it had to be rebuilt, rebuilt and repaired more than once. The preparation and construction was supervised by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two ships.
Journey to the South
A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, rounding the mainland, reached the Sandwich Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During maneuvers around it, many islands were discovered and described. Among the most significant discoveries are the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the shores, as well as sketches of animals seen on the new continent, Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.
During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia was described. Descriptions of the new continent are of particular importance. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to better observe the earth, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.
The meaning of discoveries
The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for domestic and world geographical science. The discovery of a new, sixth continent changed the understanding of the geography of the Earth. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas and necessary instructions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, magnificent sketches of the views of Antarctica and its fauna were made. In addition, the expedition members collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is kept at Kazan University.
Further activities
Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He participated in Russian-Turkish War 1828-1829, commanded the Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indicator of recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects are named after him. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.
Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous journey to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of an expedition to protect the shores of Russian America from smugglers, which he successfully accomplished. Subsequently, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet and participated in it, for which he received several awards. So, the great discoverers from Russia also made their outstanding contribution to the development of geography.
DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE v During the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th centuries. Russian geography has achieved great success, which was mainly due to the activities of the Russian Geographical Society.
F. P. LITKE v F. P. Litke (1797-1882) - admiral of the Russian fleet, was a major geographer and traveler. With the rank of midshipman, he took part in V. M. Golovnin’s voyage on the Kamchatka.
F. P. LITKE v In 1826-1829 F.P. Litke was the commander of the sloop "Senyavin", who completed a circumnavigation of the world, during which significant scientific works in the North Pacific Ocean. In Kamchatka, the most important points of the coast were identified and the heights of many hills were measured; The islands are described in detail.
SEMENOVA-TYANSHANSKY v F. P. Litke led the Geographical Society until January 17, 1873. After him, P. P. Semenova-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), who played a large role in the development of Russian geography, became the head of the society.
v In 1856-1857 Semenov-Tian-Shansky made a scientific expedition to the Tien Shan, marking the beginning of a comprehensive study of nature and human activity. During the expedition, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky studied the mutual connections between various components of nature and human activity, and also found patterns in the connections of elements of nature, highlighting vertical zones and types of terrain. v Semenov-Tyan-Shansky contributed to the creation of a whole school of geographers, which included major scientists: Ya. M. Przhevalsky, V. I. Roborovsky, Ya. G. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, Ya. K. Kozlov, V. A . Obruchev, I. V. Mushketov and others.
PETER ALEXEEVICH KROPOTKIN v Peter Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921) during his travels through Siberia in 1862-1867. collected extremely valuable material that changed all previous ideas about the northeastern part of Asia.
NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH PRZHEVALSKY v Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) is known as a great explorer of Central Asia. While at the Military Academy, Przhevalsky compiled a large work, “Military Statistical Review of the Amur Region,” and was elected a member of the Geographical Society.
v In 1867, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky suggested that Przhevalsky go to the Ussuri region. Przhevalsky accepted this offer and wonderfully conducted his first expedition, the results of which are presented in the book “Travel in the Ussuri Region”. After this, the Geographical Society accepted the plan for his journey to Central Asia. v N. M. Przhevalsky made four trips to Central Asia: Mongolian (1871 - 1873), Lob-Nor and Dzungarian (1876-1877), Tibetan first (1879-1881) and Tibetan second (1883- 1886). At the beginning of the fifth expedition, Przhevalsky died.
NIKOLAI NIKOLAEVICH MIKLOUKHO-MACLAY v Among travelers of the last century, Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) occupies a special place. While other geographers were discovering new ones, hitherto unknown lands, Miklouho-Maclay sought first of all to discover man among the “primitive” ones he studied, i.e., untouched European culture, peoples.
v Humanities in Russia in the 19th century. were distinguished by their originality and were at the world level of development. Characteristic feature The development of the humanities in the 19th century is their differentiation: from philosophy such sciences as sociology and political science are distinguished; from historical science - archeology, ethnography and auxiliary historical disciplines. The humanities began to be distinguished by a variety of schools and movements that influenced the development of science in the 20th century.
v A characteristic phenomenon early XIX V. in Russia there was an increase in interest in history. As a result, numerous historical societies appeared, in particular the Moscow Society of History and Russian Antiquities (1804). The names of K. D. Kavelin (1818 -1885), B. N. Chicherin (1828 -1904), S. M. Solovyov (1820 -1879) are associated with a trend in Russian historical science, behind which the name “public school” was established.
V. O. KLYUCHEVSKY v A student of S. M. Solovyov became a legend and classic of Russian historiography - V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841 -1911), a bright representative of the national psychological and economic school that was formed in Russia in the last quarter of the XIX V. When did psychoanalysis become popular?
In the second half of the 19th century, and especially in its last decades, and the beginning of the 20th century, the nature of geographical research changed. Narvo in the second half of the 19th century, and especially in
its last decades, and the beginning of the 20th century, the character
geographical research is changing. Along with
continued exploration of little-known areas and countries
more and more detailed studies are being carried out
densely populated and more economically developed
regarding regions, increasing attention is being paid
on relationships and distribution patterns
individual components of nature. New ones are emerging
methods for studying the territory. Geographers and
travelers are eager to explore
nature, starting from completely new, conquered
own the right to exist in a scientific dispute
methodological principles. Views on development
nature and interconnection natural phenomena, on
materialistic essence of phenomena and processes
become leading in geographical
research.
The works of outstanding naturalists and thinkers had a particularly fruitful influence on geographical science and natural science in general.
Particularly fruitful influence on the geographicalscience and natural history in general were influenced by the work
outstanding naturalists and thinkers, such as
like C. Lyell, A. Humboldt, C. Darwin. Big
methodological significance for the development of natural science
and geography had scientific works and journalistic
speeches of Russian revolutionary democrats, and in
features of the work of A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky and
V. G. Belinsky. It's hard to say who is outstanding
Russian geographers and travelers did not experience these
influences
Based on the achievements of world science and the advanced worldview of revolutionary democrats, Russian scientists made a great contribution to knowledge
Based on the achievements of world science and advancedworldview of revolutionary democrats, Russians
scientists have made great contributions to the knowledge of vast
spaces earth's surface and in development
theoretical foundations physical geography.
The second half of the 19th century was marked by outstanding
discoveries of Russian travelers in Central
Asia. The merit of studying this is especially great
little-known area of N. M. Przhevalsky and his
followers. After joining Central Russia
Asia begins an in-depth study of everything natural
complex as a whole and the components of the nature of this
territories. A whole galaxy of natural scientists devoted themselves to this - P. P. Semenov, N. A. Severtsov, Y. V.
Mushketov, A.P. Fedchenko and many others.
The polar regions of Eurasia and the Arctic Ocean, Siberia and the Far East are being actively studied. Along with the development of geographical research
The polar regions of Eurasia are being actively studied andArctic Ocean, Siberia and Far East.
Along with the development of geographical research
“breadth”, characteristic of the second half of the 19th century - the beginning
XX century, research is developing “in depth” - knowledge
geographical patterns, clarification
relationships and interdependencies of geographical
components and processes on the earth's surface. Such
expeditions had a characteristic feature,
conducted in the European part of Russia, the Caucasus and
Central Asia. As a result of deep and versatile
research by V.V. Dokuchaev expressed new
original views on the subject of physical geography
and methods of territory research.
“The essence of the ideas in question,” wrote A. A. Grigoriev, “was the statement of an extremely important phenomenon of nature - integrity and
“The essence of the ideas in question,” wrote A.A.Grigoriev, - consisted in stating extremely
important phenomenon nature - integrity and continuity
geographical environment due to deep
interconnection and interdependence of all its
components" (A. A. Grigoriev. Development of basic ideas
physical geography. - In the book: “History of Natural Sciences
in Russia", vol. 3. M., 1962, p. 520). Study of natural
components in their inextricable connection and geographical
environment as a whole led Dokuchaev to
establishing the law of horizontal and vertical (in
mountains) zonation natural conditions. Further
development of his ideas by A. N. Krasnov, L. S. Berg, G. F.
Morozov and other scientists essentially determined
level and direction of development of modern
domestic physical geography.
On the development of geography in Russia in XVIII century Initially, the ideas of Western European scientists, for example, B. Varenia, had a certain influence. But they were so strongly and critically revised, so many new things were introduced into science by Russian scientists (I.I. Kirillov, V.N. Tatishchev, M.V. Lomonosov), that the Russian geographical school of that time bears a new, original character. And this was primarily due to practical problems.
If in countries Western Europe While science was largely aimed at satisfying the practical needs of maritime navigation and overseas trade, in Russia there were other practical needs - the settlement and economic development of the world's largest land mass, a kind of “ocean”, forests, etc. In the 18th century the development of Russian territory was especially intensive: it became firmly established on, on, on the ocean; mining regions of the Urals arose, hundreds of new cities and towns were built; numerous began to be used for shipping. In the second half of the 18th century. Russia came out on top in the world in the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, began to mine gold, and trade in bread; still continued to produce an abundance of furs, catch fish and kill sea animals, make flax, hemp, smoke resin...
For the needs of economic development of Russian territory, economic statistics (“political arithmetic”) were first of all necessary. Of the “chicks of Petrov’s nest”, Ivan Kirillovich Kirilov (1669-1737) was the first to combine these sciences into one whole. In the early 1720s. he headed astronomical, topographical, cartographic and statistical work in Russia. Kirilov planned to compile a three-volume “All-Russian Empire”, with 120 maps in each volume. But he managed to publish only the first issue in 1734, which included a “general” map of the entire country and 14 “special” (private) maps of individual administrative-territorial units. On these pages, in particular, many economic objects were placed, and the text included brief economic and statistical characteristics of different areas.
In 1727 I.K. Kirilov completed the work “Flourishing State Russian state”(it was published only in 1831) is the first Russian statistical and economic-geographical description.
Ideas and suggestions from I.K. Kirilov were significantly developed by Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1986-1750) and Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765). It is with them that original Russian scientific geography begins in Russia. Both outstanding scientists began their activities during the reforms of Peter I, when the very word “geography” came into use in Russia.
V.N. Tatishchev is a man of versatile talents: warrior (participant in the Battle of Poltava), diplomat, builder of cities and factories, metallurgist, historian, ethnographer, archaeologist, botanist, paleontologist, cartographer, economist and geographer - such is the range of activities of this remarkable scientist. In 1719, Peter I specifically instructed Tatishchev to compile the history and geography of Russia, which he diligently began to do only in 1724.
V.N. Tatishchev knew Vareniya’s book well, which was published in Russian translation in 1718. He mentions it in his works. Tatishchev's system of geographical sciences outwardly resembled to a certain extent the system proposed by Vareny. But in essence, methodologically, it was very different from it. In his work “On Geography in General and Russian” (1746), Tatishchev divided geography three times into three sections, thereby proposing a kind of three-dimensional (three-dimensional) model of geographical science:
P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky began his career as a geologist and botanical geographer. He spent his trip to the Tien Shan (1856-1857) as a naturalist. But then his attention was attracted by questions of history, historical geography, demography, population geography and, finally, economic geography generally. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky wrote many regional monographs, including the five-volume “Geographical-Statistical Dictionary” Russian Empire” (1863-1885). In 1871 he published a work on the historical geography of Russian settlements. He was also an expert member of the editorial commission for the preparation of the reform of 1861, which freed the peasants of Russia from serfdom. From January 1, 1864 P.P. Semenov became the first director of the newly organized Central Statistical Committee. He led it until 1897 and left because of disagreement with the distortion of the program he compiled for the first All-Russian population census of 1897.
A man of diverse interests, competent in many fields of knowledge, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky was ideally suited to manage such a complex organization as the Russian Geographical Society for 41 years (1873-1914); it was he who was able to maintain its unity and, consequently, the originality of Russian geographical science.
Among historians of geographical science it is discussed difficult question about the scientific school of P.P. Semenov-Tien-Shansky. He did not teach at the university and had no students in the literal sense of the word. But he turned the Russian Geographical Society into a first-class school for young researchers: travelers, ethnographers, oceanologists, cartographers, economists. Among them were not only N.N. , which received from the hands of Semenov-Tien-Shansky broad program studying the peoples of the New Age, not only N.M. , who received from the same hands a program for studying the Ussuri region, and then, but also such great researchers as G.N. Potanin, M.V. Pevtsov, A.L. Chekanovsky, I.D. , I.V. Mushketov, A.P. Fedchenko, A.A. Tillo, P.A. Kropotkin, A.I. , I.P. Minaev, Yu.M. Shokalsky and many others. Each of these names is an outstanding phenomenon in the history of geographical science. We can say that in Russian geographical society Semenov-Tien-Shansky created a brilliant constellation of geographers of various specialties, but most of all, general geographers engaged in a comprehensive study of nature and man.
Alexander Ivanovich Voeikov (1842-1916), like P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, was distinguished by his deep education and breadth scientific research. He studied in Berlin, Göttingen and. He defended his doctoral dissertation “On direct insolation in various places on the earth’s surface” in 1865 at the University of Göttingen. He devoted his entire subsequent life to studying the heat and water balances of the Earth. In the 1870s, Voeikov traveled throughout the United States and Asia. In 1884 he began his activities at St. Petersburg University.
It is characteristic that A.I. Voeikov directly linked the study with the improvement of agricultural production. While dealing with issues of improving Russia, he decided to compare farming techniques in areas with a climate similar to climatic conditions European Russia. This is how the first study of climate analogues arose. Following his advice, the coast began to successfully grow tea, in Central Asia - cotton, and wheat. The famous work of A.I. Voeikov’s “Climates of the Globe, Especially Russia” was published in his native language in 1884. And in 1887 it was translated into German and was published in Germany, was highly appreciated by other climatologists.
However, one of the most significant services of A.I. Voeikov to world geographical science is that he declared the importance of studying the influence of man on the environment around him natural environment. He was one of the first European scientists to realize the disastrous consequences of human use of the earth and point out them (this was done somewhat earlier by George Perkins Marsh in the book “Man and Nature” (1864), which was translated and published in Russia in 1866. In in particular, A.I. Voeikov believed that, as a result of destruction, various changes are occurring in nature, which in some areas result in catastrophic consequences. Voeikov warned that predatory deforestation in the north of the country could change the climate towards greater aridity. He was passionate. a champion of the revival of desert lands and lands through them.
The beginning of modern physical geography in Russia is associated with the works of the founder of scientific soil science, Professor of St. Petersburg University Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev (1846-1903). Dokuchaev's ideas, forecasts, and proposals were based on complex long-term expeditionary research. Three large expeditions of Dokuchaev - to assess land in the Nizhny Novgorod and Poltava provinces and the Special Steppe Expedition - worked for a total of 15 years (1882-1885, 1888-1897). To this we must add that Dokuchaev in 1890-1900. headed the commission he created for the natural history, agricultural and hygienic study of St. Petersburg and its environs - the first comprehensive geographical study big city. The main works of V.V. have become classic. Dokuchaev - “Russian” (1883) and “Our steppes before and now” (1891). the doctrine of soil served as the starting point for the development of the idea of a natural geographical complex. According to Dokuchaev, there is a result of the interaction of maternal water, heat and organisms; it is like a product and at the same time its “mirror”, a visual reflection of a complex system of relationships in the natural complex. Therefore, from studying the soil lies shortest path towards geographical synthesis.
Dokuchaev understood well negative aspects the differentiation of natural sciences that had gone far by that time and saw that geography, as he said, was “blurring in all directions.” In 1898, he expressed the idea of the need to develop a new science about the relationships and interactions between the components of living and inanimate nature and the laws of their joint development. The beginning of this science, as if an introduction to it, was his doctrine of natural zones (1898-1900). Now this doctrine is known to every schoolchild, but at that time only a few scientists (among them Dokuchaev’s student G.F. Morozov, 1867-1920) foresaw the beginning of modern geography. Later, Academician L.S. Bert (1876-1950) clearly indicated that “the founder of modern geography was the great soil scientist V. Dokuchaev” (Bert L.S. Geographical zones of the USSR. M., 1947. Vol. 1).
The remarkable Russian scientist Dmitry Nikolaevich (1843-1923) created an exceptionally large and strong university geographical school. First - at Moscow University, and then, through its graduates, at other universities in Russia.
The first department of geography in Russia was opened at Moscow University in 1884, first at the Faculty of History and Philology; D.N. was invited to manage it. Anuchin. In 1887, he achieved the transfer of this department - geography, anthropology and ethnography - to the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, where his work began on training young geographers, who then grew into major world-famous scientists.
Diversity of scientific interests of D.N. Anuchina was exceptional: anthropology, ethnography, archeology, history and methodology of science, hydrology (including limnology), cartography, geomorphology, regional studies. But such versatility was not a random collection of current interests, jumping from one subject of study to another. They, like many prominent scientists, theoretically constituted, as we now say, a “single block.”
D.N. Anuchin believed that geography should study the nature of the earth's surface. He divided geography into geoscience and regional studies. Geography studies the complex of physical and geographical components of the entire surface of the Earth, and regional studies, although a broader complex that includes humans (“Without humans, geography will be incomplete,” D.N. Anuchin wrote in 1912), but within individual regions ( "countries"). Since the nature of the earth's surface is formed in the process of its historical development, the historical method is necessary in geographical research. And of course, geographical research is not important in itself, but is necessary for practice.
These are the main provisions of D.N. Anuchin, every modern geographer in Russia will support them.
"Geography course" - Front page includes: Program design rules: Elective course in geography. Name elective course– “Basics entrepreneurial activity" Educational and thematic planning. Subject courses: Cities, regions, urban settlements 1 16. Subject courses. Criteria for evaluating the elective course program:
“Textbooks on Geography” - Geography: 9th grade: Thematic testing technology Rostov. Updating the content of the geography course in the new generation educational complex. Thematic testing technology. G.P. Volobuev. Geography of Russia. Population and economy. 9th grade`. Barabanov V.V., Dyukova S.E., Petrova N.N. We are preparing for the Unified State Exam in Geography.
“Geography assignments” - Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern. Printing press Germany 1455 But not in the ocean. Shepherd. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Ulyanov). Donetsk people. Kurians. Napoleon 1 Bonaparte. What is in the river, pond, lake, sea. Dmitry Donskoy Dmitry Ivanovich Rurikovich. Pishchal Rus' 15th century. Telescope from the 17th century, Netherlands. Glasses Italy 1280.
“Geography lessons” - Knowledge, skills. Good level knowledge. Organization of student activities in geography lessons. Development training. River exploration. Problematic question. Understanding the joy of discovery. Slides. Lectures and seminars. Reflection lessons. analyze the experience of organizing student-centered learning in geography lessons.
“Games of Geography” - Games of developmental education: I fly in the sky as a cloud, I am a river on earth, I and the sea, the ocean... A method for studying the actions of the “rival”. Tolerant attitude towards others. Correlating the game rating scale with the school grade scale. The desire for the activity itself, regardless of the result. Project topic: Development of students' creative and communication abilities.
“Questions on Geography” - East Siberian. Continuation. Sargasso. Alaska. Name the third planet solar system. Seismograph. Ural. Antarctica. Name the largest and deepest sea off the coast of Russia. At the North Pole. Sakhalin. Question: Name the most big island Russia. Pampa. Beringovo. Which continent do all meridians cross?