Relief of the East European (Russian) Plain
The East European (Russian) Plain is one of the largest plains in the world by area. Among all the plains of our Motherland, only it opens to two oceans. Russia is located in the central and eastern parts of the plain. It stretches from the coast Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains, from the Barents and White Seas to the Azov and Caspian Seas.
The East European Plain has the highest density of rural population, large cities and many small towns and urban settlements, a diverse Natural resources. The plain has long been developed by man.
The rationale for its definition as a physical-geographical country is the following: 1) an elevated strata plain formed on the plate of the ancient East European Platform; 2) Atlantic-continental, predominantly moderate and insufficiently humid climate, formed largely under the influence of the Atlantic and Arctic oceans; 3) clearly expressed natural areas, the structure of which was greatly influenced by the flat terrain and neighboring territories - Central Europe, North and Central Asia. This led to the interpenetration of European and Asian species of plants and animals, as well as to a deviation from the latitudinal position of natural zones in the east to the north.
Relief and geological structure
The East European Elevated Plain consists of hills with heights of 200-300 m above sea level and lowlands along which large rivers flow. The average height of the plain is 170 m, and the highest - 479 m - is on the Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya Upland in the Ural part. The maximum elevation of the Timan Ridge is somewhat lower (471 m).
According to the characteristics of the orographic pattern within the East European Plain, three stripes are clearly distinguished: central, northern and southern. A strip of alternating large uplands and lowlands passes through the central part of the plain: the Central Russian, Volga, Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya uplands and General Syrt are separated by the Oka-Don lowland and the Low Trans-Volga region, along which the Don and Volga rivers flow, carrying their waters to the south.
To the north of this strip, low plains predominate, on the surface of which smaller hills are scattered here and there in garlands and singly. From west to east-northeast, the Smolensk-Moscow, Valdai Uplands and Northern Uvals stretch here, replacing each other. They mainly serve as watersheds between the Arctic, Atlantic and internal (drainless Aral-Caspian) basins. From the Northern Uvals the territory descends to the White and Barents Seas. This part of the Russian Plain A.A. Borzov called it northern slope. Large rivers flow along it - Onega, Northern Dvina, Pechora with numerous high-water tributaries.
The southern part of the East European Plain is occupied by lowlands, of which only the Caspian is located on Russian territory.
Figure 1 – Geological profiles across the Russian Plain
The East European Plain has a typical platform topography, which is predetermined by the tectonic features of the platform: the heterogeneity of its structure (the presence of deep faults, ring structures, aulacogens, anteclises, syneclises and other smaller structures) with the unequal manifestation of recent tectonic movements.
Almost all large hills and lowlands of the plain are of tectonic origin, with a significant part inherited from the structure of the crystalline basement. In the process of a long and complex development path, they formed as a single territory in morphostructural, orographic and genetic terms.
At the base of the East European Plain lie the Russian plate with a Precambrian crystalline foundation and in the south the northern edge of the Scythian plate with a Paleozoic folded foundation. The boundary between the plates is not expressed in the relief. On the uneven surface of the Precambrian foundation of the Russian plate there are strata of Precambrian (Vendian, in places Riphean) and Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks with weakly disturbed occurrence. Their thickness is not the same and is due to the unevenness of the foundation topography (Fig. 1), which determines the main geostructures of the plate. These include syneclises - areas of deep foundation (Moscow, Pechora, Caspian, Glazov), anteclises - areas of shallow foundation (Voronezh, Volga-Ural), aulacogens - deep tectonic ditches, in the place of which syneclises subsequently arose (Kresttsovsky, Soligalichsky, Moskovsky, etc.), protrusions of the Baikal foundation - Timan.
The Moscow syneclise is one of the oldest and most complex internal structures of the Russian plate with a deep crystalline foundation. It is based on the Central Russian and Moscow aulacogens, filled with thick Riphean strata, above which lies the sedimentary cover of the Vendian and Phanerozoic (from Cambrian to Cretaceous). In the Neogene-Quaternary time, it experienced uneven uplifts and is expressed in relief by fairly large elevations - Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow and lowlands - Upper Volga, North Dvina.
The Pechora syneclise is located wedge-shaped in the northeast of the Russian Plate, between the Timan Ridge and the Urals. Its uneven block foundation is lowered to varying depths - up to 5000-6000 m in the east. The syneclise is filled with a thick layer of Paleozoic rocks, overlain by Meso-Cenozoic sediments. In its northeastern part there is the Usinsky (Bolshezemelsky) arch.
In the center of the Russian plate there are two large anteclises - the Voronezh and Volga-Urals, separated by the Pachelma aulacogen. The Voronezh anteclise gently descends to the north into the Moscow syneclise. The surface of its basement is covered with thin sediments of the Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous. Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks occur on the southern steep slope. The Volga-Ural anteclise consists of large uplifts (vaults) and depressions (aulacogens), on the slopes of which flexures are located. The thickness of the sedimentary cover here is at least 800 m within the highest arches (Tokmovsky).
The Caspian marginal syneclise is a vast area of deep (up to 18-20 km) subsidence of the crystalline basement and belongs to the structures of ancient origin; the syneclise is limited on almost all sides by flexures and faults and has angular outlines. From the west it is framed by the Ergeninskaya and Volgograd flexures, from the north by the flexures of General Syrt. In places they are complicated by young faults. In Neogene-Quaternary time, further subsidence (up to 500 m) and accumulation of a thick layer of marine and continental sediments occurred. These processes are combined with fluctuations in the level of the Caspian Sea.
The southern part of the East European Plain is located on the Scythian epi-Hercynian plate, lying between the southern edge of the Russian plate and the alpine folded structures of the Caucasus.
Tectonic movements of the Urals and the Caucasus led to some disruption of the sedimentary deposits of the plates. This is expressed in the form of dome-shaped uplifts, significant levees (Oka-Tsniksky, Zhigulevsky, Vyatsky, etc.), individual flexural bends of layers, salt domes, which are clearly visible in the modern relief. Ancient and young deep faults, as well as ring structures, determined the block structure of plates, the direction of river valleys and the activity of neotectonic movements. The predominant direction of the faults is northwestern.
A brief description of the tectonics of the East European Plain and a comparison of the tectonic map with the hypsometric and neotectonic ones allows us to conclude that the modern relief, which has undergone a long and complex history, is in most cases inherited and dependent on the nature of the ancient structure and manifestations of neotectonic movements.
Neotectonic movements on the East European Plain manifested themselves with different intensity and direction: in most of the territory they are expressed by weak and moderate uplifts, weak mobility, and the Caspian and Pechora lowlands experience weak subsidence.
The development of the morphostructure of the northwestern plain is associated with the movements of the marginal part of the Baltic shield and the Moscow syneclise, therefore monoclinal (sloping) strata plains are developed here, expressed in orography in the form of hills (Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow, Belorussian, Northern Uvaly, etc.), and strata plains occupying a lower position (Verkhnevolzhskaya, Meshcherskaya). The central part of the Russian Plain was influenced by intense uplifts of the Voronezh and Volga-Ural anteclises, as well as subsidence of neighboring aulacogens and troughs. These processes contributed to the formation of layered, stepwise uplands (Central Russian and Volga) and the layered Oka-Don plain. The eastern part developed in connection with the movements of the Urals and the edge of the Russian plate, so a mosaic of morphostructures is observed here. In the north and south, accumulative lowlands of the marginal syneclises of the plate (Pechora and Caspian) are developed. Between them alternate stratified-tiered hills (Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya, Obshchiy Syrt), monoclinal-layered hills (Verkhnekamskaya) and the intraplatform folded Timan Ridge.
During the Quaternary, climate cooling in the northern hemisphere contributed to the spread of glaciation. Glaciers had a significant impact on the formation of relief, Quaternary deposits, permafrost, as well as on changes in natural zones - their position, floristic composition, wildlife and migration of plants and animals within the East European Plain.
There are three glaciations on the East European Plain: Oka, Dnieper with the Moscow stage and Valdai. Glaciers and fluvioglacial waters created two types of plains - moraine and outwash. In the wide periglacial (pre-glacial) zone, permafrost processes dominated for a long time. Snowfields had a particularly intense impact on the relief during the period of reduced glaciation.
The moraine of the most ancient glaciation - the Oka - was studied on the Oka, 80 km south of Kaluga. The lower, heavily washed Oka moraine with Karelian crystalline boulders is separated from the overlying Dnieper moraine by typical interglacial deposits. In a number of other sections to the north of this section, under the Dnieper moraine, the Oka moraine was also discovered.
Obviously, the moraine relief that arose during the Oka Ice Age has not been preserved to this day, since it was first washed away by the waters of the Dnieper (Middle Pleistocene) glacier, and then it was covered by its bottom moraine.
The southern border of the maximum distribution of the Dnieper cover glaciation crossed the Central Russian Upland in the Tula region, then descended along the Don valley - to the mouth of the Khopr and Medveditsa, crossed the Volga Upland, then the Volga near the mouth of the Sura River, then went to the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama and crossed the Urals in area 60° N. In the Upper Volga basin (in Chukhloma and Galich), as well as in the Upper Dnieper basin, above the Dnieper moraine lies the upper moraine, which is attributed to the Moscow stage of the Dnieper glaciation*.
Before the last Valdai glaciation in the interglacial era, the vegetation of the middle zone of the East European Plain had a more thermophilic composition than the modern one. This indicates the complete disappearance of its glaciers in the north. During the interglacial era, peat bogs with brazenia flora were deposited in lake basins that arose in depressions of the moraine relief.
In the north of the East European Plain, boreal ingression arose during this era, the level of which was 70-80 m higher modern level seas. The sea penetrated through the valleys of the Northern Dvina, Mezen, and Pechora rivers, creating wide branching bays. Then came the Valdai glaciation. The edge of the Valdai ice sheet was located 60 km north of Minsk and went northeast, reaching Nyandoma.
Changes occurred in the climate of more southern regions due to glaciation. At this time, in the more southern regions of the East European Plain, the remnants of seasonal snow cover and snowfields contributed to the intensive development of nivation, solifluction, and the formation of asymmetric slopes near erosive landforms (ravines, gullies, etc.).
Thus, if ice existed within the distribution of the Valdai glaciation, then nival relief and sediments (boulder-free loams) were formed in the periglacial zone. The non-glacial, southern parts of the plain are covered by thick layers of loess and loess-like loams, synchronous ice ages. At this time, due to climate humidification, which caused glaciation, and also, possibly, with neotectonic movements, marine transgressions occurred in the Caspian Sea basin.
Natural processes of Neogene-Quaternary time and modern ones climatic conditions on the territory of the East European Plain led to various types of morphosculptures, which are zonal in their distribution: on the coast of the seas of the Arctic Ocean, marine and moraine plains with cryogenic relief forms are common. To the south lie moraine plains, in various stages transformed by erosion and periglacial processes. Along the southern periphery of the Moscow glaciation there is a strip of outwash plains, interrupted by remnant elevated plains covered with loess-like loams, dissected by ravines and ravines. To the south there is a strip of fluvial ancient and modern forms relief on highlands and lowlands. On the coast of the Azov and Caspian Seas there are Neogene-Quaternary plains with erosional, depression-subsidence and aeolian relief.
Long-term geological history The largest geostructure - the ancient platform - predetermined the accumulation of various minerals on the East European Plain. The richest deposits of iron ore (Kursk magnetic anomaly) are concentrated in the foundation of the platform. Associated with the sedimentary cover of the platform are deposits of coal (eastern part of Donbass, Moscow basin), oil and gas in Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposits (Ural-Volga basin), and oil shale (near Syzran). Building materials (songs, gravel, clays, limestones) are widely used. Brown iron ores (near Lipetsk), bauxites (near Tikhvin), phosphorites (in a number of areas) and salts (Caspian region) are also associated with the sedimentary cover.
The article reveals the relief features of the East European Plain. Indicates coincidences with landscapes characteristic of the Russian Plain. The material explains why seismological or volcanic manifestations are not so characteristic of this territory.
Relief of the East European Plain
The Russian Plain, located on the East European Plate, is formed by peaks whose height above sea level is 200-300 m.
It almost completely coincides with the East European Platform, and this allows us to assert that the relief of the Russian Plain is identical to the East European plain relief formation.
Rice. 1. Russian Plain on the map.
The formation of the relief of the Russian Plain is mainly explained by its belonging to the Russian Platform plate and is characterized by an extremely stable regime and low amplitude of current tectonic movements.
The average height is 170 m, and the maximum is 479 m. It is localized in the Ural part. The following areas are distinguished within the plain:
TOP 4 articleswho are reading along with this
- central;
- northern;
- southern
The central part is represented by a strip of successive highlands and lowlands of significant size.
The complete absence or insignificance of such natural manifestations as earthquakes or volcanism can rightly be considered features that are characteristic of these territories.
The northern region is represented by low plains with minor elevations. These are the watersheds of two oceans.
The southern plain region is occupied by lowlands.
Within the Borders Russian territory only the Caspian lowland can be noted.
Rice. 2. Caspian lowland on the map.
The relief of the East European Plain is represented by a platform type. This is due to tectonic specificity, which is characterized by heterogeneity of structure. The largest forms of hills and lowlands, common on the flat plane, owe their appearance to tectonic processes.
The Russian Plain is one of the largest plains in the world by area. Among all the plains of Russia, only it opens to two oceans.
Glaciers had a significant impact on the formation of the flat relief. They participated in the creation of moraine and outwash type plains.
Minerals
The natural resources of the territory are represented for the most part by the largest iron ore deposits, among which is the Kursk magnetic anomaly.
Rice. 3. Kursk magnetic anomaly on the map.
The deposit's reserves correspond to 57.3% of all ore reserves of the state. The ore rock occurs in the Kursk and Belgorod regions. The nature of the occurrence of fossils makes it possible to carry out open-pit mining, which has a significant impact on the nature of the black earth zone of the Russian Plain.
Chemical raw materials on the Russian Plain are represented by phosphorites, potassium and rock salts. The construction orientation of the fossils is expressed by chalk formations, marl, cement and fine-grained sands.
Kaolin clays are used in the porcelain and earthenware industry. Basically, they are mined in the Tver and Moscow regions.
On the territory of the plain there are deposits of hard and brown coal.
What have we learned?
We found out what natural resources the area in question is rich in. We found out what percentage of the iron ore reserves located in the Kursk magnetic anomaly falls on the state. They clarified what was the main reason in the process of relief formation of the East European Plain. We found out which of the flat areas directly accesses two oceans.
Test on the topic
Evaluation of the report
Average rating: 4.5. Total ratings received: 85.
East European (aka Russian) has the second largest area in the world, second only to the Amazonian lowland. It is classified as a low plain. From the north the area is washed by the Barents and White Seas, in the south by the Azov, Caspian and Black Seas. In the west and southwest, the plain is adjacent to the mountains of Central Europe (Carpathians, Sudetes, etc.), in the northwest - with the Scandinavian mountains, in the east - with the Urals and Mugodzhary, and in the southeast - with Crimean mountains and the Caucasus.
The length of the East European Plain from west to east is approximately 2500 km, from north to south – about 2750 km, and its area is 5.5 million km². The average height is 170 m, the maximum is recorded in the Khibiny Mountains (Mount Yudychvumchorr) on the Kola Peninsula - 1191 m, the minimum height is noted on the coast of the Caspian Sea, it has a minus value of -27 m. The following countries are located entirely or partially on the territory of the plain: Belarus, Kazakhstan , Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Russia, Ukraine and Estonia.
The Russian Plain almost completely coincides with the East European Platform, which explains its relief with a predominance of planes. This geographical location characterized by very rare manifestations of volcanic activity.
Such a relief was formed due to tectonic movements and faults. Platform deposits on this plain lie almost horizontally, but in some places they exceed 20 km. The hills in this area are quite rare and mainly represent ridges (Donetsk, Timan, etc.), in these areas the folded foundation protrudes to the surface.
Hydrographic characteristics of the East European Plain
In terms of hydrography, the East European Plain can be divided into two parts. Most of the waters of the plain have access to the ocean. The western and southern rivers belong to the Atlantic Ocean, and the northern ones belong to the Arctic Ocean. Of the northern rivers on the Russian Plain there are: Mezen, Onega, Pechora and Northern Dvina. Western and southern water flows flow into the Baltic Sea (Vistula, Western Dvina, Neva, Neman, etc.), as well as into the Black Sea (Dnieper, Dniester and Southern Bug) and Azov Sea (Don).
Climatic characteristics of the East European Plain
The East European Plain is dominated by a temperate continental climate. Summer average recorded temperatures range from 12 (approx. Barents Sea) up to 25 degrees (near the Caspian lowland). The highest average winter temperatures are observed in the west, where in winter about -
For centuries, the Russian Plain served as a territory connecting Western and Eastern civilizations along trade routes. Historically, two busy trade arteries ran through these lands. The first is known as the “path from the Varangians to the Greeks.” According to him, as is known from school history, medieval trade in goods of the peoples of the East and Rus' with the states of Western Europe was carried out.
The second is the route along the Volga, which made it possible to transport goods by ship to Southern Europe from China, India and Central Asia and in the opposite direction. The first Russian cities were built along trade routes - Kyiv, Smolensk, Rostov. Veliky Novgorod became the northern gateway from the “Varangians”, protecting the security of trade.
Now the Russian Plain is still a territory of strategic importance. The capital of the country and the largest cities are located on its lands. The most important administrative centers for the life of the state are concentrated here.
Geographical position of the plain
The East European Plain, or Russian, occupies territories in eastern Europe. In Russia, these are its extreme western lands. In the northwest and west it is limited by the Scandinavian Mountains, the Barents and White Seas, the Baltic coast and the Vistula River. In the east and southeast it neighbors the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus. In the south, the plain is limited by the shores of the Black, Azov and Caspian seas.
Relief features and landscape
The East European Plain is represented by a gently sloping relief, formed as a result of faults in tectonic rocks. Based on relief features, the massif can be divided into three stripes: central, southern and northern. The center of the plain consists of alternating vast hills and lowlands. The north and south are mostly represented by lowlands with rare low altitudes.
Although the relief is formed in a tectonic manner and minor tremors are possible in the area, there are no noticeable earthquakes here.
Natural areas and regions
(The plain has planes with characteristic smooth drops)
The East European Plain includes all natural zones found in Russia:
- Tundra and forest-tundra are represented by the nature of the north of the Kola Peninsula and occupy a small part of the territory, slightly expanding to the east. The vegetation of the tundra, namely shrubs, mosses and lichens, is replaced by birch forests of the forest-tundra.
- Taiga with its pine and spruce forests, occupies the north and center of the plain. On the borders with mixed broad-leaved forests, areas are often swampy. A typical Eastern European landscape - coniferous and mixed forests and swamps give way to small rivers and lakes.
- In the forest-steppe zone you can see alternating hills and lowlands. Oak and ash forests are typical for this zone. You can often find birch and aspen forests.
- The steppe is represented by valleys, where oak forests and groves, forests of alder and elm grow near the river banks, and tulips and sages bloom in the fields.
- In the Caspian lowland there are semi-deserts and deserts, where the climate is harsh and the soil is saline, but even there you can find vegetation in the form of various varieties of cacti, wormwood and plants that adapt well to sudden changes in daily temperatures.
Rivers and lakes of the plain
(River on a flat area of the Ryazan region)
The rivers of the “Russian Valley” are majestic and slowly flow their waters in one of two directions - north or south, to the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, or to the southern inland seas of the continent. Northern rivers flow into the Barents, White or Baltic seas. Rivers south direction- to the Black, Azov or Caspian Seas. The largest river in Europe, the Volga, also “flows lazily” through the lands of the East European Plain.
The Russian Plain is the kingdom of natural water in all its manifestations. A glacier that passed through the plain thousands of years ago formed many lakes on its territory. There are especially many of them in Karelia. The consequences of the presence of the glacier were the emergence in the North-West of such large lakes as Ladoga, Onega, and the Pskov-Peipus reservoir.
Under the thickness of the earth in the localization of the Russian Plain, reserves of artesian water are stored in the amount of three underground pools of huge volumes and many located at shallower depths.
Climate of the East European Plain
(Flat terrain with slight drops near Pskov)
The Atlantic dictates the weather regime on the Russian Plain. Western winds, air masses that move moisture, make summers on the plain warm and humid, winters cold and windy. During the cold season, winds from the Atlantic bring about ten cyclones, contributing to variable heat and cold. But air masses from the Arctic Ocean also tend to the plain.
Therefore, the climate becomes continental only in the interior of the massif, closer to the south and southeast. The East European Plain has two climatic zones - subarctic and temperate, increasing continentality to the east.
1. Geographical location.
2. Geological structure and relief.
3. Climate.
4. Inland waters.
5. Soils, flora and fauna.
6. Natural areas and their anthropogenic changes.
Geographical position
The East European Plain is one of the largest plains peace. The plain opens to the waters of two oceans and extends from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains and from the Barents and White Seas to the Azov, Black and Caspian Seas. The plain lies on the ancient East European platform, its climate is predominantly temperate continental and natural zoning is clearly expressed on the plain.
Geological structure and relief
The East European Plain has a typical platform topography, which is predetermined by the tectonics of the platform. At its base lie the Russian plate with a Precambrian foundation and in the south the northern edge of the Scythian plate with a Paleozoic foundation. At the same time, the boundary between the plates is not expressed in the relief. On the uneven surface of the Precambrian basement lie strata of Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks. Their power is not the same and is due to the unevenness of the foundation. These include syneclises (areas of deep foundation) - Moscow, Pechersk, Caspian and anticlises (protrusions of the foundation) - Voronezh, Volga-Ural, as well as aulacogens (deep tectonic ditches, in place of which syneclises arose) and the Baikal ledge - Timan. In general, the plain consists of hills with heights of 200-300m and lowlands. The average height of the Russian Plain is 170 m, and the highest, almost 480 m, is on the Bugulma-Belebeevskaya Upland in the Ural part. In the north of the plain there are the Northern Uvals, the Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow stratal uplands, and the Timan Ridge (Baikal folding). In the center are the elevations: Central Russian, Privolzhskaya (stratal-tiered, stepped), Bugulminsko-Belebeevskaya, General Syrt and lowlands: Oksko-Donskaya and Zavolzhskaya (stratal). In the south lies the accumulative Caspian Lowland. The formation of the plain's topography was also influenced by glaciation. There are three glaciations: Oka, Dnieper with the Moscow stage, Valdai. Glaciers and fluvioglacial waters created moraine landforms and outwash plains. In the periglacial (pre-glacial) zone, cryogenic forms were formed (due to permafrost processes). The southern border of the maximum Dnieper glaciation crossed the Central Russian Upland in the Tula region, then descended along the Don valley to the mouth of the Khopra and Medveditsa rivers, crossed the Volga Upland, the Volga near the mouth of the Sura, then the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama and the Ural in the region of 60°N. Iron ore deposits (IOR) are concentrated in the foundation of the platform. The sedimentary cover is associated with reserves of coal (eastern part of Donbass, Pechersk and Moscow region basins), oil and gas (Ural-Volga and Timan-Pechersk basins), oil shale (northwestern and Middle Volga region), building materials(widespread), bauxite (Kola Peninsula), phosphorite (in a number of areas), salts (Caspian region).
Climate
The climate of the plain is influenced by its geographical location, the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Solar radiation varies dramatically with the seasons. In winter, more than 60% of radiation is reflected by snow cover. The western transport dominates over the Russian Plain all year. Atlantic air transforms as it moves east. During the cold period, many cyclones come from the Atlantic to the plain. In winter, they bring not only precipitation, but also warming. Mediterranean cyclones are especially warm when the temperature rises to +5˚ +7˚C. After cyclones from the North Atlantic, cold Arctic air penetrates into their rear part, causing sharp cold snaps all the way to the south. Anticyclones provide frosty, clear weather in winter. During the warm period, cyclones mix to the north; the northwest of the plain is especially susceptible to their influence. Cyclones bring rain and coolness in the summer. Hot and dry air forms in the cores of the spur of the Azores High, which often leads to droughts in the southeast of the plain. January isotherms in the northern half of the Russian Plain run submeridianally from -4˚C in the Kaliningrad region to -20˚C in the northeast of the plain. In the southern part, the isotherms deviate to the southeast, amounting to -5˚C in the lower reaches of the Volga. In summer, isotherms run sublatitudinally: +8˚C in the north, +20˚C along the Voronezh-Cheboksary line and +24˚C in the south of the Caspian region. The distribution of precipitation depends on westerly transport and cyclonic activity. There are especially many of them moving in the zone 55˚-60˚N, this is the most humidified part of the Russian Plain (Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow Uplands): the annual precipitation here is from 800 mm in the west to 600 mm in the east. Moreover, on the western slopes of the hills it falls 100-200 mm more than on the lowlands lying behind them. Maximum precipitation occurs in July (in the south in June). In winter, snow cover forms. In the northeast of the plain, its height reaches 60-70 cm and it lies for up to 220 days a year (more than 7 months). In the south, the height of the snow cover is 10-20 cm, and the duration of occurrence is up to 2 months. The humidification coefficient varies from 0.3 in the Caspian lowland to 1.4 in the Pechersk lowland. In the north, the moisture is excessive, in the upper reaches of the Dniester, Don and Kama rivers it is sufficient and k≈1, in the south the moisture is insufficient. In the north of the plain the climate is subarctic (the coast of the Arctic Ocean); in the rest of the territory the climate is temperate with varying degrees of continentality. At the same time, continentality increases towards the southeast
Inland waters
Surface waters are closely related to climate, topography, and geology. The direction of rivers (river flow) is predetermined by orography and geostructures. The flow from the Russian Plain occurs in the basins of the Arctic, Atlantic Oceans and into the Caspian basin. The main watershed passes through the Northern Uvals, Valdai, Central Russian and Volga Uplands. The largest is the Volga River (it is the largest in Europe), its length is more than 3530 km, and its basin area is 1360 thousand sq. km. The source lies on the Valdai Hills. After the confluence of the Selizharovka River (from Lake Seliger), the valley widens noticeably. From the mouth of the Oka to Volgograd, the Volga flows with sharply asymmetrical slopes. In the Caspian lowland, the Akhtuba branches are separated from the Volga and a wide strip of floodplain is formed. The Volga Delta begins 170 km from the Caspian coast. The main supply of the Volga is snow, so high water is observed from the beginning of April to the end of May. The height of the water rise is 5-10 m. 9 nature reserves have been created on the territory of the Volga basin. The Don has a length of 1870 km, the basin area is 422 thousand sq. km. The source is from a ravine on the Central Russian Upland. It flows into the Taganrog Bay of the Sea of Azov. The food is mixed: 60% snow, more than 30% groundwater and almost 10% rain. Pechora has a length of 1810 km, begins in the Northern Urals and flows into the Barents Sea. The basin area is 322 thousand km2. The nature of the flow in the upper reaches is mountainous, the channel is rapid. In the middle and low reaches, the river flows through a moraine lowland and forms a wide floodplain, and at the mouth a sandy delta. The diet is mixed: up to 55% comes from melted snow water, 25% from rainwater and 20% from groundwater. The Northern Dvina has a length of about 750 km, formed from the confluence of the Sukhona, Yuga and Vychegda rivers. Flows into the Dvina Bay. The basin area is almost 360 thousand sq. km. The floodplain is wide. At its confluence, the river forms a delta. Mixed food. The lakes on the Russian Plain differ primarily in the origin of the lake basins: 1) moraine lakes are distributed in the north of the plain in areas of glacial accumulation; 2) karst - in the basins of the Northern Dvina and Upper Volga rivers; 3) thermokarst - in the extreme northeast, in the permafrost zone; 4) floodplains (oxbow lakes) - in the floodplains of large and medium-sized rivers; 5) estuary lakes - in the Caspian lowland. Groundwater is distributed throughout the Russian Plain. There are three artesian basins of the first order: Central Russian, East Russian and Caspian. Within their boundaries there are artesian basins of the second order: Moscow, Volga-Kama, Pre-Ural, etc. With depth chemical composition water and the water temperature changes. Fresh waters lie at depths of no more than 250 m. Salinity and temperature increase with depth. At a depth of 2-3 km, the water temperature can reach 70˚C.
Soils, flora and fauna
Soils, like vegetation on the Russian Plain, have a zonal distribution. In the north of the plain there are tundra coarse humus gley soils, there are peat-gley soils, etc. To the south, podzolic soils lie under forests. In the northern taiga they are gley-podzolic, in the middle - typical podzolic, and in the southern - sod-podzolic soils, which are also typical for mixed forests. Under broad-leaved forests and forest-steppe, gray forest soils. In the steppes, the soils are chernozem (podzolized, typical, etc.). In the Caspian lowland, the soils are chestnut and brown desert, there are solonetzes and solonchaks.
The vegetation of the Russian Plain differs from the cover vegetation of other large regions of our country. Common on the Russian Plain broadleaf forests and only here are semi-deserts. In general, the set of vegetation is very diverse, from tundra to desert. The tundra is dominated by mosses and lichens; to the south, the number of dwarf birch and willow increases. The forest-tundra is dominated by spruce with an admixture of birch. In the taiga, spruce dominates, to the east there is an admixture of fir, and on the poorest soils - pine. Mixed forests include coniferous-deciduous species; in broad-leaved forests, where they are preserved, oak and linden dominate. The same breeds are also typical for the forest-steppe. The steppe here occupies the largest area in Russia, where cereals predominate. The semi-desert is represented by cereal-wormwood and wormwood-hodgepodge communities.
In the fauna of the Russian Plain there are western and eastern species. The most widely represented are forest animals and, to a lesser extent, steppe animals. Western species gravitate towards mixed and deciduous forests (marten, black polecat, dormouse, mole, and some others). Eastern species gravitate towards the taiga and forest-tundra (chipmunk, wolverine, Ob lemming, etc.). Rodents (gophers, marmots, voles, etc.) dominate in the steppes and semi-deserts; the saiga penetrates from the Asian steppes.
Natural areas
Natural zones on the East European Plain are especially clearly expressed. From north to south they replace each other: tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest-steppe, steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. The tundra occupies the coast of the Barents Sea, covers the entire Kanin Peninsula and further east, to the Polar Urals. The European tundra is warmer and more humid than the Asian one, the climate is subarctic with marine features. The average January temperature varies from -10˚C near the Kanin Peninsula to -20˚C near the Yugorsky Peninsula. In summer about +5˚C. Precipitation 600-500 mm. The permafrost is thin, there are many swamps. On the coast there are typical tundras on tundra-gley soils, with a predominance of mosses and lichens; in addition, arctic bluegrass, pike, alpine cornflower, and sedges grow here; from bushes - wild rosemary, dryad (partridge grass), blueberry, cranberry. To the south, shrubs of dwarf birch and willow appear. The forest-tundra extends south of the tundra in a narrow strip of 30-40 km. The forests here are sparse, the height is no more than 5-8 m, dominated by spruce with an admixture of birch and sometimes larch. Low places are occupied by swamps, thickets of small willows or birch berries. There are a lot of crowberries, blueberries, cranberries, blueberries, mosses and various taiga herbs. Tall forests of spruce with an admixture of rowan (here its flowering occurs on July 5) and bird cherry (blooms by June 30) penetrate the river valleys. Typical animals in these zones are reindeer, arctic fox, polar wolf, lemming, mountain hare, ermine, and wolverine. In summer there are many birds: eiders, geese, ducks, swans, snow bunting, white-tailed eagle, gyrfalcon, peregrine falcon; a lot of blood-sucking insects. Rivers and lakes are rich in fish: salmon, whitefish, pike, burbot, perch, char, etc.
The taiga extends south of the forest-tundra, its southern border runs along the line St. Petersburg - Yaroslavl - Nizhny Novgorod - Kazan. In the west and in the center, the taiga merges with mixed forests, and in the east with forest-steppe. The climate of the European taiga is moderate continental. Precipitation on the plains is about 600 mm, on the hills up to 800 mm. Excessive moisture. The growing season lasts from 2 months in the north and almost 4 months in the south of the zone. The depth of soil freezing is from 120 cm in the north to 30-60 cm in the south. The soils are podzolic, in the north of the zone they are peat-gley. There are many rivers, lakes, and swamps in the taiga. The European taiga is characterized by dark coniferous taiga of European and Siberian spruce. To the east fir is added, closer to the Urals cedar and larch. Pine forests form in swamps and sands. In clearings and burnt areas there are birch and aspen, along the river valleys there is alder and willow. Typical animals are elk, reindeer, brown bear, wolverine, wolf, lynx, fox, mountain hare, squirrel, mink, otter, chipmunk. There are many birds: capercaillie, hazel grouse, owls, in swamps and reservoirs ptarmigan, snipe, woodcock, lapwing, geese, ducks, etc. Woodpeckers are common, especially three-toed and black, bullfinch, waxwing, bee-eater, kuksha, tits, crossbills, kinglets and others. Of reptiles and amphibians - viper, lizards, newts, toads. In summer there are many blood-sucking insects. Mixed and, to the south, broad-leaved forests are located in the western part of the plain between the taiga and forest-steppe. The climate is moderate continental, but, unlike the taiga, softer and warmer. Winters are noticeably shorter and summers longer. The soils are soddy-podzolic and gray forest. Many rivers begin here: the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina, etc. There are many lakes, swamps and meadows. The boundary between forests is poorly defined. As you move east and north in mixed forests, the role of spruce and even fir increases, and the role of broad-leaved species decreases. There is linden and oak. Towards the southwest, maple, elm, and ash appear, and conifers disappear. Pine forests are found only on poor soils. In these forests there is a well-developed undergrowth (hazel, honeysuckle, euonymus, etc.) and a herbaceous cover of honeysuckle, hoofed grass, chickweed, some grasses, and where conifers grow, there is sorrel, oxalis, ferns, mosses, etc. Due to the economic development of these forests, the fauna has sharply declined. Elk and wild boar are found, red deer and roe deer have become very rare, and bison are found only in nature reserves. The bear and lynx have practically disappeared. Foxes, squirrels, dormouse, polecats, beavers, badgers, hedgehogs, and moles are still common; preserved marten, mink, wildcat, muskrat; muskrat, raccoon dog, and American mink are acclimatized. Reptiles and amphibians include snakes, vipers, lizards, frogs, and toads. There are many birds, both resident and migratory. Woodpeckers, tits, nuthatch, blackbirds, jays, and owls are typical; finches, warblers, flycatchers, warblers, buntings, and waterfowl arrive in the summer. Black grouse, partridges, golden eagles, white-tailed eagle, etc. have become rare. Compared to the taiga, the number of invertebrates in the soil increases significantly. The forest-steppe zone extends south of the forests and reaches the Voronezh-Saratov-Samara line. The climate is temperate continental with an increasing degree of continentality to the east, which affects the more depleted floristic composition in the east of the zone. Winter temperatures vary from -5˚C in the west to -15˚C in the east. The annual amount of precipitation decreases in the same direction. Summer is very warm everywhere +20˚+22˚C. The moisture coefficient in the forest-steppe is about 1. Sometimes, especially in recent years, droughts occur in the summer. The relief of the zone is characterized by erosional dissection, which creates a certain diversity of soil cover. The most typical gray forest soils are on loess-like loams. Leached chernozems are developed along the river terraces. The further south you go, the more leached and podzolized chernozems become, and gray forest soils disappear. Little natural vegetation has been preserved. Forests here are found only in small islands, mainly oak forests, where you can find maple, elm, and ash. Pine forests have been preserved on poor soils. Meadow herbs survived only on lands that were not suitable for plowing. Animal world consists of forest and steppe fauna, but in Lately in connection with economic activity steppe fauna began to predominate. The steppe zone extends from the southern border of the forest-steppe to the Kuma-Manych depression and the Caspian lowland in the south. The climate is moderate continental, but with a significant degree of continentalism. Summer is hot, average temperatures +22˚+23˚C. Winter temperatures vary from -4˚C in the Azov steppes, to -15˚C in the Volga steppes. Annual precipitation decreases from 500 mm in the west to 400 mm in the east. The humidification coefficient is less than 1, and droughts and hot winds are frequent in summer. The northern steppes are less warm, but more humid than the southern ones. Therefore, the northern steppes have forbs and feather grasses on chernozem soils. The southern steppes are dry on chestnut soils. They are characterized by solonetzity. In the floodplains of large rivers (Don, etc.) floodplain forests of poplar, willow, alder, oak, elm, etc. grow. Among the animals, rodents predominate: gophers, shrews, hamsters, field mice, etc. Predators include ferrets, foxes, weasels . Birds include larks, steppe eagle, harrier, corncrake, falcons, bustards, etc. There are snakes and lizards. Most of the northern steppes are now plowed. The semi-desert and desert zone within Russia is located in the southwestern part of the Caspian lowland. This zone adjoins the Caspian coast and borders the deserts of Kazakhstan. The climate is continental temperate. Precipitation is about 300 mm. Winter temperatures are negative -5˚-10˚C. The snow cover is thin, but remains for up to 60 days. The soil freezes up to 80 cm. Summer is hot and long, average temperatures are +23˚+25˚C. The Volga flows through the zone, forming a vast delta. There are many lakes, but almost all of them are salty. The soils are light chestnut, in some places desert brown. The humus content does not exceed 1%. Salt marshes and solonetzes are widespread. The vegetation cover is dominated by white and black wormwood, fescue, thin-legged grass, and xerophytic feather grass; to the south the number of saltworts increases, tamarisk bushes appear; In spring, tulips, buttercups, and rhubarb bloom. In the floodplain of the Volga - willow, white poplar, sedge, oak, aspen, etc. The fauna is represented mainly by rodents: jerboas, gophers, gerbils, many reptiles - snakes and lizards. Typical predators are the steppe ferret, corsac fox, and weasel. There are many birds in the Volga delta, especially during migration seasons. All natural zones of the Russian Plain have experienced anthropogenic impacts. The zones of forest-steppes and steppes, as well as mixed and deciduous forests, are especially strongly modified by humans.