The war had an extremely negative impact on the internal life of the states participating in it. The economy was subordinated exclusively to military purposes. For example, 70% of heavy industry and 50% of light industry worked for military needs. At the same time, the war also plunged agriculture into a difficult situation. Agricultural production fell sharply.
There was a food shortage in almost all countries. As a result, states introduced a rationing regime, that is, a strictly limited food allowance.
Chauvinism was propagated among the population. The war dealt a powerful blow to parliamentary democracy. Throughout the war, not a single parliament spoke out against the bloody war.
Now states have begun to organize production. State control over banks, the distribution of raw materials and military orders increased.
The population was tired and began to oppose the government, demanding an early end to the war. Thus, the civil unity established in society in the first years of the war was disrupted. On some fronts there was fraternization of soldiers, refusal of enemy sides to shoot at each other because the soldiers were also tired of the war.
Situation in Russia
The war aggravated the economic and political situation in Russia. As a result, a revolution occurred in February 1917. The Emperor of Russia abdicated the throne. Power passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie, which created a provisional government.
The Provisional Government decided to continue the war and in the same year even organized an offensive by the Russian army, which ended in failure.
This failure further complicated the already difficult political situation in Russia. As a result, a coup d'état took place on November 7, 1917. The provisional government was overthrown. Power was seized by the Bolshevik Party under the leadership of V.I. Lenin, who created the Soviet government.
On November 8, 1917, the Soviet government adopted the Decree on Peace. The Decree on Peace sharply condemned the war of conquest and declared it the greatest crime against humanity.
The Soviet government, under any conditions, tried to conclude a separate peace, because continuing the war when the army had completely lost its morale and the Eastern Front was practically paralyzed was tantamount to disaster.
On December 15, 1917, a peace treaty was signed between Soviet Russia and the Austro-German government. The same agreement was signed with Romania on December 9. Thus, there was no fighting on the Eastern Front.
Situation on other fronts
In April 1917, the Entente armed forces on the Western Front went on the offensive, in which more than 100 divisions took part. However, it was not possible to break through the German defense line. On the contrary, as a result of these hostilities, the Entente troops suffered heavy losses. These actions were called the "Nivelles Massacre" after the Commander-in-Chief of the French Armed Forces, Nivelle.
In 1917 the Italian army failed. Italy was saved only by the fact that England and France urgently sent auxiliary forces to the Italian front. In November 1917, Germany, when repelling the advance of the British army, used another new weapon - a flamethrower.
The actions of the British army intensified on the Mesopotamian and Palestinian fronts. In March 1917, the British occupied Baghdad. By the fall, Türkiye had ceded almost the entire Arabian Peninsula and part of Palestine.
On March 3, 1918, Soviet Russia signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty with the “Union of the Four” based on its demands. The terms of the agreement were very difficult for Russia. According to the agreement, Russia had to completely demobilize its army and return its navy to the ports. Russia also abandoned the Baltic states, Poland, Finland and Ukraine. Ukraine and Finland were recognized as independent states. The Caucasian Kars, Ardagan and Batumi were transferred to Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged to pay reparations to Germany in the amount of 6 billion marks.
Woodrow Wilson Peace Program
On January 1918, US President Wilson unveiled the Peace Treaty to be signed after the end of the First World War and a newly drawn up political map of the world from the point of view of the US government. This became known as the Wilson Peace Program.
This program later served as the basis for a peace treaty between the victorious Entente and the losing “Alliance of the Four.”
The last stage of the war
Germany, having concentrated 80 percent of all divisions and 90 percent of artillery on the Western Front, went on the offensive again in March 1918. This was her last attack. However, it did not lead to any significant result. However, both sides lost 300 thousand people. Under these conditions, England and France decided to create a unified command. French General Foch was appointed commander of the combined armed forces. On July 18, French troops launched a counteroffensive. Now it became impossible to stop the Entente.
On September 15, a crushing blow was dealt to Bulgaria. On September 28, Bulgaria suspended hostilities and left the war. On October 29, Austria-Hungary turned to the Entente with a request to sign a peace agreement. On October 30, Turkey made a similar statement. On November 3, such an agreement was signed.
The war created a revolutionary situation in Germany. On November 9, the German Empire fell. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and fled the country. On November 10, a new government was created headed by the Social Democrat Ebert. On November 11, in the Compeny Forest, in the headquarters of General Foch, an agreement with the Entente on the surrender of Germany was signed. Thus, the First World War ended with the complete victory of the Entente.
On June 28, 1919, the Peace Treaty was signed at Versailles. The states of the German bloc were plundered, lost a number of territories, and were obliged to pay 132 billion marks in reparations.
38 countries of the world took part in the First World War. More than 1.5 billion people lived in them. About 74 million people were drafted into the war. In total, 20 million people were killed and 10 million were injured. In addition, many people died from disease and starvation.
The states that were the main participants in the First World War lost a third of their national wealth.
Humanity did not suffer such losses in all the wars that occurred during the 1000 years before the outbreak of the First World War.
From a speech by US President William Wilson in July 1916:
“We can play a big role in the world. Do you take into account the fact that in the space of one or two years we have changed from a debtor state to a creditor state? We have never had such a quantity of surplus world gold in our hands before. From that time on, our business became to lend money, help large international corporations and promote their work. We have to provide the whole world with large funds and manage them according to our skill and desire.”
Decree (lat. decretum) - a resolution of the supreme power on any issue that has the force of law.
Reparation (Latin reparatio - restoration) - in international law - compensation paid by a defeated state to the victorious state for full or partial compensation for losses.
Separatism (lat. seperatus - I will separate) - the desire for separation. Also, in international law, an agreement with the warring party of one of the allied states without the permission of the allies.
Conciliation is an agreement drawn up to end hostilities. Type of international treaties.
The First World War was the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved.
The main reason for the war was the contradictions between the powers of two large blocs - the Entente (a coalition of Russia, England and France) and the Triple Alliance (a coalition of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy).
The reason for the outbreak of an armed clash between a member of the Mlada Bosna organization, high school student Gavrilo Princip, during which on June 28 (all dates are given according to the new style) 1914 in Sarajevo, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed.
On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia, in which it accused the country’s government of supporting terrorism and demanded that its military units be allowed into the territory. Despite the fact that the Serbian government's note expressed its readiness to resolve the conflict, the Austro-Hungarian government declared that it was not satisfied and declared war on Serbia. On July 28, hostilities began on the Austro-Serbian border.
On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization, fulfilling its allied obligations to Serbia. Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on August 3 on France, as well as neutral Belgium, which refused to allow German troops through its territory. On August 4, Great Britain and its dominions declared war on Germany, and on August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.
In August 1914, Japan joined the hostilities, and in October, Turkey entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc. In October 1915, Bulgaria joined the bloc of the so-called Central States.
In May 1915, under diplomatic pressure from Great Britain, Italy, which initially took a position of neutrality, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.
The main land fronts were the Western (French) and Eastern (Russian) fronts, the main naval theaters of military operations were the North, Mediterranean and Baltic seas.
Military operations began on the Western Front - German troops acted according to the Schlieffen plan, which envisaged an attack by large forces on France through Belgium. However, Germany's hope for a quick defeat of France turned out to be untenable; by mid-November 1914, the war on the Western Front assumed a positional character.
The confrontation took place along a line of trenches stretching about 970 kilometers along the German border with Belgium and France. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved here at the cost of huge losses on both sides.
During the maneuverable period of the war, the Eastern Front was located on the strip along the Russian border with Germany and Austria-Hungary, then mainly on the western border strip of Russia.
The beginning of the 1914 campaign on the Eastern Front was marked by the desire of Russian troops to fulfill their obligations to the French and draw back German forces from the Western Front. During this period, two major battles took place - the East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia. During these battles, the Russian army defeated the Austro-Hungarian troops, occupied Lviv and pushed the enemy to the Carpathians, blocking the large Austrian fortress of Przemysl.
However, the losses of soldiers and equipment were colossal; due to the underdevelopment of transport routes, reinforcements and ammunition did not arrive in time, so the Russian troops were unable to develop their success.
Overall, the 1914 campaign ended in favor of the Entente. German troops were defeated on the Marne, Austrian troops in Galicia and Serbia, Turkish troops at Sarykamysh. In the Far East, Japan captured the port of Jiaozhou, the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, which belonged to Germany, and British troops captured the rest of Germany's possessions in the Pacific Ocean.
Later, in July 1915, British troops, after protracted fighting, captured German South-West Africa (a German protectorate in Africa).
The First World War was marked by the testing of new means of combat and weapons. On October 8, 1914, the first air raid was carried out: British planes equipped with 20-pound bombs flew into German airship workshops in Friedrichshafen.
After this raid, a new class of aircraft began to be created - bombers.
The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation (1915-1916) ended in defeat - a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped at the beginning of 1915 with the goal of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and winning over the allies. Balkan states. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops had driven the Russians out of almost all of Galicia and most of Russian Poland.
On April 22, 1915, during the battles near Ypres (Belgium), Germany used chemical weapons for the first time. After this, poisonous gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used regularly by both warring parties.
In the 1916 campaign, Germany again shifted its main efforts to the west with the goal of withdrawing France from the war, but a powerful blow to France during the Verdun operation ended in failure. This was largely facilitated by the Russian Southwestern Front, which carried out a breakthrough of the Austro-Hungarian front in Galicia and Volyn. Anglo-French troops launched a decisive offensive on the Somme River, but, despite all efforts and involvement enormous forces and the means were unable to break through the German defenses. During this operation, the British used tanks for the first time. The largest battle of the war, the Battle of Jutland, took place at sea, in which the German fleet failed. As a result of the military campaign of 1916, the Entente seized the strategic initiative.
At the end of 1916, Germany and its allies first began to talk about the possibility of a peace agreement. The Entente rejected this proposal. During this period, the armies of the states actively participating in the war numbered 756 divisions, twice as many as at the beginning of the war, but they lost the most qualified military personnel. The bulk of the soldiers were elderly reserves and young people on early conscription, poorly prepared in military-technical terms and insufficiently trained physically.
In 1917, two major events radically affected the balance of power of the opponents. On April 6, 1917, the United States, which had long maintained neutrality in the war, decided to declare war on Germany. One of the reasons was an incident off the southeastern coast of Ireland, when a German submarine sank the British liner Lusitania, sailing from the United States to England, which was carrying a large group of Americans, killing 128 of them.
Following the United States in 1917, China, Greece, Brazil, Cuba, Panama, Liberia and Siam also entered the war on the side of the Entente.
The second major change in the confrontation of forces was caused by Russia's withdrawal from the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks who came to power signed an armistice agreement. On March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded, according to which Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardahan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey. In total, Russia lost about one million square kilometers. In addition, she was obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of six billion marks.
The major battles of the 1917 campaign, Operation Nivelle and Operation Cambrai, demonstrated the value of using tanks in battle and laid the foundation for tactics based on the interaction of infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft on the battlefield.
On August 8, 1918, in the Battle of Amiens, the German front was torn apart by the Allied forces: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight - this battle became the last major battle of the war.
On September 29, 1918, after the Entente offensive on the Thessaloniki Front, Bulgaria signed an armistice, Turkey capitulated in October, and Austria-Hungary capitulated on November 3.
Popular unrest began in Germany: on October 29, 1918, in the port of Kiel, the crew of two warships disobeyed and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. Mass revolts began: the soldiers intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. On November 9, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and a republic was proclaimed.
On November 11, 1918, at the Retonde station in the Compiegne Forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiegne Armistice. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks and establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; hand over guns and vehicles to the allies and release all prisoners. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the abolition of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties, and the financial provisions provided for the payment of reparations for destruction and the return of valuables. The final terms of the peace treaty with Germany were determined at the Paris Peace Conference at the Palace of Versailles on June 28, 1919.
The First World War, which for the first time in human history covered the territories of two continents (Eurasia and Africa) and vast sea areas, radically redrew the political map of the world and became one of the largest and bloodiest. During the war, 70 million people were mobilized into the ranks of the armies; of these, 9.5 million were killed or died from their wounds, more than 20 million were wounded, and 3.5 million were left crippled. The greatest losses were suffered by Germany, Russia, France and Austria-Hungary (66.6% of all losses). The total cost of the war, including property losses, was variously estimated to range from $208 billion to $359 billion.
The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources
“The times have already passed when other nations divided lands and waters among themselves, and we, the Germans, were content with only the blue sky... We demand a place in the sun for ourselves,” said Chancellor von Bülow. As in the times of the Crusaders or Frederick II, the focus on military force is becoming one of the leading guidelines of Berlin politics. Such aspirations were based on a solid material base. The unification allowed Germany to significantly increase its potential, and rapid economic growth turned it into a powerful industrial power. At the beginning of the 20th century. It has reached second place in the world in terms of industrial production.
The reasons for the brewing world conflict were rooted in the intensification of the struggle between rapidly developing Germany and other powers for sources of raw materials and markets. To achieve world domination, Germany sought to defeat its three most powerful opponents in Europe - England, France and Russia, who united in the face of the emerging threat. Germany's goal was to seize the resources and "living space" of these countries - colonies from England and France and western lands from Russia (Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus). Thus, the most important direction of Berlin’s aggressive strategy remained the “onslaught towards the East”, into the Slavic lands, where the German sword was supposed to win a place for the German plow. In this Germany was supported by its ally Austria-Hungary. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where Austro-German diplomacy managed, on the basis of the division of Ottoman possessions, to split the alliance of Balkan countries and cause a second Balkan war between Bulgaria and the rest of the countries of the region. In June 1914, in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, the Serbian student G. Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Prince Ferdinand. This gave the Viennese authorities a reason to blame Serbia for what they had done and start a war against it, which had the goal of establishing the dominance of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. The aggression destroyed the system of independent Orthodox states created by Russia's centuries-long struggle with the Ottoman Empire. Russia, as the guarantor of Serbian independence, tried to influence the position of the Habsburgs by starting mobilization. This prompted the intervention of William II. He demanded that Nicholas II stop mobilization, and then, interrupting negotiations, declared war on Russia on July 19, 1914.
Two days later, William declared war on France, in whose defense England came out. Türkiye became an ally of Austria-Hungary. She attacked Russia, forcing it to fight on two land fronts (Western and Caucasian). After Turkey entered the war, closing the straits, the Russian Empire found itself virtually isolated from its allies. Thus began the First World War. Unlike other main participants in the global conflict, Russia did not have aggressive plans to fight for resources. Russian state already by the end of the 18th century. achieved its main territorial goals in Europe. It did not need additional lands and resources, and therefore was not interested in war. On the contrary, it was its resources and markets that attracted aggressors. In this global confrontation, Russia, first of all, acted as a force restraining German-Austrian expansionism and Turkish revanchism, which were aimed at seizing its territories. At the same time, the tsarist government tried to use this war to solve its strategic problems. First of all, they were associated with seizing control of the straits and ensuring free access to the Mediterranean. The annexation of Galicia, where Uniate centers hostile to the Russian Orthodox Church were located, was not excluded.
The German attack caught Russia in the process of rearmament, which was scheduled to be completed by 1917. This partly explains the insistence of Wilhelm II in unleashing aggression, the delay of which deprived the Germans of any chance of success. In addition to military-technical weakness, Russia's "Achilles heel" was the insufficient moral preparation of the population. The Russian leadership was poorly aware of the total nature of the future war, in which all types of struggle would be used, including ideological ones. This was of great importance for Russia, since its soldiers could not compensate for the lack of shells and ammunition with a firm and clear belief in the justice of their struggle. For example, the French people lost part of their territories and national wealth in the war with Prussia. Humiliated by defeat, he knew what he was fighting for. For the Russian population, who had not fought with the Germans for a century and a half, the conflict with them was largely unexpected. And not everyone in the highest circles saw the German Empire as a cruel enemy. This was facilitated by: family dynastic ties, similar political systems, long-standing and close relations between the two countries. Germany, for example, was Russia's main foreign trade partner. Contemporaries also drew attention to the weakening sense of patriotism in the educated strata Russian society, who were sometimes brought up in thoughtless nihilism towards their homeland. Thus, in 1912, the philosopher V.V. Rozanov wrote: “The French have “che”re France,” the British have “Old England.” The Germans call it “our old Fritz.” Only those who went through a Russian gymnasium and university have “damned Russia.” A serious strategic miscalculation of the government of Nicholas II was the inability to ensure the unity and cohesion of the nation on the eve of a formidable military conflict. As for Russian society, it, as a rule, did not feel the prospect of a long and grueling struggle with a strong, energetic enemy. Few foresaw the onset of the “terrible years of Russia.” Most hoped for the end of the campaign by December 1914.
1914 Campaign Western Theater
The German plan for a war on two fronts (against Russia and France) was drawn up in 1905 by the Chief of the General Staff A. von Schlieffen. It envisaged holding back the slowly mobilizing Russians with small forces and delivering the main blow in the west against France. After its defeat and capitulation, it was planned to quickly transfer forces to the east and deal with Russia. The Russian plan had two options - offensive and defensive. The first was compiled under the influence of the Allies. It envisaged, even before the completion of mobilization, an offensive on the flanks (against East Prussia and Austrian Galicia) to ensure a central attack on Berlin. Another plan, drawn up in 1910-1912, assumed that the Germans would deliver the main blow in the east. In this case, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland to the defensive line of Vilno-Bialystok-Brest-Rovno. Ultimately, events began to develop according to the first option. Having started the war, Germany unleashed all its power on France. Despite the lack of reserves due to slow mobilization across the vast expanses of Russia, the Russian army, true to its allied obligations, went on the offensive in East Prussia on August 4, 1914. The haste was also explained by persistent requests for help from allied France, which was suffering a strong onslaught from the Germans.
East Prussian operation (1914). On the Russian side, the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 2nd (General Samsonov) armies took part in this operation. The front of their advance was divided by the Masurian lakes. The 1st Army advanced north of the Masurian Lakes, the 2nd Army to the south. In East Prussia, the Russians were opposed by the German 8th Army (generals Prittwitz, then Hindenburg). Already on August 4, the first battle took place near the city of Stallupenen, in which the 3rd Corps of the 1st Russian Army (General Epanchin) fought with the 1st Corps of the 8th German Army (General Francois). The fate of this stubborn battle was decided by the 29th Russian Infantry Division (General Rosenschild-Paulin), which struck the Germans in the flank and forced them to retreat. Meanwhile, General Bulgakov's 25th Division captured Stallupenen. Russian losses amounted to 6.7 thousand people, Germans - 2 thousand. On August 7, German troops fought a new, larger battle for the 1st Army. Using the division of its forces, which were advancing in two directions towards Goldap and Gumbinnen, the Germans tried to break up the 1st Army piecemeal. On the morning of August 7, the German shock force fiercely attacked 5 Russian divisions in the Gumbinnen area, trying to capture them in a pincer movement. The Germans pressed the Russian right flank. But in the center they suffered significant damage from artillery fire and were forced to begin a retreat. The German onslaught at Goldap also ended in failure. The total German losses were about 15 thousand people. The Russians lost 16.5 thousand people. Failures in the battles with the 1st Army, as well as the offensive from the southeast of the 2nd Army, which threatened to cut off Prittwitz’s path to the west, forced the German commander to initially order a withdrawal across the Vistula (this was provided for in the first version of the Schlieffen plan). But this order was never carried out, largely due to the inaction of Rennenkampf. He did not pursue the Germans and stood in place for two days. This allowed the 8th Army to get out of the attack and regroup its forces. Without precise information about the location of Prittwitz's forces, the commander of the 1st Army then moved it to Konigsberg. Meanwhile, the German 8th Army withdrew in a different direction (south from Königsberg).
While Rennenkampf was marching on Konigsberg, the 8th Army, led by General Hindenburg, concentrated all its forces against Samsonov’s army, which did not know about such a maneuver. The Germans, thanks to the interception of radiograms, were aware of all the Russian plans. On August 13, Hindenburg unleashed an unexpected blow on the 2nd Army from almost all of his East Prussian divisions and inflicted a severe defeat on it in 4 days of fighting. Samsonov, having lost control of his troops, shot himself. According to German data, the damage to the 2nd Army amounted to 120 thousand people (including over 90 thousand prisoners). The Germans lost 15 thousand people. They then attacked the 1st Army, which by September 2 withdrew beyond the Neman. The East Prussian operation had dire consequences for the Russians in tactical and especially moral terms. This was their first such major defeat in history in battles with the Germans, who gained a sense of superiority over the enemy. However, won by the Germans tactically, this operation strategically meant for them the failure of the plan for a lightning war. To save East Prussia, they had to transfer considerable forces from the western theater of military operations, where the fate of the entire war was then decided. This saved France from defeat and forced Germany to be drawn into a disastrous struggle on two fronts. The Russians, having replenished their forces with fresh reserves, soon went on the offensive again in East Prussia.
Battle of Galicia (1914). The most ambitious and significant operation for the Russians at the beginning of the war was the battle for Austrian Galicia (August 5 - September 8). It involved 4 armies of the Russian Southwestern Front (under the command of General Ivanov) and 3 Austro-Hungarian armies (under the command of Archduke Friedrich), as well as the German Woyrsch group. The sides had approximately equal numbers of fighters. In total it reached 2 million people. The battle began with the Lublin-Kholm and Galich-Lvov operations. Each of them exceeded the scale of the East Prussian operation. The Lublin-Kholm operation began with a strike by Austro-Hungarian troops on the right flank of the Southwestern Front in the area of Lublin and Kholm. There were: the 4th (General Zankl, then Evert) and 5th (General Plehve) Russian armies. After fierce encounter battles at Krasnik (August 10-12), the Russians were defeated and were pressed to Lublin and Kholm. At the same time, the Galich-Lvov operation took place on the left flank of the Southwestern Front. In it, the left-flank Russian armies - the 3rd (General Ruzsky) and 8th (General Brusilov), repelling the onslaught, went on the offensive. Having won the battle near the Rotten Lipa River (August 16-19), the 3rd Army broke into Lvov, and the 8th captured Galich. This created a threat to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian group advancing in the Kholm-Lublin direction. However, the general situation at the front was developing threateningly for the Russians. The defeat of Samsonov's 2nd Army in East Prussia created a favorable opportunity for the Germans to advance in a southern direction, towards the Austro-Hungarian armies attacking Kholm and Lublin. A possible meeting of German and Austro-Hungarian troops west of Warsaw, in the area of the city of Siedlce, threatened to encircle the Russian armies in Poland.
But despite persistent calls from the Austrian command, General Hindenburg did not attack Sedlec. He focused primarily on clearing East Prussia of the 1st Army and abandoned his allies to their fate. By that time, the Russian troops defending Kholm and Lublin received reinforcements (the 9th Army of General Lechitsky) and launched a counteroffensive on August 22. However, it developed slowly. Holding back the onslaught from the north, the Austrians at the end of August tried to seize the initiative in the Galich-Lvov direction. They attacked Russian troops there, trying to recapture Lvov. In fierce battles near Rava-Russkaya (August 25-26), Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Russian front. But the 8th Army of General Brusilov still managed to last bit of strength close the breakthrough and hold positions west of Lvov. Meanwhile, the Russian onslaught from the north (from the Lublin-Kholm region) intensified. They broke through the front at Tomashov, threatening to encircle the Austro-Hungarian troops at Rava-Russkaya. Fearing the collapse of their front, the Austro-Hungarian armies began a general withdrawal on August 29. Pursuing them, the Russians advanced 200 km. They occupied Galicia and blocked the Przemysl fortress. Austro-Hungarian troops lost 325 thousand people in the Battle of Galicia. (including 100 thousand prisoners), Russians - 230 thousand people. This battle undermined the forces of Austria-Hungary, giving the Russians a sense of superiority over the enemy. Subsequently, if Austria-Hungary achieved success on the Russian front, it was only with the strong support of the Germans.
Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (1914). Victory in Galicia opened the way for Russian troops to Upper Silesia (the most important industrial region of Germany). This forced the Germans to help their allies. To prevent a Russian offensive to the west, Hindenburg transferred four corps of the 8th Army (including those arriving from the western front) to the Warta River area. Of these, the 9th German Army was formed, which, together with the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), launched an offensive on Warsaw and Ivangorod on September 15, 1914. At the end of September - beginning of October, Austro-German troops (their total number was 310 thousand people) reached the closest approaches to Warsaw and Ivangorod. Fierce battles broke out here, in which the attackers suffered heavy losses (up to 50% of personnel). Meanwhile, the Russian command deployed additional forces to Warsaw and Ivangorod, increasing the number of its troops in this area to 520 thousand people. Fearing the Russian reserves brought into the battle, the Austro-German units began a hasty retreat. The autumn thaw, the destruction of communications routes by the retreating, and poor supply of Russian units did not allow active pursuit. By the beginning of November 1914, the Austro-German troops retreated to their original positions. Failures in Galicia and near Warsaw did not allow the Austro-German bloc to win over the Balkan states to its side in 1914.
First August operation (1914). Two weeks after the defeat in East Prussia, the Russian command again tried to seize the strategic initiative in this area. Having created superiority in forces over the 8th (Generals Schubert, then Eichhorn) German Army, it launched the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 10th (Generals Flug, then Sievers) armies on the offensive. The main blow was dealt in the Augustow Forests (in the area of the Polish city of Augustow), since fighting in forested areas did not allow the Germans to take advantage of their advantages in heavy artillery. By the beginning of October, the 10th Russian Army entered East Prussia, occupied Stallupenen and reached the Gumbinnen-Masurian Lakes line. Fierce fighting broke out at this line, as a result of which the Russian offensive was stopped. Soon the 1st Army was transferred to Poland and the 10th Army had to hold the front in East Prussia alone.
Autumn offensive of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia (1914). Siege and capture of Przemysl by the Russians (1914-1915). Meanwhile, on the southern flank, in Galicia, Russian troops besieged Przemysl in September 1914. This powerful Austrian fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Kusmanek (up to 150 thousand people). For the blockade of Przemysl, a special Siege Army was created, led by General Shcherbachev. On September 24, its units stormed the fortress, but were repulsed. At the end of September, Austro-Hungarian troops, taking advantage of the transfer of part of the forces of the Southwestern Front to Warsaw and Ivangorod, went on the offensive in Galicia and managed to unblock Przemysl. However, in the fierce October battles of Khirov and San, Russian troops in Galicia under the command of General Brusilov stopped the advance of the numerically superior Austro-Hungarian armies, and then threw them back to their original lines. This made it possible to blockade Przemysl for the second time at the end of October 1914. The blockade of the fortress was carried out by the Siege Army of General Selivanov. In the winter of 1915, Austria-Hungary made another powerful but unsuccessful attempt to recapture Przemysl. Then, after a 4-month siege, the garrison tried to break through to its own. But his foray on March 5, 1915 ended in failure. Four days later, on March 9, 1915, Commandant Kusmanek, having exhausted all means of defense, capitulated. 125 thousand people were captured. and more than 1 thousand guns. This was the largest success of the Russians in the 1915 campaign. However, 2.5 months later, on May 21, they left Przemysl in connection with a general retreat from Galicia.
Lodz operation (1914). After the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, the Northwestern Front under the command of General Ruzsky (367 thousand people) formed the so-called. Lodz ledge. From here the Russian command planned to launch an invasion of Germany. The German command knew about the impending attack from intercepted radiograms. In an effort to prevent him, the Germans launched a powerful pre-emptive strike on October 29 with the goal of encircling and destroying the 5th (General Plehwe) and 2nd (General Scheidemann) Russian armies in the Lodz area. The core of the advancing German group with a total number of 280 thousand people. formed part of the 9th Army (General Mackensen). Its main blow fell on the 2nd Army, which, under pressure from superior German forces, retreated, putting up stubborn resistance. The heaviest fighting broke out in early November north of Lodz, where the Germans tried to cover the right flank of the 2nd Army. The culmination of this battle was the breakthrough of General Schaeffer's German corps into the eastern Lodz area on November 5-6, which threatened the 2nd Army with complete encirclement. But units of the 5th Army, which arrived from the south in a timely manner, managed to stop the further advance of the German corps. The Russian command did not begin to withdraw troops from Lodz. On the contrary, it strengthened the “Lodz patch”, and German frontal attacks against it did not bring the desired results. At this time, units of the 1st Army (General Rennenkampf) launched a counterattack from the north and linked up with units of the right flank of the 2nd Army. The gap where Schaeffer's corps had broken through was closed, and he himself found himself surrounded. Although the German corps managed to escape from the bag, the German command's plan to defeat the armies of the Northwestern Front failed. However, the Russian command also had to say goodbye to the plan to attack Berlin. On November 11, 1914, the Lodz operation ended without giving decisive success to either side. Nevertheless, the Russian side still lost strategically. Having repelled the German onslaught with heavy losses (110 thousand people), Russian troops were now unable to really threaten German territory. The Germans suffered 50 thousand casualties.
"The Battle of Four Rivers" (1914). Having failed to achieve success in the Lodz operation, the German command a week later again tried to defeat the Russians in Poland and push them back across the Vistula. Having received 6 fresh divisions from France, German troops with the forces of the 9th Army (General Mackensen) and the Woyrsch group again went on the offensive in the Lodz direction on November 19. After heavy fighting in the area of the Bzura River, the Germans pushed the Russians back beyond Lodz, to the Ravka River. After this, the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), located to the south, went on the offensive, and from December 5, a fierce “battle on four rivers” (Bzura, Ravka, Pilica and Nida) unfolded along the entire line of the Russian front in Poland. Russian troops, alternating defense and counterattacks, repelled the German onslaught on Ravka and drove the Austrians back beyond Nida. The “Battle of Four Rivers” was distinguished by extreme tenacity and significant losses on both sides. The damage to the Russian army amounted to 200 thousand people. Its personnel suffered especially, which directly influenced the sad outcome of the 1915 campaign for the Russians. The losses of the 9th German Army exceeded 100 thousand people.
Campaign of 1914 Caucasian theater of military operations
The Young Turk government in Istanbul (which came to power in Turkey in 1908) did not wait for the gradual weakening of Russia in the confrontation with Germany and already in 1914 entered the war. Turkish troops, without serious preparation, immediately launched a decisive offensive in the Caucasian direction in order to recapture the lands lost during the Russian-Turkish war 1877-1878. The 90,000-strong Turkish army was led by Minister of War Enver Pasha. These troops were opposed by units of the 63,000-strong Caucasian Army under the overall command of the governor in the Caucasus, General Vorontsov-Dashkov (the troops were actually commanded by General A.Z. Myshlaevsky). Central event The Sarykamysh operation became the 1914 campaign in this theater of military operations.
Sarykamysh operation (1914-1915). It took place from December 9, 1914 to January 5, 1915. The Turkish command planned to encircle and destroy the Sarykamysh detachment of the Caucasian Army (General Berkhman), and then capture Kars. Having thrown back the advanced units of the Russians (Olta detachment), the Turks on December 12, in severe frost, reached the approaches to Sarykamysh. There were only a few units here (up to 1 battalion). Led by Colonel of the General Staff Bukretov, who was passing through there, they heroically repelled the first onslaught of an entire Turkish corps. On December 14, reinforcements arrived to the defenders of Sarykamysh, and General Przhevalsky led its defense. Having failed to take Sarykamysh, the Turkish corps in the snowy mountains lost only 10 thousand people due to frostbite. On December 17, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and pushed the Turks back from Sarykamysh. Then Enver Pasha transferred the main attack to Karaudan, which was defended by the units of General Berkhman. But here, too, the furious onslaught of the Turks was repelled. Meanwhile, Russian troops advancing near Sarykamysh completely surrounded the 9th Turkish Corps on December 22. On December 25, General Yudenich became commander of the Caucasian Army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaudan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30-40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was carried out in a 20-degree cold. Enver Pasha's troops lost 78 thousand people killed, frozen, wounded and prisoners. (over 80% of the composition). Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people. (killed, wounded, frostbitten). The victory at Sarykamysh stopped Turkish aggression in Transcaucasia and strengthened the position of the Caucasian Army.
1914 Campaign War at sea
During this period, the main actions took place on the Black Sea, where Turkey began the war by shelling Russian ports (Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia). However, soon the activity of the Turkish fleet (the basis of which was the German battle cruiser Goeben) was suppressed by the Russian fleet.
Battle at Cape Sarych. November 5, 1914 The German battlecruiser Goeben, under the command of Rear Admiral Souchon, attacked a Russian squadron of five battleships at Cape Sarych. In fact, the entire battle came down to an artillery duel between the Goeben and the Russian lead battleship Eustathius. Thanks to the well-aimed fire of Russian artillerymen, the Goeben received 14 accurate hits. A fire broke out on the German cruiser, and Souchon, without waiting for the others to enter the battle Russian ships, gave the order to retreat to Constantinople (there the Goeben was repaired until December, and then, going out to sea, hit a mine and was again undergoing repairs). "Eustathius" received only 4 accurate hits and left the battle without serious damage. The battle at Cape Sarych became a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the Black Sea. Having tested the strength of Russia's Black Sea borders in this battle, the Turkish fleet stopped active operations off the Russian coast. The Russian fleet, on the contrary, gradually seized the initiative in sea communications.
1915 Campaign Western Front
By the beginning of 1915, Russian troops held the front close to the German border and in Austrian Galicia. The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results. Its main result was the collapse of the German Schlieffen plan. “If there had been no casualties on the part of Russia in 1914,” said British Prime Minister Lloyd George a quarter of a century later (in 1939), “then German troops would not only have captured Paris, but their garrisons would still have been in Belgium and France." In 1915, the Russian command planned to continue offensive operations on the flanks. This implied the occupation of East Prussia and an invasion of the Hungarian Plain through the Carpathians. However, the Russians did not have sufficient forces and means for a simultaneous offensive. During active military operations in 1914, the Russian personnel army was killed in the fields of Poland, Galicia and East Prussia. Its decline had to be made up by a reserve, insufficiently trained contingent. “From that time on,” recalled General A.A. Brusilov, “the regular character of the troops was lost, and our army began to look more and more like a poorly trained police force.” Another serious problem was the arms crisis, one way or another characteristic of all warring countries. It turned out that the consumption of ammunition was tens of times higher than calculated. Russia, with its underdeveloped industry, is particularly affected by this problem. Domestic factories could only meet 15-30% of the army's needs. The task of urgently restructuring the entire industry on a war footing became clear. In Russia, this process dragged on until the end of the summer of 1915. The lack of weapons was aggravated by poor supplies. Thus, the Russian armed forces entered the New Year with a shortage of weapons and personnel. This had a fatal impact on the 1915 campaign. The results of the battles in the east forced the Germans to radically reconsider the Schlieffen plan.
The German leadership now considered Russia to be its main rival. Its troops were 1.5 times closer to Berlin than the French army. At the same time, they threatened to enter the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. Fearing a protracted war on two fronts, the Germans decided to throw their main forces to the east to finish off Russia. In addition to the personnel and material weakening of the Russian army, this task was made easier by the ability to wage a maneuver war in the east (in the west by that time a continuous positional front had already emerged with a powerful system of fortifications, the breakthrough of which cost enormous casualties). In addition, the capture of the Polish industrial region gave Germany an additional source of resources. After an unsuccessful frontal attack in Poland, the German command switched to a plan of flank attacks. It consisted of deep envelopment from the north (from East Prussia) of the right flank of Russian troops in Poland. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked from the south (from the Carpathian region). The ultimate goal of these “strategic Cannes” was to be the encirclement of the Russian armies in the “Polish pocket”.
Battle of the Carpathians (1915). It became the first attempt by both sides to implement their strategic plans. The troops of the Southwestern Front (General Ivanov) tried to break through the Carpathian passes to the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. In turn, the Austro-German command also had offensive plans in the Carpathians. It set the task of breaking through from here to Przemysl and driving the Russians out of Galicia. In a strategic sense, the breakthrough of Austro-German troops in the Carpathians, together with the onslaught of the Germans from East Prussia, was aimed at encircling Russian troops in Poland. The Battle of the Carpathians began on January 7 with an almost simultaneous offensive by the Austro-German armies and the Russian 8th Army (General Brusilov). A counter-battle took place, called the “rubber war.” Both sides pressing on each other had to either go deeper into the Carpathians or retreat back. The fighting in the snowy mountains was characterized by great tenacity. The Austro-German troops managed to push back the left flank of the 8th Army, but they were never able to break through to Przemysl. Having received reinforcements, Brusilov repelled their advance. “As I toured the troops in the mountain positions,” he recalled, “I bowed to these heroes who steadfastly endured the terrifying burden of a mountainous winter war with insufficient weapons, facing three times the strongest enemy.” Only the 7th Austrian Army (General Pflanzer-Baltin), which took Chernivtsi, was able to achieve partial success. At the beginning of March 1915, the Southwestern Front launched a general offensive in the conditions of the spring thaw. Climbing the Carpathian steeps and overcoming fierce enemy resistance, Russian troops advanced 20-25 km and captured part of the passes. To repel their onslaught, the German command transferred new forces to this area. The Russian Headquarters, due to heavy battles in the East Prussian direction, could not provide the Southwestern Front with the necessary reserves. Bloody frontal battles in the Carpathians continued until April. They cost enormous sacrifices, but did not bring decisive success to either side. The Russians lost about 1 million people in the Battle of the Carpathians, the Austrians and Germans - 800 thousand people.
Second August operation (1915). Soon after the start of the Carpathian Battle, fierce fighting broke out on the northern flank of the Russian-German front. On January 25, 1915, the 8th (General von Below) and 10th (General Eichhorn) German armies went on the offensive from East Prussia. Their main blow fell in the area of the Polish city of Augustow, where the 10th Russian Army (General Sivere) was located. Having created numerical superiority in this direction, the Germans attacked the flanks of Sievers’ army and tried to encircle it. The second stage provided for a breakthrough of the entire North-Western Front. But due to the tenacity of the soldiers of the 10th Army, the Germans failed to completely capture it in pincers. Only the 20th Corps of General Bulgakov was surrounded. For 10 days, he valiantly repelled attacks by German units in the snowy Augustow forests, preventing them from conducting a further offensive. Having used up all the ammunition, the remnants of the corps in a desperate impulse attacked the German positions in the hope of breaking through to their own. Having overthrown the German infantry in hand-to-hand combat, the Russian soldiers died heroically under the fire of German guns. “The attempt to break through was complete madness. But this holy madness is heroism, which showed the Russian warrior in his full light, which we know from the time of Skobelev, the times of the storming of Plevna, the battle in the Caucasus and the storming of Warsaw! The Russian soldier knows how to fight very well, he endures all kinds of hardships and is able to be persistent, even if certain death is inevitable!”, wrote the German war correspondent R. Brandt in those days. Thanks to this courageous resistance, the 10th Army was able to withdraw most of its forces from attack by mid-February and took up defensive positions on the Kovno-Osovets line. The Northwestern Front held out and then managed to partially restore its lost positions.
Prasnysh operation (1915). Almost simultaneously, fighting broke out on another section of the East Prussian border, where the 12th Russian Army (General Plehve) was stationed. On February 7, in the Prasnysz area (Poland), it was attacked by units of the 8th German Army (General von Below). The city was defended by a detachment under the command of Colonel Barybin, who for several days heroically repelled the attacks of superior German forces. February 11, 1915 Prasnysh fell. But its staunch defense gave the Russians time to bring up the necessary reserves, which were being prepared in accordance with the Russian plan for a winter offensive in East Prussia. On February 12, General Pleshkov’s 1st Siberian Corps approached Prasnysh and immediately attacked the Germans. In a two-day winter battle, the Siberians completely defeated the German formations and drove them out of the city. Soon, the entire 12th Army, replenished with reserves, went on a general offensive, which, after stubborn fighting, drove the Germans back to the borders of East Prussia. Meanwhile, the 10th Army also went on the offensive and cleared the Augustow Forests of the Germans. The front was restored, but the Russian troops could not achieve more. The Germans lost about 40 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - about 100 thousand people. Encounter battles along the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians depleted the reserves of the Russian army on the eve of a formidable blow, which the Austro-German command was already preparing for it.
Gorlitsky breakthrough (1915). The beginning of the Great Retreat. Having failed to push back Russian troops at the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians, the German command decided to implement the third breakthrough option. It was supposed to be carried out between the Vistula and the Carpathians, in the Gorlice region. By that time, over half of the armed forces of the Austro-German bloc were concentrated against Russia. On the 35-kilometer section of the breakthrough at Gorlice, a strike group under the command of General Mackensen. It was superior to the 3rd Russian Army stationed in this area (General Radko-Dmitriev): in manpower - 2 times, in light artillery - 3 times, in heavy artillery - 40 times, in machine guns - 2.5 times. On April 19, 1915, Mackensen’s group (126 thousand people) went on the offensive. The Russian command, knowing about the build-up of forces in this area, did not provide a timely counterattack. Large reinforcements were sent here late, were brought into battle piecemeal and quickly died in battles with superior enemy forces. The Gorlitsky breakthrough clearly revealed the problem of shortage of ammunition, especially shells. The overwhelming superiority in heavy artillery was one of the main reasons for this, the largest German success on the Russian front. “Eleven days of the terrible roar of German heavy artillery, literally tearing down entire rows of trenches along with their defenders,” recalled General A.I. Denikin, a participant in those events. “We almost didn’t respond - we had nothing. The regiments, exhausted to the last degree, repelled one attack after the other - with bayonets or point-blank shooting, blood flowed, the ranks thinned, grave mounds grew... Two regiments were almost destroyed by one fire.”
The Gorlitsky breakthrough created a threat of encirclement of Russian troops in the Carpathians, the troops of the Southwestern Front began a widespread withdrawal. By June 22, having lost 500 thousand people, they left all of Galicia. Thanks to the courageous resistance of Russian soldiers and officers, Mackensen’s group was not able to quickly enter the operational space. In general, its offensive was reduced to “pushing through” the Russian front. It was seriously pushed back to the east, but not defeated. Nevertheless, the Gorlitsky breakthrough and the German offensive from East Prussia created a threat of encirclement of the Russian armies in Poland. The so-called The Great Retreat, during which Russian troops left Galicia, Lithuania, and Poland in the spring and summer of 1915. Russia's allies, meanwhile, were busy strengthening their defenses and did almost nothing to seriously distract the Germans from the offensive in the East. The Union leadership used the respite given to it to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. “We,” Lloyd George later admitted, “left Russia to its fate.”
Battles of Prasnysh and Narev (1915). After the successful completion of the Gorlitsky breakthrough, the German command began to carry out the second act of its “strategic Cannes” and struck from the north, from East Prussia, against the positions of the North-Western Front (General Alekseev). On June 30, 1915, the 12th German Army (General Galwitz) went on the offensive in the Prasnysh area. She was opposed here by the 1st (General Litvinov) and 12th (General Churin) Russian armies. German troops had superiority in the number of personnel (177 thousand versus 141 thousand people) and weapons. The superiority in artillery was especially significant (1256 versus 377 guns). After hurricane fire and a powerful onslaught, German units captured the main defense line. But they failed to achieve the expected breakthrough of the front line, much less the defeat of the 1st and 12th armies. The Russians stubbornly defended themselves everywhere, launching counterattacks in threatened areas. In 6 days of continuous fighting, Galwitz's soldiers were able to advance 30-35 km. Without even reaching the Narew River, the Germans stopped their offensive. The German command began regrouping forces and pulling up reserves for a new attack. In the Battle of Prasnysh, the Russians lost about 40 thousand people, the Germans - about 10 thousand people. The tenacity of the soldiers of the 1st and 12th armies thwarted the German plan to encircle Russian troops in Poland. But the danger looming from the north over the Warsaw region forced the Russian command to begin withdrawing its armies beyond the Vistula.
Having brought up their reserves, the Germans went on the offensive again on July 10. The 12th (General Galwitz) and 8th (General Scholz) German armies took part in the operation. The German onslaught on the 140-kilometer Narev front was held back by the same 1st and 12th armies. Having an almost double superiority in manpower and a fivefold superiority in artillery, the Germans persistently tried to break through the Narew line. They managed to cross the river in several places, but the Russians, with fierce counterattacks, did not give the German units the opportunity to expand their bridgeheads until the beginning of August. A particularly important role was played by the defense of the Osovets fortress, which covered the right flank of the Russian troops in these battles. The resilience of its defenders did not allow the Germans to reach the rear of the Russian armies defending Warsaw. Meanwhile, Russian troops were able to evacuate from the Warsaw area without hindrance. The Russians lost 150 thousand people in the Battle of Narevo. The Germans also suffered considerable losses. After the July battles, they were unable to continue an active offensive. The heroic resistance of the Russian armies in the battles of Prasnysh and Narew saved Russian troops in Poland from encirclement and, to a certain extent, decided the outcome of the 1915 campaign.
Battle of Vilna (1915). The end of the Great Retreat. In August, the commander of the Northwestern Front, General Mikhail Alekseev, planned to launch a flank counterattack against the advancing German armies from the Kovno region (now Kaunas). But the Germans forestalled this maneuver and at the end of July they themselves attacked the Kovno positions with the forces of the 10th German Army (General von Eichhorn). After several days of assault, the commandant of Kovno Grigoriev showed cowardice and on August 5 surrendered the fortress to the Germans (for this he was later sentenced to 15 years in prison). The fall of Kovno worsened the strategic situation in Lithuania for the Russians and led to the withdrawal of the right wing of the North-Western Front troops beyond the Lower Neman. Having captured Kovno, the Germans tried to encircle the 10th Russian Army (General Radkevich). But in the stubborn oncoming August battles near Vilna, the German offensive stalled. Then the Germans concentrated a powerful group in the Sventsyan area (north of Vilno) and on August 27 launched an attack on Molodechno from there, trying to reach the rear of the 10th Army from the north and capture Minsk. Due to the threat of encirclement, the Russians had to leave Vilno. However, the Germans failed to develop their success. Their path was blocked by the timely arrival of the 2nd Army (General Smirnov), which had the honor of finally stopping the German offensive. Decisively attacking the Germans at Molodechno, she defeated them and forced them to retreat back to Sventsyany. By September 19, the Sventsyansky breakthrough was eliminated, and the front in this area stabilized. The Battle of Vilna ends, in general, the Great Retreat of the Russian army. Having exhausted their offensive forces, the Germans switched to positional defense in the east. The German plan to defeat Russia's armed forces and exit the war failed. Thanks to the courage of its soldiers and the skillful withdrawal of troops, the Russian army avoided encirclement. “The Russians broke out of the pincers and achieved a frontal retreat in a direction favorable to them,” the Chief of the German General Staff, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, was forced to state. The front has stabilized on the line Riga - Baranovichi - Ternopil. Three fronts were created here: Northern, Western and Southwestern. From here the Russians did not retreat until the fall of the monarchy. During the Great Retreat, Russia suffered the largest losses of the war - 2.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage to Germany and Austria-Hungary exceeded 1 million people. The retreat intensified the political crisis in Russia.
Campaign 1915 Caucasian theater of military operations
The beginning of the Great Retreat seriously influenced the development of events on the Russian-Turkish front. Partly for this reason, the grandiose Russian landing operation on the Bosporus, which was planned to support the Allied forces landing at Gallipoli, was disrupted. Under the influence of the German successes, Turkish troops became more active on the Caucasian front.
Alashkert operation (1915). On June 26, 1915, in the area of Alashkert (Eastern Turkey), the 3rd Turkish Army (Mahmud Kiamil Pasha) went on the offensive. Under the onslaught of superior Turkish forces, the 4th Caucasian Corps (General Oganovsky) defending this area began to retreat to the Russian border. This created the threat of a breakthrough of the entire Russian front. Then the energetic commander of the Caucasian Army, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, brought into battle a detachment under the command of General Nikolai Baratov, which dealt a decisive blow to the flank and rear of the advancing Turkish group. Fearing encirclement, units of Mahmud Kiamil began to retreat to Lake Van, near which the front stabilized on July 21. The Alashkert operation destroyed Turkey's hopes of seizing the strategic initiative in the Caucasus theater of military operations.
Hamadan Operation (1915). From October 17 to December 3, 1915, Russian troops took offensive actions in Northern Iran to suppress the possible intervention of this state on the side of Turkey and Germany. This was facilitated by the German-Turkish residency, which became more active in Tehran after the failures of the British and French in the Dardanelles operation, as well as the Great Retreat of the Russian army. The introduction of Russian troops into Iran was also sought by the British allies, who thereby sought to strengthen the security of their possessions in Hindustan. In October 1915, the corps of General Nikolai Baratov (8 thousand people) was sent to Iran, which occupied Tehran. Advancing to Hamadan, the Russians defeated Turkish-Persian troops (8 thousand people) and eliminated German-Turkish agents in the country . This created a reliable barrier against German-Turkish influence in Iran and Afghanistan, and also eliminated a possible threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army.
1915 Campaign War at sea
Military operations at sea in 1915 were, on the whole, successful for the Russian fleet. Among the largest battles of the 1915 campaign, one can highlight the campaign of the Russian squadron to the Bosphorus (Black Sea). Gotlan battle and Irben operation (Baltic Sea).
March to the Bosphorus (1915). A squadron of the Black Sea Fleet, consisting of 5 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 1 air transport with 5 seaplanes, took part in the campaign to the Bosphorus, which took place on May 1-6, 1915. On May 2-3, the battleships "Three Saints" and "Panteleimon", having entered the Bosphorus Strait area, fired at its coastal fortifications. On May 4, the battleship Rostislav opened fire on the fortified area of Iniada (northwest of the Bosphorus), which was attacked from the air by seaplanes. The apotheosis of the campaign to the Bosphorus was the battle on May 5 at the entrance to the strait between the flagship of the German-Turkish fleet on the Black Sea - the battle cruiser Goeben - and four Russian battleships. In this skirmish, as in the battle at Cape Sarych (1914), the battleship Eustathius distinguished itself, which disabled the Goeben with two accurate hits. The German-Turkish flagship ceased fire and left the battle. This campaign to the Bosphorus strengthened the superiority of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea communications. Subsequently, the greatest danger to the Black Sea Fleet was the Germans. submarines. Their activity did not allow Russian ships to appear off the Turkish coast until the end of September. With the entry of Bulgaria into the war, the zone of operation of the Black Sea Fleet expanded, covering a new large area in the western part of the sea.
Gotland Fight (1915). This naval battle took place on June 19, 1915 in the Baltic Sea near the Swedish island of Gotland between the 1st brigade of Russian cruisers (5 cruisers, 9 destroyers) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev and a detachment of German ships (3 cruisers, 7 destroyers and 1 minelayer ). The battle was in the nature of an artillery duel. During the firefight, the Germans lost the Albatross minelayer. He was severely damaged and, engulfed in flames, washed up on the Swedish coast. There his team was interned. Then a cruising battle took place. Participating in it were: from the German side the cruisers "Roon" and "Lübeck", from the Russian side - the cruisers "Bayan", "Oleg" and "Rurik". Having received damage, the German ships ceased fire and left the battle. The Gotlad battle is significant because for the first time in the Russian fleet, radio reconnaissance data was used to fire.
Irben operation (1915). During the offensive of the German ground forces in the Riga direction, the German squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt (7 battleships, 6 cruisers and 62 other ships) tried at the end of July to break through the Irbene Strait into the Gulf of Riga to destroy Russian ships in the area and blockade Riga at sea . Here the Germans were opposed by ships of the Baltic Fleet led by Rear Admiral Bakhirev (1 battleship and 40 other ships). Despite the significant superiority in forces, the German fleet was unable to complete the assigned task due to minefields and successful actions of Russian ships. During the operation (July 26 - August 8), he lost 5 ships (2 destroyers, 3 minesweepers) in fierce battles and was forced to retreat. The Russians lost two old gunboats (Sivuch and Koreets). Having failed in the Battle of Gotland and the Irben operation, the Germans were unable to achieve superiority in the eastern part of the Baltic and switched to defensive actions. Subsequently, serious activity of the German fleet became possible only here thanks to the victories of the ground forces.
1916 Campaign Western Front
Military failures forced the government and society to mobilize resources to repel the enemy. Thus, in 1915, the contribution to defense of private industry, whose activities were coordinated by military-industrial committees (MIC), expanded. Thanks to the mobilization of industry, the supply of the front improved by 1916. Thus, from January 1915 to January 1916, the production of rifles in Russia increased 3 times, various types of guns - 4-8 times, various types of ammunition - 2.5-5 times. Despite the losses, the Russian armed forces in 1915 grew due to additional mobilizations by 1.4 million people. The plan of the German command for 1916 provided for a transition to positional defense in the East, where the Germans created a powerful system of defensive structures. The Germans planned to deliver the main blow to the French army in the Verdun area. In February 1916, the famous “Verdun meat grinder” began, forcing France to once again turn to its eastern ally for help.
Naroch operation (1916). In response to persistent requests for help from France, the Russian command carried out an offensive on March 5-17, 1916 with troops from the Western (General Evert) and Northern (General Kuropatkin) fronts in the area of Lake Naroch (Belarus) and Jacobstadt (Latvia). Here they were opposed by units of the 8th and 10th German armies. The Russian command set the goal of driving the Germans out of Lithuania and Belarus and throwing them back to the borders of East Prussia. But the preparation time for the offensive had to be sharply reduced due to requests from the Allies to speed it up due to their difficult situation at Verdun. As a result, the operation was carried out without proper preparation. The main blow in the Naroch area was delivered by the 2nd Army (General Ragosa). For 10 days she unsuccessfully tried to break through the powerful German fortifications. The lack of heavy artillery and the spring thaw contributed to the failure. The Naroch massacre cost the Russians 20 thousand killed and 65 thousand wounded. The offensive of the 5th Army (General Gurko) from the Jacobstadt area on March 8-12 also ended in failure. Here, Russian losses amounted to 60 thousand people. The total damage to the Germans was 20 thousand people. The Naroch operation benefited, first of all, Russia's allies, since the Germans were unable to transfer a single division from the east to Verdun. “The Russian offensive,” wrote the French general Joffre, “forced the Germans, who had only insignificant reserves, to bring all these reserves into action and, in addition, to attract stage troops and transfer entire divisions removed from other sectors.” On the other hand, the defeat at Naroch and Jacobstadt had a demoralizing effect on the troops of the Northern and Western Fronts. They were never able, unlike the troops of the Southwestern Front, to conduct successful offensive operations in 1916.
Brusilov breakthrough and offensive at Baranovichi (1916). On May 22, 1916, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front (573 thousand people), led by General Alexey Alekseevich Brusilov, began. The Austro-German armies opposing him at that time numbered 448 thousand people. The breakthrough was carried out by all armies of the front, which made it difficult for the enemy to transfer reserves. At the same time, Brusilov used a new tactic of parallel strikes. It consisted of alternating active and passive sections of the breakthrough. This disorganized the Austro-German troops and did not allow them to concentrate forces on the threatened areas. The Brusilov breakthrough was distinguished by careful preparation (including training on exact models of enemy positions) and an increased supply of weapons to the Russian army. So, there was even a special inscription on the charging boxes: “Don’t spare shells!” Artillery preparation in various areas lasted from 6 to 45 hours. According to the figurative expression of the historian N.N. Yakovlev, on the day the breakthrough began, “Austrian troops did not see the sunrise. Instead of serene sunrays, death came from the east - thousands of shells turned the inhabited, heavily fortified positions into hell.” It was in this famous breakthrough that the Russian troops were able to achieve the greatest degree of coordinated action between infantry and artillery.
Under the cover of artillery fire, the Russian infantry marched in waves (3-4 chains in each). The first wave, without stopping, passed the front line and immediately attacked the second line of defense. The third and fourth waves rolled over the first two and attacked the third and fourth lines of defense. This Brusilov method of “rolling attack” was then used by the Allies to break through German fortifications in France. According to the original plan, the Southwestern Front was supposed to deliver only an auxiliary strike. The main offensive was planned in the summer on the Western Front (General Evert), to which the main reserves were intended. But the entire offensive of the Western Front came down to a week-long battle (June 19-25) in one sector near Baranovichi, which was defended by the Austro-German group Woyrsch. Having gone on the attack after many hours of artillery bombardment, the Russians managed to move forward somewhat. But they failed to completely break through the powerful defense in depth (there were up to 50 rows of electrified wire at the front line alone). After bloody battles that cost the Russian troops 80 thousand people. losses, Evert stopped the offensive. The damage of Woyrsch's group amounted to 13 thousand people. Brusilov did not have sufficient reserves to successfully continue the offensive.
The headquarters was unable to shift the task of delivering the main attack to the Southwestern Front in time, and it began to receive reinforcements only in the second half of June. The Austro-German command took advantage of this. On June 17, the Germans, with the forces of the created group of General Liesingen, launched a counterattack in the Kovel area against the 8th Army (General Kaledin) of the Southwestern Front. But she repelled the onslaught and on June 22, together with the 3rd Army that finally received reinforcements, launched a new offensive on Kovel. In July, the main battles took place in the Kovel direction. Brusilov's attempts to take Kovel (the most important transport hub) were unsuccessful. During this period, other fronts (Western and Northern) froze in place and did not provide Brusilov with virtually any support. The Germans and Austrians transferred reinforcements here from other European fronts (over 30 divisions) and managed to close the gaps that had formed. By the end of July, the forward movement of the Southwestern Front was stopped.
During the Brusilov breakthrough, Russian troops broke through the Austro-German defenses along its entire length from the Pripyat marshes to the Romanian border and advanced 60-150 km. The losses of the Austro-German troops during this period amounted to 1.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The Russians lost 0.5 million people. To hold the front in the East, the Germans and Austrians were forced to weaken the pressure on France and Italy. Influenced by the successes of the Russian army, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente countries. In August - September, having received new reinforcements, Brusilov continued the onslaught. But he did not have the same success. On the left flank of the Southwestern Front, the Russians managed to somewhat push back the Austro-German units in the Carpathian region. But persistent attacks in the Kovel direction, which lasted until the beginning of October, ended in vain. The Austro-German units, strengthened by that time, repelled the Russian onslaught. In general, despite the tactical success, the offensive operations of the Southwestern Front (from May to October) did not bring a turning point in the course of the war. They cost Russia enormous casualties (about 1 million people), which became more and more difficult to restore.
Campaign of 1916 Caucasian theater of military operations
At the end of 1915, clouds began to gather over the Caucasian front. After the victory in the Dardanelles operation, the Turkish command planned to transfer the most combat-ready units from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front. But Yudenich got ahead of this maneuver by conducting the Erzurum and Trebizond operations. In them, Russian troops achieved their greatest success in the Caucasian theater of military operations.
Erzurum and Trebizond operations (1916). The goal of these operations was to capture the fortress of Erzurum and the port of Trebizond - the main bases of the Turks for operations against the Russian Transcaucasus. In this direction, the 3rd Turkish Army of Mahmud-Kiamil Pasha (about 60 thousand people) operated against the Caucasian Army of General Yudenich (103 thousand people). On December 28, 1915, the 2nd Turkestan (General Przhevalsky) and 1st Caucasian (General Kalitin) corps went on the offensive on Erzurum. The offensive took place in the snow-capped mountains at strong wind and frost. But despite the difficult natural and climatic conditions, the Russians broke through the Turkish front and on January 8 reached the approaches to Erzurum. The assault on this heavily fortified Turkish fortress in conditions of severe cold and snow drifts, in the absence of siege artillery, was fraught with great risk. But Yudenich still decided to continue the operation, taking full responsibility for its implementation. On the evening of January 29, an unprecedented assault on the Erzurum positions began. After five days of fierce fighting, the Russians broke into Erzurum and then began pursuing the Turkish troops. It lasted until February 18 and ended 70-100 km west of Erzurum. During the operation, Russian troops advanced from their borders deeper into Turkish territory by more than 150 km. In addition to the courage of the troops, the success of the operation was also ensured by reliable material preparation. The warriors had warm clothes, winter shoes and even dark glasses to protect their eyes from the blinding glare of the mountain snow. Each soldier also had firewood for heating.
Russian losses amounted to 17 thousand people. (including 6 thousand frostbitten). The damage to the Turks exceeded 65 thousand people. (including 13 thousand prisoners). On January 23, the Trebizond operation began, which was carried out by the forces of the Primorsky detachment (General Lyakhov) and the Batumi detachment of ships of the Black Sea Fleet (Captain 1st Rank Rimsky-Korsakov). The sailors supported the ground forces with artillery fire, landings and the supply of reinforcements. After stubborn fighting, the Primorsky detachment (15 thousand people) reached the fortified Turkish position on the Kara-Dere River on April 1, which covered the approaches to Trebizond. Here the attackers received reinforcements by sea (two Plastun brigades numbering 18 thousand people), after which they began the assault on Trebizond. The first to cross the stormy cold river on April 2 were the soldiers of the 19th Turkestan Regiment under the command of Colonel Litvinov. Supported by the fire of the fleet, they swam to the left bank and drove the Turks out of the trenches. On April 5, Russian troops entered Trebizond, abandoned by the Turkish army, and then advanced west to Polathane. With the capture of Trebizond, the basing of the Black Sea Fleet improved, and the right flank of the Caucasian Army was able to freely receive reinforcements by sea. The Russian capture of Eastern Turkey was of great political significance. He seriously strengthened Russia's position in future negotiations with the allies regarding the future fate of Constantinople and the straits.
Kerind-Kasreshiri operation (1916). Following the capture of Trebizond, the 1st Caucasian Separate Corps of General Baratov (20 thousand people) carried out a campaign from Iran to Mesopotamia. He was supposed to provide assistance to the English detachment surrounded by the Turks in Kut el-Amar (Iraq). The campaign took place from April 5 to May 9, 1916. Baratov’s corps occupied Kerind, Kasre-Shirin, Hanekin and entered Mesopotamia. However, this difficult and dangerous campaign through the desert lost its meaning, since on April 13 the English garrison in Kut el-Amar capitulated. After the capture of Kut el-Amara, the command of the 6th Turkish Army (Khalil Pasha) sent its main forces to Mesopotamia against the Russian corps, which was greatly thinned out (from heat and disease). At Haneken (150 km northeast of Baghdad), Baratov had an unsuccessful battle with the Turks, after which the Russian corps abandoned the occupied cities and retreated to Hamadan. Eastern of this Iranian city, the Turkish offensive was stopped.
Erzrincan and Ognot operations (1916). In the summer of 1916, the Turkish command, having transferred up to 10 divisions from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front, decided to take revenge for Erzurum and Trebizond. The first to go on the offensive from the Erzincan area on June 13 was the 3rd Turkish Army under the command of Vehib Pasha (150 thousand people). The hottest battles broke out in the Trebizond direction, where the 19th Turkestan Regiment was stationed. With his steadfastness he managed to hold back the first Turkish onslaught and gave Yudenich the opportunity to regroup his forces. On June 23, Yudenich launched a counterattack in the Mamakhatun area (west of Erzurum) with the forces of the 1st Caucasian Corps (General Kalitin). In four days of fighting, the Russians captured Mamakhatun, and then launched a general counteroffensive. It ended on July 10 with the capture of Erzincan station. After this battle, the 3rd Turkish Army suffered huge losses (over 100 thousand people) and stopped active operations against the Russians. Having been defeated near Erzincan, the Turkish command entrusted the task of returning Erzurum to the newly formed 2nd Army under the command of Ahmet Izet Pasha (120 thousand people). On July 21, 1916, it went on the offensive in the Erzurum direction and pushed back the 4th Caucasian Corps (General de Witt). This created a threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army. In response, Yudenich launched a counterattack on the Turks at Ognot with the forces of General Vorobyov’s group. In stubborn oncoming battles in the Ognotic direction, which lasted throughout August, Russian troops thwarted the offensive of the Turkish army and forced it to go on the defensive. Turkish losses amounted to 56 thousand people. The Russians lost 20 thousand people. So, the attempt of the Turkish command to seize the strategic initiative on the Caucasian front failed. During two operations, the 2nd and 3rd Turkish armies suffered irreparable losses and ceased active operations against the Russians. The Ognot operation was the last major battle Russian Caucasian Army in the First World War.
1916 Campaign War at sea
In the Baltic Sea, the Russian fleet supported the right flank of the 12th Army defending Riga with fire, and also sank German merchant ships and their convoys. Russian submarines also did this quite successfully. One of the retaliatory actions of the German fleet is its shelling of the Baltic port (Estonia). This raid, based on insufficient understanding of Russian defenses, ended in disaster for the Germans. During the operation on Russian minefields, 7 of the 11 German destroyers participating in the campaign were blown up and sank. None of the fleets knew such a case during the entire war. On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet actively contributed to the offensive of the coastal flank of the Caucasian Front, participating in the transportation of troops, landing troops and fire support for the advancing units. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet continued to blockade the Bosporus and other strategically important places on the Turkish coast (in particular, the Zonguldak coal region), and also attacked the enemy’s sea communications. As before, German submarines were active in the Black Sea, causing significant damage to Russian transport ships. To combat them, new weapons were invented: diving shells, hydrostatic depth charges, anti-submarine mines.
1917 campaign
By the end of 1916, Russia's strategic position, despite the occupation of part of its territories, remained quite stable. Its army held its position firmly and carried out a number of offensive operations. For example, France had a higher percentage of occupied lands than Russia. If the Germans were more than 500 km from St. Petersburg, then from Paris they were only 120 km. However, the internal situation in the country has seriously deteriorated. Grain collection decreased by 1.5 times, prices rose, and transport went wrong. An unprecedented number of men were drafted into the army - 15 million people, and the national economy lost a huge number of workers. The scale of human losses also changed. On average, every month the country lost as many soldiers at the front as in entire years of previous wars. All this required unprecedented effort from the people. However, not all society bore the burden of war. For certain strata, military difficulties became a source of enrichment. For example, huge profits came from placing military orders at private factories. The source of income growth was the deficit, which allowed prices to inflate. Evasion from the front by joining rear organizations was widely practiced. In general, the problems of the rear, its correct and comprehensive organization, turned out to be one of the most vulnerable places in Russia in the First World War. All this created an increase in social tension. After the failure of the German plan to end the war at lightning speed, the First World War became a war of attrition. In this struggle, the Entente countries had a total advantage in the number of armed forces and economic potential. But the use of these advantages depended to a large extent on the mood of the nation and strong and skillful leadership.
IN in this regard Russia was the most vulnerable. Nowhere has such an irresponsible split at the top of society been observed. Representatives of the State Duma, aristocracy, generals, left parties, liberal intelligentsia and associated bourgeoisie circles expressed the opinion that Tsar Nicholas II was unable to bring the matter to a victorious conclusion. The growth of opposition sentiments was partly determined by the connivance of the authorities themselves, who failed to restore proper order in the rear during wartime. Ultimately, all this led to the February Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. After the abdication of Nicholas II (March 2, 1917), the Provisional Government came to power. But its representatives, powerful in criticizing the tsarist regime, turned out to be helpless in governing the country. A dual power arose in the country between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies. This led to further destabilization. There was a struggle for power at the top. The army, which became hostage to this struggle, began to fall apart. The first impetus for the collapse was given by the famous Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet, which deprived officers of disciplinary power over soldiers. As a result, discipline fell in the units and desertion increased. Anti-war propaganda intensified in the trenches. The officers suffered greatly, becoming the first victims of soldiers' discontent. The purge of the senior command staff was carried out by the Provisional Government itself, which did not trust the military. Under these conditions, the army increasingly lost its combat effectiveness. But the Provisional Government, under pressure from the allies, continued the war, hoping to strengthen its position with successes at the front. Such an attempt was the June Offensive, organized by Minister of War Alexander Kerensky.
June Offensive (1917). The main blow was delivered by the troops of the Southwestern Front (General Gutor) in Galicia. The offensive was poorly prepared. To a large extent, it was of a propaganda nature and was intended to raise the prestige of the new government. At first, the Russians enjoyed success, which was especially noticeable in the sector of the 8th Army (General Kornilov). It broke through the front and advanced 50 km, occupying the cities of Galich and Kalush. But the troops of the Southwestern Front could not achieve more. Their pressure quickly wilted under the influence of anti-war propaganda and the increased resistance of the Austro-German troops. At the beginning of July 1917, the Austro-German command transferred 16 new divisions to Galicia and launched a powerful counterattack. As a result, the troops of the Southwestern Front were defeated and were thrown back significantly east of their original lines, to the state border. The offensive actions in July 1917 of the Romanian (General Shcherbachev) and Northern (General Klembovsky) Russian fronts were also associated with the June offensive. The offensive in Romania, near Maresti, developed successfully, but was stopped by order of Kerensky under the influence of defeats in Galicia. The offensive of the Northern Front at Jacobstadt completely failed. The total loss of Russians during this period amounted to 150 thousand people. Political events that had a disintegrating effect on the troops played a significant role in their failure. “These were no longer the old Russians,” German General Ludendorff recalled about those battles. The defeats of the summer of 1917 intensified the crisis of power and aggravated the internal political situation in the country.
Riga operation (1917). After the defeat of the Russians in June - July, the Germans, on August 19-24, 1917, carried out an offensive operation with the forces of the 8th Army (General Goutier) to capture Riga. The Riga direction was defended by the 12th Russian Army (General Parsky). On August 19, German troops went on the offensive. By noon they crossed the Dvina, threatening to go to the rear of the units defending Riga. Under these conditions, Parsky ordered the evacuation of Riga. On August 21, the Germans entered the city, where German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrived specially on the occasion of this celebration. After the capture of Riga, German troops soon stopped the offensive. Russian losses in the Riga operation amounted to 18 thousand people. (of which 8 thousand were prisoners). German damage - 4 thousand people. The defeat near Riga caused an aggravation of the internal political crisis in the country.
Moonsund operation (1917). After the capture of Riga, the German command decided to take control of the Gulf of Riga and destroy Russian naval forces there. To this end, on September 29 - October 6, 1917, the Germans carried out the Moonsund operation. To implement it, they allocated a Special Purpose Naval Detachment, consisting of 300 ships of various classes (including 10 battleships) under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt. For the landing of troops on the Moonsund Islands, which closed the entrance to the Gulf of Riga, the 23rd reserve corps of General von Katen (25 thousand people) was intended. The Russian garrison of the islands numbered 12 thousand people. In addition, the Gulf of Riga was protected by 116 ships and auxiliary vessels (including 2 battleships) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev. The Germans occupied the islands without much difficulty. But in the battle at sea, the German fleet met stubborn resistance from Russian sailors and suffered heavy losses (16 ships were sunk, 16 ships were damaged, including 3 battleships). The Russians lost the battleship Slava and the destroyer Grom, which fought heroically. Despite the great superiority in forces, the Germans were unable to destroy the ships of the Baltic Fleet, which retreated in an organized manner to the Gulf of Finland, blocking the German squadron’s path to Petrograd. The battle for the Moonsund archipelago was the last major military operation on the Russian front. In it, the Russian fleet defended the honor of the Russian armed forces and worthily completed their participation in the First World War.
Brest-Litovsk Truce (1917). Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
In October 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who advocated an early conclusion of peace. On November 20, in Brest-Litovsk (Brest), they began separate peace negotiations with Germany. On December 2, a truce was concluded between the Bolshevik government and German representatives. On March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany. Significant territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Russian troops were withdrawn from the territories of newly independent Finland and Ukraine, as well as from the districts of Ardahan, Kars and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. In total, Russia lost 1 million square meters. km of land (including Ukraine). The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk threw it back in the west to the borders of the 16th century. (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible). In addition, Soviet Russia was obliged to demobilize the army and navy, establish customs duties favorable to Germany, and also pay a significant indemnity to the German side (its total amount was 6 billion gold marks).
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a severe defeat for Russia. The Bolsheviks took upon themselves historical responsibility for it. But in many ways, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty only recorded the situation in which the country found itself, driven to collapse by war, the helplessness of the authorities and the irresponsibility of society. The victory over Russia made it possible for Germany and its allies to temporarily occupy the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. During World War I, the death toll in the Russian army was 1.7 million people. (killed, died from wounds, gases, in captivity, etc.). The war cost Russia 25 billion dollars. A deep moral trauma was also inflicted on the nation, which for the first time in many centuries suffered such a heavy defeat.
Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.
At the negotiations that began in Brest, the Soviet government proposed signing a peace without annexations and indemnities based on the principle of self-determination of peoples. The countries of the Quadruple Alliance, who decided to improve their position through acquisitions in the East, declared claims to all the territories they had captured. These proposals caused a split among the Bolsheviks and a crisis in the Soviet government. Since by that time the Russian army had completely disintegrated, the German command took advantage of the hitch in the negotiations for a broad offensive along the entire Eastern Front.
On March 3, 1918, under the terms of the powers of the Quadruple Alliance, the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, according to which Russia was supposed to leave Ukraine, renounce claims to the Baltic states and Finland, and give the Ottoman Empire the regions of Kars, Ardahan and Batumi. Romania occupied Bessarabia in January 1918. The seizure of a huge territory, which produced a third of Russia's agricultural and a quarter of its industrial output, allowed the powers of the Quadruple Alliance to hope for an improvement in their position in 1918. But the war devastated these areas, and any measures to force the requisition of necessary food and raw materials encountered resistance from the population. So it was not possible to achieve a radical improvement in food supply.
Entente actions in Russia
The Entente countries tried to preserve the Eastern Front by any means possible, both directly by landing their troops in Russia and by supporting those forces that continued to advocate for the war until the victorious end. France had to act through Ukraine, the British - through Transcaucasia and Murmansk. The Japanese and Americans landed in Vladivostok. Everywhere, Entente troops were drawn into the fight against the Bolsheviks, who were considered the main culprits for the collapse of the front. Their actions became an integral part of foreign intervention against Soviet Russia.
Last offensive
Having transferred troops from the Eastern Front, concentrating 80% of divisions and 90% of artillery on the Western Front, the German command began in March 1918 the next, and, as it turned out, the last offensive. But the enemy was superior to Germany in all respects. Its forces grew as new American divisions arrived. There was no hope of victory under these conditions. New victims were pointless. By intensifying the war, they only worsened the prospects for peace for Germany.
First, the main blow was delivered by the Germans to the junction of British and French troops near Arras. German troops broke through the front and went 60 kilometers deep, creating a threat to Paris, on the one hand, and the encirclement of British troops near the coast, on the other. One of the most successful offensive operations of the First World War, however, soon came to a halt due to the lack of necessary reserves. Impressed by this blow, England and France finally decided to create a unified command, transferring it to the French general Ferdinand Foch. This battle cost both sides more than 300 thousand killed and wounded.
Then, just as energetically, German troops launched an offensive on the Marne, where they again found themselves 70 kilometers from Paris. On July 15, they struck again in this direction, but without results. On July 18, the French army began a counteroffensive on the flank of the advancing German divisions, which were forced to retreat. For the second time during the war, the battles on the Marne marked a turning point in military operations. From that moment on, the Entente advanced continuously. Initially, General Foch intended in 1918 to provide only strategic positions for a decisive blow in 1919. But events once again violated the command plan.
Hindenburg Peace Initiative
The general offensive of the Entente finally proved to Hindenburg that the war was lost. On August 14, he told Emperor Wilhelm II of the need to end the war diplomatically while German troops were still on enemy territory. At the end of September, a major Entente offensive began on the front from the North Sea to the Meuse River. By that time, the situation on other fronts had become critical for the Quadruple Alliance.
Truce with Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary
On September 15, Allied forces attacked Bulgaria and Austro-Hungarian forces on the Thessaloniki front. On September 28, the Bulgarians sued for peace. Bulgaria became the first of the Quadruple Alliance countries to withdraw from the war. After this, the Entente troops began a fan-shaped offensive through Albania to Montenegro, through Serbia to Budapest and through Bulgaria to Romania. The latter again went over to the side of the Entente. Austria-Hungary requested an armistice on October 29, which was signed on November 3.
Truce with the Ottoman Empire
In Asia, the British, moving up the Tigris Valley, reached areas inhabited by the Turkish population itself. In September, a decisive offensive began on the Palestinian front. On October 30, the Ottoman Empire was forced to sign a truce with the Entente.
The beginning of the German Revolution and Germany's exit from the war
Under these conditions, Germany began negotiations on an armistice. On October 4, William II appointed Prince Max of Baden as chancellor. His government's first step was to appeal to US President Wilson for a truce.
Events were further accelerated by the uprising of military sailors in Kiel that began on November 3-4. The rebels' demands boiled down to an end to the war; to protect their interests, they created the first Council in Germany. On November 6, a telegram was received from Wilson, in which it was reported that Marshal Foch was authorized to receive representatives of the German command. On November 9, the revolutionary wave raised by the sailors reached Berlin. Max Badensky announced the abdication of the Kaiser and transferred power to the Social Democrat F. Ebert. On November 10, a new German government was formed.
Truce of Compiègne
On behalf of this government, on November 11, the long-awaited truce was signed in the Compiegne Forest in the headquarters carriage of Marshal Foch. The First World War is over.
Creder A.A. Recent history foreign countries. 1914-1997
Situation in Russia. In 1916-1917 Important events took place in Russia. The Russian Empire was the weakest link of the Entente in economic, military and political relations. A crisis was brewing in the country.
Defeats at the front, a sharp deterioration in the economic
provisions led to the growth of the anti-war and anti-government movement. Dissatisfaction with internal and foreign policy The country grew not only among the common people, but also among the ruling elite. In order to save Russia from revolutionary upheavals, an influential part of the bourgeoisie was ready to replace Nicholas II, whose popularity was very low, on the royal throne with his brother Mikhail. But it was already too late. Neither the abdication of Nicholas II in March 1917, nor Michael’s refusal to take over the throne led to the salvation of the monarchy. The February Revolution put an end to tsarism and led to the creation of the Provisional Government. At first it was headed by Prince G. S. Lvov, and then by the Socialist Revolutionary A. F. Kerensky. The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Provisional Government was P. N. Milyukov, later he was replaced by I. I. Tereshchenko.
At the next conference of AEtanta representatives that ended in February 1917, the previously made decision to bring the war to a victorious end was confirmed. At this conference, France and Russia secretly agreed to determine their borders with Germany independently. The Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Provisional Government stated that. that peace without victory over Germany is impossible and is fraught with grave consequences. In general, Russia remained faithful to the policy pursued under Tsar Sazonov, although some changes were introduced in a number of areas. Having confirmed the obligations of the tsarist government, the new Russian government received the support of other countries. In March-April 1917, almost all states declared legal recognition of the Provisional Government. The United States played an important role in this.
In connection with the economic and, mainly, political events taking place in Russia, the Provisional Government turned to the Soyas with a proposal to postpone the start of the general offensive against Germany from spring to summer. But England and France insisted on the rapid start of the operation on the Eastern Front.
The new government of Russia, even more than the tsarist one, was dependent on the Entente. At the insistence of England, France and the United States, Kerensky threw exhausted, poorly armed Russian troops into an offensive, which choked and completely failed, bringing many new unjustified casualties. It all ended with German troops breaking through the front line near Ternopil and the retreat of the Russian army in its southwestern sector. The internal situation in the country has further deteriorated. An acute political crisis began.
The situation in Austria-Hungary and Germany. Serious events took place among the opponents of the Entente. The situation was especially difficult in Austria-Hungary. The economic difficulties caused by the war made themselves felt. The opposition of the oppressed nations intensified
regime. Charles I, who replaced the deceased Emperor Franz Joseph, was afraid of further negative developments in political events and was looking for ways to conclude a separate peace. Currying favor with France, he spoke out in favor of returning Alsace and Lorraine to her. For Austria-Hungary, he considered it sufficient to restore its pre-war borders. It is difficult to say whether he managed to come to an agreement with France if not for the sharp speech of Italy, which insisted on the annexation of Trieste, Dalmatia and Trentino.
The internal situation in Germany was little better. He was greatly influenced by the February Revolution in Russia. Strikes began to break out in Germany, and unrest appeared in the navy.
Policy of England and France towards Russia. The decline in the prestige and weight of Russia in the eyes of the allies, which began under the tsar, intensified after the February Revolution. England and France sought to bring the situation inside Russia under their control and prevent it from leaving the war. The resolution adopted by the German Reichstag calling for peace was met with hostility by the German command. The war continued. England and France, together with the United States, agreed on economic and military intervention in the internal affairs of Russia, dividing spheres of influence for the reorganization of railways, the navy and the economy.
In the fall of 1917, the governments reached an agreement that the United States would reorganize the Russian railways, England would take over the Russian navy, and France would reorganize and modernize the army. This plan spoke volumes: it was clear that it was not only about interference in the internal affairs of Russia, but also about the division of spheres of influence in it between England, France and the United States.
Peace initiatives of Soviet Russia. However, the story went differently. On November 7 (new style), 1917, a socialist revolution took place in Russia. Neither the Provisional Government nor the governments of the Entente countries understood the processes taking place in Russia. They made the main bet in their political strategy on continuing the war until complete victory over Germany.
The Bolsheviks opposed this policy with a course towards an immediate end to the war and the conclusion of peace. The day after the victory of the revolution, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Peace. Now that more than a decade has passed since that memorable time, its events are assessed differently: with greater or lesser significance. But all researchers are unanimous that the Decree on Peace played a big role in the historical development of our country and in international life. It was not a purely propaganda act, designed for temporary success, a fleeting act, but reflected the views of the new ruler
on the problems of war and peace and international relations. It did not put forward the ideas of world revolution, which was fashionable at that time among a certain part of socialists. The Decree on Peace was, as it were, a theoretical basis for the course towards peaceful coexistence of the two systems. It is no coincidence that some of its provisions are reflected in a number of international documents.
L. D. Trotsky became the first People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs. But he was removed from this post on April 8, 1918 by decision of the VII Congress of the RCP(b) for disrupting peace negotiations with Germany, which took place in Bres-Litovsk, and he was replaced by G.V. Chicherin.
Due to the refusal of officials of the Russian Foreign Ministry to cooperate with the Soviet government, they were dismissed and the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs was created almost anew. He immediately began publishing the secret treaties concluded by the governments of the European powers. Over the course of several months, a number of collections were published, which included agreements signed in the last years of the war between Russia, England and France on the division of Turkey, on the payment that Romania was to receive for participating in the war on the side of the Entente, and other documents.
On November 8, the Soviet government instructed the Commander-in-Chief, General N.N. Dukhonin, to immediately contact all warring countries with a proposal for a truce. On this day, the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs conveyed to all ambassadors accredited in Russia a proposal to declare a truce and begin peace negotiations. However, it remained unnoticed. General Dukhonin sabotaged the government's instructions and was removed from his post for this. Representatives of England and France, having arrived at the headquarters of the commander-in-chief in the city of Mogilev, demanded that Dukhonin disobey and continue military operations. But Russia was economically exhausted, and its army was tired and in crisis.
Germany was also in a difficult economic and political situation. In its political circles, the opinion about the need to conclude peace with Russia was strengthened, although the German military assured that it would be able to quickly defeat the exhausted and morally undermined Russian troops and force the Soviet government to sign peace on terms dictated by Germany. Back in the summer of 1917, the Reichstag adopted a peace resolution.
The Soviet peace proposal caused a sharp conflict of opinions in Germany. Nevertheless, she considered it possible to agree to peace negotiations. The attempt of the Soviet government to involve other warring countries in them was unsuccessful.
On December 3, 1917, negotiations began in Bre:t-Litovsk between representatives of Soviet Russia, on the one hand, and representatives of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria, on the other.
The Soviet delegation proposed to proceed from the provisions put forward in the Peace Decree, but the German delegation stated that it had arrived to conduct specific negotiations on an armistice, and refused to discuss this proposal, which it considered political. She also refused to discuss a number of specific proposals, in particular the points on prohibiting the transfer of German troops from the Eastern Front to the Western Front and on the liberation of Russian territories occupied during the war.
Subsequently, the parties reached an agreement to sign a truce between the German bloc and Russia from December 15
1917 for a period of 28 days. The Soviet government addressed the ambassadors of the United States, France, Italy, China, Japan, Romania, Belgium and Serbia with notification of the progress of the negotiations in Brest-Litovsk and with an offer to take part in peace negotiations.
But this appeal, like others, remained unanswered.
The plight of the young Soviet republic Many countries tried to take advantage. In December 1917, Romanian troops invaded and occupied the territory of Bessarabia, and in April
In 1918 it was annexed to Romania.
Peace of Brest-Litovsk. On December 22, 1917, negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk on concluding peace between Russia, Germany and other countries that were at war with it. They can be divided into three stages. The first - from December 22 to 28, 1917, the second - from January 9 to February 10, 1918 and the third - from March 1 to 2, 1918.
The German delegation exerted strong pressure and dictated its terms. But the peace treaty, despite all the difficulties, could have been signed already at the second stage. The refusal of Trotsky, who headed the Soviet delegation, did not allow this to be done. As a result, German troops launched an offensive along the entire front: from Baltic Sea to Cherny. During these critical hours, at the call of the Soviet government, resistance units were urgently created. And in a number of places the Germans were stopped, and pushed back near Pskov and Narva. The Russian government stated that it was ready to immediately discuss German terms and sign peace.
On March 3, 1918, a peace treaty was concluded in Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the countries of the Quadruple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey). Its conditions for Russia were very difficult. Poland, Lithuania, Courland, Liflyan-Diya, Estland and huge areas occupied by German troops departed from its territory. In the Caucasus, Kara, Ardagan and Batumi passed to Turkey. Ukraine and Finland became independent states. An exchange of prisoners of war was envisaged. In Brest-Litovsk the following were also signed: the final protocol on customs duties and tariffs,
Russian-German, Russian-Austrian, Russian-Bulgarian and RussianCo. Turkish additional agreements.
Ratification of the treaty was to occur within two weeks. Both during the negotiations and after the signing of the peace Treaty, there was no unanimity in the government and party. V.I. Lenin once remained in the minority, and yet in the end he managed to obtain consent to sign the treaty and ratify it.
On March 15, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets was convened with the agenda of the ratification of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty. Before this, the VII Party Congress voted by a majority of votes in favor of approving the treaty, authorizing the Central Committee in the future, when the situation changes, to break it as violent. After the debate, the All-Russian Congress of Soviets ratified the Brest-Litovsk Treaty on March 15.
Taking advantage of the difficult situation of our country, Germany continued to put pressure on it after that. The Soviet government was forced to sign in August 1918 the so-called incremental agreement to the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, which established a demarcation line in favor of Germany.
Soon after the October Revolution, Finland formed its own government, which entered into negotiations with the Council of People's Commissars. As a result, on December 31, 1917, Soviet Russia recognized the independence of the Finnish Republic.
The final stage of the war. While Germany was exporting from Ukraine, Belarus and other regions of Russia everything that could be taken out and trying to impose its own rules, its position in the West noticeably worsened. After a series of successful operations, German troops were forced to retreat, suffering significant losses. When the United States of America entered the war in the spring of 1918, this further affected the balance of power of the warring parties.
On January 8, 1918, the US President outlined 14 points that defined the fundamental and practical tasks on the basis of which it was proposed to make peace with Germany and its allies. In addition, they were addressed to all countries and were, as it were, a response to Lenin’s Decree on Peace, as Wilson himself admitted. Indeed, following the Peace Decree, he spoke of open peace negotiations and discussions, the rejection of secret international agreements, and the free, frank and absolutely unhindered resolution of all colonial disputes.
In the summer of 1918, Germany launched a new major and last offensive against this P33. After crossing the Marne, German troops set their sights on Paris. But the French, supported by tanks and artillery, launched a counterattack and seized the initiative. August 8 English and FrenchIU3"
Russian troops broke through the front in the Amiens area and inflicted a terrible defeat on the Germans, from which they could no longer recover. After this, the Quadruple Alliance collapsed like a house of cards. In the fall of 1918, one country after another began to ask for peace. Bulgaria was the first to capitulate, and on October 3, 1918, the Bulgarian Tsar Ferdinand abdicated the throne. Türkiye capitulated after it, breaking its alliance with Germany, then it was Austria-Hungary’s turn. In October 1918, the Habsburg monarchy collapsed. On November 3, the command of the Austro-Hungarian troops signed a truce.
Major revolutionary events took place in Germany itself. In October 1918, German sailors rebelled, refusing orders to engage the British naval forces, and captured Kiel. The uprising spread to Hamburg and soon spread throughout Germany.
Entente troops went on the offensive, broke through the German front and quickly began to advance into the center of Germany. A new government was created in the country, headed by Prince M. of Baden, who on the night of October 4-5 turned to American President Wilson through the Swiss government with a request to conclude a truce. In response, the United States demanded that Germany confirm its agreement with all the conditions expressed in Wilson's 14 points and, even before negotiations, stop submarine warfare and destruction in the territories abandoned by its troops.
The allies insist that until all those responsible for violating the peace are removed from power, negotiations on a truce cannot begin. It was about eliminating William II. All attempts by the Germans to save the Kaiser came to nothing. Wilson warned that if Wilhelm was not eliminated, there would be complete surrender of Germany.
On October 25, 1918, the Allies met to discuss the terms of the armistice. Differences between England and France emerged. England advocated moderate demands: the liberation of the territories of France, Belgium and the return of Alsace and Lorraine. The French also proposed to deprive the German army of heavy weapons, occupy the left bank of the Rhine to a depth of 50 kilometers, and present a number of other demands. In the end, it was possible to agree on demands that boiled down to the following: the liberation of the occupied territories of Belgium, France and Luxembourg, the withdrawal of troops from Alsace-Lorraine and Romania, as well as the liberation of the left bank of the Rhine. By way of indemnity, the Allies were to receive 5 thousand locomotives, 5 thousand heavy and field guns, 150 thousand wagons, 1,700 aircraft, etc. The truce was established for 36 days with a possible extension. On November 7, 1918, the German delegation was taken to the headquarters carriage of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief allied forces Marshal F. Fo
Sha, who was in the Compiègne Forest, near the Retont station, and conveyed to her the conditions of the Entente. 72 hours were given for a response, and at 5 a.m. on November 11, 1918, the armistice was signed.
Two days later, the Soviet government announced the annulment of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty of March 3, 1918 and the additional treaty signed by Soviet Russia and Germany on August 27, 1918.
Intervention against Soviet Russia. After the victory of the October Revolution, England and France secretly agreed on the operations of their troops on Russian territory and allocated huge sums to the tsarist generals to fight against Soviet power. The first English detachment of 200 people landed on March 9, 1918 in Murmansk. A few days later, French units began to arrive there. By the summer of 1918, British and French troops captured Arkhangelsk and the Solovetsky Islands.
In the Far East, the Japanese began to invade Russian territory. Already in January 1918, 3 cruisers entered the Vladivostok port - two Japanese and one English. Before that, an American cruiser had already been there. In response to the official protest of the Soviet government, the British representative in Moscow said that the landing of Japanese soldiers in Vladivostok had the sole purpose of protecting the lives and property of Japanese citizens.
The intervention expanded both in the North and the Far East, covering Siberia. For this, in particular, the Czechoslovak corps was used, which, retreating under the pressure of German troops, ended up in Russia. By agreement with the Soviet government, he was supposed to leave for France through the Vladivostok port. But after the Japanese landed in Vladivostok, the Czechs violated this agreement and rebelled, cutting off the central regions of Russia from the Urals and Siberia. Western diplomatic missions took a direct part in preparing the uprising in a number of Volga cities and other places. However, all the uprisings organized with the help and support of foreign diplomats were defeated.