What pathos there is. What is the pathos of a literary work?

18.04.2019

Pathos (Greek) - suffering, passion, excitement, inspiration. According to Aristotle, death or another tragic event that occurs to the hero of a work, causing compassion or fear in the viewer, which is then resolved in a cathartic experience. Suffering, which was caused by the own actions of a person driven by strong passion, the resolution of passion in suffering.

In modern literary criticism, pathos is defined as the leading emotional tone of a work, its emotional mood.

Pathos can be heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, romantic and sentimental.

HEROIC PATHOS - reflects the greatness of a person performing a feat in the name of a common cause. At the same time, the actions of the heroes must certainly be associated with personal risk, personal danger, associated with the real possibility of a person losing some significant values - even life itself. Another condition for the manifestation of the heroic is the free will and initiative of a person: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic. The desire to remake the world, the structure of which seems unjust, or the desire to defend an ideal world (as well as one close to the ideal and seemingly so) - this is the emotional basis of heroism. Examples: in ancient Greek myths these are images of heroes, or, as they were called in Greece, heroes who perform unprecedented feats for the benefit of their people. This is Hercules with his twelve labors or Perseus, who cut off the head of the gorgon Medusa. In Homer's Iliad - Achilles, Patroclus, Hector, who became famous in the battles of Troy. In later works of folklore - historical songs, epics, heroic tales, epics, military stories - in the center stands a mighty, fair hero-warrior, protecting his people from foreign invaders.

DRAMATIC PAPHOS - the author, with severe emotional anguish and heartfelt sympathy, depicts the suffering of his characters in the drama of their situation, experiences, and struggle. This drama is manifested in experiences, conflicts in private life, in the unsettled personal destiny, and in ideological “wandering.” The author can condemn his characters and see in their suffering fair retribution for the falsity of aspirations that led to the drama of the situation. Often the influence of external circumstances gives rise to internal contradiction in the character’s mind, a struggle with himself. Then the drama deepens to the point of tragedy. An example is Bulgakov's "Running".

TRAGIC PATHOS - among the ancient Greeks it was associated with the fact that the will of the gods dominates the lives of people, the fatal predetermination of fate, in whose power the whole life of people, or with the concept of guilt tragic heroes who have violated some higher law and are paying for it. (for example, "Oedipus" by Sophocles). The pathos of tragedy is the awareness of a loss, and an irreparable loss, of some important life values - human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc. The first condition of the tragic is the regularity of this conflict, a situation where its unresolved nature cannot be tolerated. Secondly, the intractability of a conflict means the impossibility of its successful resolution - it is certainly associated with victims, with the death of certain indisputable humanistic values. This, for example, is the nature of the conflict in Pushkin’s “Little Tragedies,” Ostrovsky’s “The Thunderstorm,” and Bulgakov’s “The White Guard.”

If heroic pathos is always an ideological statement of the characters depicted, then the dramatic and tragic types of pathos can contain both their affirmation and their negation. A satirical depiction of characters always carries a condemning ideological orientation.

SATIRICAL PATHOS is an indignant and mocking denial of certain aspects of public life. Human characters and relationships become the subject of mocking interpretation and corresponding depiction. Satirical pathos arises in the process of a generalized emotional understanding of the comic discrepancy between the real emptiness of the characters’ existence and subjective claims to significance. For example, the feignedly laudatory tone of Gogol’s depiction of the capital’s secular society expresses his mocking, ironic attitude towards high-ranking people who attach great importance to all sorts of trifles. It is “penetrating” laughter that deepens the subject that constitutes an integral property of satire. Authors who use satirical pathos in their works: Gogol, Griboyedov, Saltykov-Shedrin, Ilf and Petrov, Bulgakov.

SENTIMENTAL PATHOS. Sentimentality literally translated from French means sensitivity. In certain situations, almost every person happens to show sentimentality - for example, most normal people cannot pass indifferently past the suffering of a child, a helpless person, or even an animal. But even if sentimental pity is directed at the phenomena of the surrounding world, the person reacting to it always remains in the center - touched, compassionate. At the same time, sympathy for another in sentimentality is fundamentally ineffective; it acts as a kind of psychological substitute for real help (such, for example, is the artistically expressed sympathy for the peasant in the works of Radishchev and Nekrasov). This is emotional tenderness caused by the awareness of moral virtues in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral privileged environment. One of the most characteristic sentimental works- Goethe's story "The Sorrows of Young Werther". Its pathos is created by the depiction of the experiences of a young man who is disillusioned with the empty and vain life of the urban noble-bureaucratic society. Werther seeks satisfaction in simple rural life, in sensitive admiration of nature, in helping the poor. His touching love There is no hope for Lotte - Lotte is married. And because of the dramatic hopelessness of his situation, the impracticability of his lofty ideal, Werther commits suicide. Another example: “Moo-moo” by Turgenev.

ROMANTIC PATHOS - the rise of romantic self-awareness is caused by aspiration towards the ideal of civil freedom. This is an enthusiastic state of mind caused by the desire for a sublime ideal. A romantic hero is always tragic, he does not accept reality, he is at odds with himself, he is a rebel and a victim. Romantic heroes- spiritually rich natures who cannot express themselves fully, because life sets boundaries for them and undeservedly expels them from society. Romanticism is characterized by a violent manifestation of feelings. Conflict with the surrounding world and complete rejection of it, contrasting it with a higher, ideal world created by the creative imagination of the artist is the basis of the worldview of the romantics. For example, the early Gorky denied the lack of heroism in the life around him, dreamed of strong, strong-willed natures, of people who were fighters. In contrast to the gray, bourgeois existence, the world of his stories is bright and exotic. The action takes place in an unusual setting, surrounded by romantic elements. The heroes of the works are more symbolic than typical. "Song about the Falcon", "Song about the Petrel", "Danko".

Romance is related to heroism by the desire for a sublime ideal. But if heroism is a sphere of active action, then romance is a region of emotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The objective basis of romance is such situations in personal and public life when the realization of a sublime ideal is either impossible in principle or impracticable at a given historical moment. However, on such an objective basis, not only the pathos of romance can, in principle, arise, but also tragedy, irony, and satire, so that the decisive factor in romance is still the subjective moment, the moment of experiencing an irreparable gap between dream and reality. The natural world of romance is a dream, a fantasy, a daydream, therefore romantic works so often they are turned either to the past (“Borodino” by Lermontov), or to something fundamentally non-existent (“Aelita” by A.N. Tolstoy).

What is the difference between sentimental and romantic pathos? Sentimentality is tenderness addressed to an obsolete, fading way of life with its simplicity and moral integrity of relationships and experiences. Romance is enthusiasm addressed to one or another “superpersonal” ideal and its embodiments.

PAPHOS IN MASS CULTURE. In epic cinema, pathos is a vital element. Without him, the viewer will be left wondering whether the Epic Hero was killed or he prevailed. The popcorn eater needs to get goosebumps from the severity and epicness of Mesilov on the screen. For this purpose, Pathos Moments are used: sublime Monologues, In Which Every Word Must Be Written With A Capital Letter, accompanied by hysterical symphonic music. And if the hero dies, then he will not vomit blood and become stiff, but will pronounce the Farewell Monologue, close his eyes and sharply throw back his head, as if his food had been pulled out. Pathetic moments are necessarily accompanied by pathetic phrases: “Ail bi bek!”, “Come and get it!”; “Our arrows will block the sun from you - We will fight in the shadows!”; “Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword!” etc.

Reviews

Is it a good evening?
Has everyone got a drink?
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Blogger Navalny, who is shown in your picture, is, of course, cool.
Pathos, I’ll tell you, it just rushes.
And of course weak women They expect Heroic Pathos from the hero.
And something else. I don't know, but something romantic. Maybe sentimental. In the end, dramatic...
But not a corruption scandal in bed!
And when it comes, literary critic displays an indignant and mocking denial of the Hero...
...

And to put it simply, for love!
Well, for these and for those!

Finally, the last element included in the ideological the world of the work, is pathos, which can be defined as the leading emotional tone of a work, its emotional mood. A synonym for the term “pathos” is the expression “emotional-value orientation”*. To analyze pathos in a work of art means to establish its typological variety, the type of emotional-value orientation, attitude towards the world and man in the world. We now turn to a consideration of these typological varieties of pathos.
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* Cm.; Esin A.B., Kasatkina, T.A. System of emotional-value orientations // Philological Sciences. 1994., no. 5–6. pp. 10–18.

Epic-dramatic pathos represents a deep and undoubted acceptance of the world as a whole and oneself in it, which is the essence of the epic worldview. At the same time, this is not a thoughtless acceptance of a cloudlessly harmonious world: being is recognized in its original and unconditional conflict (drama), but this conflict itself is perceived as a necessary and fair side of the world, because conflicts arise and are resolved, they ensure the very existence and dialectical development of being . Epico-dramatic pathos is the maximum trust in the objective world in all its real versatility and inconsistency. Note that this type of pathos is rarely represented in literature, and even less often it appears in pure form. Examples of works based generally on epic-dramatic pathos include Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, Rabelais’s novel Gargantua and Pantagruel, Shakespeare’s play The Tempest, Pushkin’s poem “Do I wander along the noisy streets...” Tolstoy's epic novel "War and Peace", Tvardovsky's poem "Vasily Terkin".
The objective basis of the pathos of heroism is the struggle of individuals or groups for the implementation and defense of ideals, which are necessarily perceived as sublime. At the same time, people's actions are certainly associated with personal risk, personal danger, and are associated with the real possibility of a person losing some significant values - even life itself. Another condition for the manifestation of the heroic in reality is the free will and initiative of man: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic. The writer’s ideological and emotional awareness of the objectively heroic leads to the emergence of heroic pathos. "Heroic pathos in literature<...>affirms the greatness of the feat of an individual or an entire team, its value and necessity for the development of a nation, people, humanity”*. The desire to remake the world, the structure of which seems unjust, or the desire to defend an ideal world (as well as one close to the ideal and seemingly so) - this is the emotional basis of heroism.
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* Rudneva EG. The pathos of a work of art. M., 1977. P. 160.

In literature it is not difficult to find works entirely or mainly built on heroic pathos, and specific situations, as well as the sublime ideals of heroism, can be very different. We meet heroics in “The Song of Roland” and in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, in Gogol’s “Taras Bulba” and in Voynich’s “Gadfly”, in Gorky’s novel “Mother”, in Sholokhov’s stories and many other works.
With heroism as pathos based on the sublime, other types of pathos that have a sublime character come into contact - first of all, tragedy and romance. Romance is related to heroism by the desire for a sublime ideal. But if heroism is a sphere of active action, then romance is a region of emotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The objective basis of romance is such situations in personal and public life when the realization of a sublime ideal is either impossible in principle or impracticable at a given historical moment. However, on such an objective basis, not only the pathos of romance can, in principle, arise, but also tragedy, irony, and satire, so the decisive factor in romance is still the subjective moment, the moment of experiencing an irreparable gap between dream and reality.
One of the special (and very common) cases of romance is the dream of the heroic, an orientation towards the heroic ideal in the absence of the opportunity to translate it into reality. This kind of romance is characteristic, for example, of young people in “quiet” periods of history: young men and girls often feel that they were “too late to be born” in order to participate in revolutions and wars - an example of this type of romance is early work V. Vysotsky: “...And in the basements and semi-basements // The kids wanted to run under the tanks // They didn’t even get a bullet...” However, the sphere of romance is broader than this craving for heroism. This emotional-value orientation places all values in the realm of the fundamentally unattainable. The natural world of romance is a dream, fantasy, daydream, which is why romantic works are so often turned either to the past (“Borodino” and “Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov” by Lermontov, “Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich” by A.K. Tolstoy, “Shulamith” by Kuprin), or to outright exoticism (the southern poems of Pushkin, “Mtsyri” by Lermontov, “The Giraffe” by Gumilyov), or to something fundamentally non-existent (“The Double” by A. Pogorelsky, “The Demon” by Lermontov, “Aelita” by A.N. Tolstoy).
In the history of literature, many works are marked by the pathos of romance. Romance should not be confused with romanticism as a literary movement of the late 18th and early 19th centuries; it is found in a variety of historical eras, as Belinsky* pointed out. Obviously, romantic pathos originated in ancient lyric poetry; Among the works that are closer to us, we point out “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by Gogol, “Mtsyri” by Lermontov, “First Love” by Turgenev, “Old Woman Izergil” by Gorky, the early works of Blok and Mayakovsky.
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* Belinsky V.G. Full collection cit.: In 13 volumes. T. 7. pp. 144–183.

The pathos of romance can appear in literature in combination with other types of pathos, in particular, with irony (Blok), heroism (“Good!” Mayakovsky), satire (Nekrasov).
The pathos of tragedy is the awareness of a loss, and an irreparable loss, of some important life values - human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc. Literary scholars and aestheticians have long considered the insoluble nature of a particular life conflict to be the objective basis of tragedy. In principle, this is true, but not entirely accurate, because the insolubility of a conflict is, strictly speaking, a conditional thing and not necessarily tragic. The first condition of the tragic is the regularity of this conflict, a situation where its unresolved nature cannot be tolerated. Secondly, by the intractability of a conflict we mean the impossibility of its successful resolution - it is certainly associated with victims, with the death of certain indisputable humanistic values. This, for example, is the nature of the conflict in Pushkin’s “Little Tragedies,” Ostrovsky’s “The Thunderstorm,” Bulgakov’s “White Guard,” Tvardovsky’s poems “I was killed near Rzhev...”, “I know, it’s not my fault...”, etc. p.
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* See, for example: Borev Yu. Aesthetics. M., 1981. P. 80; Literary encyclopedic dictionary. P. 442.

A tragic situation in life can also arise by chance, as a result of an unfavorable combination of circumstances, but such situations are not of much interest to literature. She is more interested in the tragic natural, arising from the essence of characters and positions. The most fruitful for art is such a tragic conflict when insoluble contradictions are in the soul of the hero, when the hero is in a situation of free choice between two equally necessary, but mutually exclusive values. In this case, the tragic acquires maximum depth; Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”, Lermontov’s “Hero of Our Time”, Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”, “ Quiet Don" Sholokhov, "The Fall" by Camus, "The Defiler of the Ashes" by Faulkner and many other works.
In sentimentality - another type of pathos - we, as in romance, observe the predominance of the subjective over the objective. Sentimentality literally translated from French means sensitivity; it represents one of the first manifestations of humanism, but a very peculiar one. In certain situations, almost every person happens to show sentimentality - for example, most normal people cannot pass indifferently past the suffering of a child, a helpless person, or even an animal. Sentimentality as the ability to “pity” very often combines subject and object (a person feels sorry for himself; this feeling is apparently familiar to everyone from childhood and found an ideal artistic embodiment in Tolstoy’s “Childhood”). But even if sentimental pity is directed at the phenomena of the surrounding world, the person reacting to it always remains in the center - touching, compassionate. At the same time, sympathy for another in sentimentality is fundamentally ineffective; it acts as a kind of psychological substitute for real help (such, for example, is the artistically expressed sympathy for the peasant in the works of Radishchev and Nekrasov).
In its developed form, sentimentality appeared in literature in the middle of the 18th century, giving its name to the literary movement of sentimentalism. The pathos of sentimentality often played a dominant role in the works of Richardson, Rousseau, Karamzin, Radishchev, and partly Goethe and Stern. In the further development of literature, we also encounter, although infrequently, the pathos of sentimentality, for example, in “Old World Landowners” and “The Overcoat” by Gogol, some stories from Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter” (“Singers”, “Bezhin Meadow”), in his the story “Mumu”, in the works of Dickens, Dostoevsky (“Humiliated and Insulted”, “Poor People”), Nekrasov.
Moving on to consider the following typological varieties of pathos - humor and satire - we note that they are based on the general basis of the comic. Literary scholars and aestheticians have dealt extremely heavily with the problem of defining the comic and its essence, noting mainly that the comic is based on the internal contradictions of an object or phenomenon*. The essence of the comic conflict was perhaps most accurately defined by N.G. Chernyshevsky: “internal emptiness and insignificance, hiding behind an appearance that has a claim to content and real meaning”**. More broadly, the objective basis of the comic can be defined as the contradiction between ideal and reality, norm and reality. It should only be noted that the subjective understanding of such a contradiction will not always and not necessarily occur in a comic way.
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* On various theories of the comic, see: Dzemidok B. On the comic. M, 1974. P. 560.
** Chernyshevsky N.G. Full collection cit.: In 15 vols. M, 1949. T. P. S. 31.

A satirical image appears in a work when the object of satire is recognized by the author as irreconcilably opposed to his ideal, being in an antagonistic relationship with him. F. Schiller wrote that “in satire, reality, as a kind of imperfection, is opposed to the ideal as supreme reality"*. Satire is aimed at those phenomena that actively interfere with the establishment or existence of the ideal, and sometimes are directly dangerous for its existence. Satirical pathos has been known in literature since ancient times (for example, ridiculing the enemy in folk tales and songs, satirical tales, etc.), however, in its developed form, satire is brought to life primarily by social struggle, therefore we find wide distribution of satirical pathos in literature antiquity. Renaissance and Enlightenment; Such is the satire of Russian revolutionary democrats, satire in Russian literature of the 20th century.
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* Schiller F. Articles on aesthetics. M.; L., 1935. P. 344.

Sometimes the object of satire turns out to be so dangerous for the existence of the ideal, and its activities are so dramatic and even tragic in their consequences, that understanding it no longer causes laughter - this situation develops, for example, in Saltykov-Shchedrin’s novel “The Golovlevs.” At the same time, the connection between satire and the comic is broken, therefore such denying pathos, not associated with ridicule, should obviously be considered a special, independent type of ideological and emotional attitude to life, denoting this type with the term “invective.” We find such a solution, in particular, in the Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary: “there is, however, not a comic satire, inspired by indignation alone (see Invective)”*. Such a prominent specialist in this field as E.Ya. also spoke about the need to especially highlight a non-satirical, but denying attitude towards reality. Elsberg**.
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* Literary encyclopedic dictionary. P. 162. Wed. also p. 121.
** Elsberg Ya.E. Questions of the theory of satire. M., 1957. P. 287 et seq.

For example, Lermontov’s poem “Farewell, unwashed Russia...” has the pathos of invective. It expresses a sharply negative attitude towards the autocratic police state, but there is no ridicule, comedy, or expectation of laughter. The work does not use a single element of satirical poetics itself, designed to create a comic effect: there is no hyperbolism, no grotesque, no absurd, illogical situations and speech structures. In form and content, this is a short lyrical monologue, expressing the poet’s very serious feeling - a feeling of hatred for “the country of slaves, the country of masters.” Pathos of the same type is also characteristic of Lermontov’s poem “On the Death of a Poet” (or rather, its second part), many of Horace’s “satires”, journalistic denunciations in Radishchev’s “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, A. Platonov’s story “The Inanimate Enemy”, Simonov’s poem “If your home is dear to you...” (which, by the way, in the first edition in 1942 was called “Kill him!”) and many other works.
The distinction between satire and humor causes certain difficulties for the typology. In broad literary usage, these types of pathos are distinguished as “merciless ridicule” and “soft ridicule,” respectively. This is true to a certain extent, but not enough, since here quantitative rather than qualitative differences are recorded and it remains unclear why destructive laughter occurs in one case, and vice versa in another.
In order to determine the qualitative originality of humorous pathos, it should be taken into account that humor is an expression of a fundamentally different value orientation than satire and invective. In a certain sense, he is directly opposed to them in terms of initial attitudes.
“Uncompromising judgments about the subject of ridicule, outright tendentiousness is a way of expressing the author’s individuality inherent in satire, striving to establish an impassable boundary between one’s own world and the subject of denunciation”*. The same, and perhaps to an even greater extent, applies to invective. In humor, the relationship between object and subject is different; The attitude towards life’s contradictions and inconsistencies is different. Humor overcomes the objective comedy of reality (its inherent contradictions and inconsistencies) by accepting them as an inevitable and, moreover, a necessary part of life, as a source not of anger, but of joy and optimism. Humor, unlike satire and invective, first of all does not deny, but affirms pathos, although, of course, it may well reveal the inconsistency of certain phenomena, thereby performing a denying function. But in relation to being in its integrity, humor affirms.
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* Literary encyclopedic dictionary. P. 370.

Unlike satire, the subject of a humorous worldview does not separate himself from the rest of the world, and therefore sees not only the shortcomings and contradictions of reality, but also his own. The ability and willingness to laugh at oneself is the most important subjective prerequisite for humor.
Thus, humor in its deepest basis is an expression of optimism, mental health, acceptance of life - it is no coincidence that they often talk about life-affirming humor. This is fully manifested in such works as “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by Rabelais, “The Legend of Till Eulenspiegel” by S. de Coster, “The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik” by Hasek, “Vasily Terkin” by Tvardovsky, etc. However, on that general ideological basis Based on the emotional basis that was just discussed, other variants of humorous pathos may arise. The range of humorous laughter is extremely wide, as is the range of situations that excite humorous pathos. Humor occupies a significant place in such works as “Don Quixote” by Cervantes, “Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club” by Dickens, “Old World Landowners” and “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by Gogol, in the comedies of Ostrovsky, Chekhov, Shaw, O. Wilde, in the stories and tales of Leskov, Chekhov, Sholokhov, Shukshin, etc. Even in such seemingly inappropriate genres as tragedy, humor sometimes plays an important role - let us remember, for example, Shakespeare’s tragedies “Hamlet” and “King Lear”: in the first The bearers of a humorous attitude are the gravediggers, and in the second, the jester.
Humor usually concludes the consideration of the varieties of pathos, but it seems necessary to introduce another variety into this typology - irony. The concept of it is not sufficiently developed in modern literary criticism. Most often, irony is in one way or another identified with one of the varieties of humor or satire, differing from them only in the form of expression of ridicule*. In this form, isolating irony into an independent type is, of course, not justified. But meanwhile, irony also has its own “field of activity”, which does not coincide with the “field of activity” of humor and satire. The ironic vision of the world is deeply unique. The main subjective basis of irony is skepticism, which humor and satire usually lack.
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* See: Ibid. P. 132; Dictionary of literary terms. M., 1974. S. 109-110, 146.

In addition to the subjective, irony as pathos also has objective specificity. Unlike all other types of pathos, it is not aimed at objects and phenomena of reality as such, but at their ideological or emotional understanding in one or another philosophical, ethical, artistic system. The pathos of irony is that it “disagrees” with one or another assessment (usually a high one) of a character, or a situation, or life in general. So, for example, in Voltaire’s philosophical story “Candide”, Voltaire interprets the character of Pangloss humorously. But this is not the main pathos of the story, since in it the author’s focus is not on character as such, but on the philosophical system of “unbridled optimism” preached by Pangloss. And here the pathos of irony comes into its own. Voltaire does not agree with the absolute optimism of Pangloss, showing (in particular, using the example of his own fate) that far from “everything is for the best in this best of worlds.” But - even in this characteristic feature irony - the opposite opinion (“everything is for the worse in this worst of worlds”), which is held by Pangloss’s opponent, is also not accepted by Voltaire. The pathos of the story, therefore, lies in mocking skepticism towards extreme, absolutist philosophical systems. This is the pathos of irony.
Irony is based on the discrepancy between a phenomenon and a judgment about it, mockingly and skeptically debunking this judgment, but not in favor of a judgment of the opposite, which is the difference between irony and any other pathos that combines negation with the affirmation of the opposite. It is in this capacity - to mockingly debunk every statement about the world - that irony appeared in world literature as special kind pathos. The first time this happened was probably in Plato's Socratic dialogues. Socrates' irony in them is directed not at the subject of the dispute itself, but at its understanding by the opponent - hasty, inaccurate, contradictory, overestimated, etc. At the end of antiquity we encounter the same pathos in Lucian. For example, in his “Dialogues in the Kingdom of the Dead” the ironic depiction of the Olympian gods is directed not against the gods themselves as such (Lucian does not believe in them), and not against the human characters embodied in them (which are only schematically outlined), but against a certain philosophical and religious belief system, against the traditional concept of the world.
“Irony,” writes T. Mann, “is the pathos of the middle; she is an intellectual reservation that frolics between contrasts and is in no hurry to take sides and make a decision, for it is full of a presentiment that in big questions where it comes to a person, any decision may turn out to be premature and untenable and that it is not the decision that is goal, but harmony, which, since we are talking about eternal contradictions, perhaps lies somewhere in eternity, but which already carries within itself a playful slip called irony.”*
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* Mann T. Collection. cit.: In 10 volumes. M., 1954. T. 9. P. 603-604.

From what has been said, it is clear that irony occupies an exceptional place among other ideological and emotional orientations, since it is universally opposed to them - this is especially true for types of pathos based on the sublime. The pathos of romance and sentimentality is most often subject to ironic rethinking - let us point out, in particular, “ An ordinary story"Goncharov, "The Cherry Orchard" by Chekhov.
Until now, we have been talking about the pathos of the entire work, which reflects the author’s ideological and emotional orientation. But for analysis it is often important to determine the author’s ideological and emotional attitude towards a particular character, and often also this hero’s own ideological and emotional orientation. Let us explain what we mean. For example, the general pathos of Tolstoy’s epic novel “War and Peace” can well be defined as epic-dramatic. But at the same time, in the system of this general ideological and emotional orientation of the author, his attitude towards different characters is different. Thus, in relation to Helen Kuragina or Napoleon, the pathos of invective prevails, in the image of Andrei Bolkonsky tragedy is accentuated, Tikhon Shcherbaty, Captain Tushin, capital Timokhin embody heroic pathos, etc. Even the same character at different moments in the narrative can express different ideological and emotional orientations. Thus, with the general epic-dramatic pathos in Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”, tragedy, humor, heroism, and invective come to the fore. This entire rather complex range of ideological and emotional orientations constitutes the uniqueness of the ideological world of the work and requires mandatory analysis.
It is equally important sometimes to determine the ideological and emotional orientation of the hero himself, that is, to establish his attitude to the world. So, for example, to analyze the content of the work, it is necessary to understand that Lensky in Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” embodies the romantic world orientation; the ideological and emotional essence of Gogol’s Chichikov is a combination of sentimentality and cynicism; in Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov embodies an ideological and emotional conglomerate of tragedy, heroism and invective; Sonya is closest to the epic-dramatic orientation with a considerable addition of sentimentality; Svidrigaigov is a typical ironist, Luzhin is a cynic, etc. The process of determining the ideological and emotional orientation of characters, as a rule, is not only useful, but also interesting - this is one of the fruitful ways to a living comprehension of not only the ideological world, but also the problems of the writer.
Studying the types of pathos is a necessary condition for analyzing an individual work. Correctly determining the type of pathos in a particular work means understanding one of the most essential aspects of its content and opening the way for the subsequent understanding of artistic originality. In addition, determining the type of pathos turns out to be extremely important for selective analysis, which will be discussed below.

Having finished considering the various aspects of artistic content, we now move on to the analysis of the artistic form, which also has a complex composition and structure. In artistic form we will distinguish three structural levels: the depicted world, artistic speech and composition. In principle, it does not matter which side of the artistic form to start the analysis from, you just need to take into account that all three sides are interconnected and together they create the aesthetic unity of the artistic form - style.

TEST QUESTIONS:

1. What is the ideological world and what are its functions in the structure of the work?
2. What aspects does the ideological world contain?
3. What is the author's assessment? What to do if it is impossible to unambiguously determine the author’s assessment in relation to a particular hero?
4. What is the author’s ideal and how is it expressed in a work of art?
5. What is the idea of a work and what are the ways of expressing it artistically?
6. Is an idea the rational or emotional side of the ideological world?
7. How are the theme, problem and idea of the work fundamentally different from each other?
8. What is the pathos of a work of art?
9. What typological types of pathos do you know?
10. Briefly describe the main distinctive features of each type of pathos.
11. What's the difference?
a) between heroics and romance, b) between satire and humor, c) between satire and invective?
12. What is unique about irony as a type of pathos?

Closely related to the idea is pathos (Greek pathos - feeling, passion) - inspiration, a passionate experience of emotional upliftment caused by an idea or event. In pathos, thought and feeling form a single whole. Aristotle understood pathos as the passion that motivates one to write a work. By. Belinsky, pathos is “an idea - passion.” “From here,” notes A. Tkachenko, “the conceptual tautology originates: you define an idea through pathos, and pathos through an idea. The apogee of departure from the original essence of the concept of pathos can be considered the statement, according to which all types of pathos are created by contradictions of social characters, writers interpret them on the basis of ideological positions. These positions include the partisanship of the writers’ social thinking and are determined by the classism of their worldview.” Tkachenko believes that the authors of the textbook "Introduction to Literary Studies" edited. G. Pospelov, naming such types of pathos as heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, humorous, sentimental, romantic, does not respect the unity of other classification criteria. Dramatic, tragic, satirical are associated with genres, and sentimental and romantic - literary trends. Pathos, in my opinion. A. Tkachenko, is excessive rhetorical theatricality. He suggests using the term “tonality.” A type of tonality is pathos. In addition to the pathetic tonality, there is a lyrical tonality with such subtypes as sentimentality, romance, humorists, melancholy; dramatic with tragic, satirical, sarcastic, sentimental, romantic subspecies; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic.

Each type of tonality has its own shades. So, in lyrics, the tonality can be nostalgic, melancholic, mathematical. Positive emotions associated with major key. According to opinion. A. Tkachenko, pathos is more historical, deliberate than tonality.

Heroic pathos

The subject of heroic pathos is the heroism of reality itself - the activities of people who overcome the elements of nature, fight the reactionary forces of society, defending freedom and independence. Fatherland. The heroic occupies an important place in mythology. Ancient. Greece, where, along with the images of gods, there are images of heroes performing majestic feats, arouse admiration and a desire to imitate them. These are. Achilles. Patroclus. Hector from Homer's Iliad, heroes of myths. Prometheus,. Hercules. Perseiracles,. Perseus.

Italian philosopher. D. Vico, in his work “Fundamentals of a new science about the general nature of nations,” wrote that heroism is characteristic only of the initial state of human development - the “age of heroes.” In his opinion, every nation goes through three stages - theocratic, aristocratic and democratic. The first stage corresponds to the “age of the gods”, this is the period when people connect their history with mythology, imagining that they are ruled by gods. The third stage is the “age of people.” Between the “age of the gods” and the “age of people” is the “age of heroes” who reign in aristocratic republics. Vico believed that these heroes are rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions. Heroes are rude, wild, uncultured, cruel, with unlimited passions.

According to opinion. According to Hegel, heroism provides for the free self-determination of the individual and is not subject to laws. The hero performs national tasks as his own. Hegel believed that heroic activity is inherent in people who live in the “age of heroes,” i.e. in the pre-state period. When the state achieves significant development, there sets in, in his words, a “prosaically ordered reality,” “each individual receives only a certain and limited part in the work of the whole,” and “the state as a whole cannot be trusted to arbitrariness, strength, masculinity, courage, and understanding.” individual personality, goodness, and the general public."

Hegel is right that the "age of heroes" was a historical stage in the development of nation-states when heroism could be discovered directly and freely. But with the emergence of states, heroism, contrary to the assertion. GHS then does not disappear, but changes its character, becomes conscious and morally responsible. Yes, Count. Roland "Songs of Roland" dies for the freedom of his native. France. However, the state can be not only a progressive, but also a reactionary force that hinders national development, hence the need for anti-state activities of progressive people directed against the outdated government. This fight requires significant heroic reinforcements of heroic zusil.

Since the era. Renaissance, national-historical heroism is closely connected with the formation of feudal states, and subsequently - bourgeois nations

In the sociology of the 20th century there are two opposing trends: one is the mystification of the heroic personality, the second excludes the possibility of a heroic personality in modern society. Englishman. Raglen wrote that heroes are a product of social myths. According to the American sociologist. Daniela. Boorstin, today the hero turns into a celebrity, who is the antipode of the hero.

Each era is characterized by its own type of heroism: either a liberating impulse, or self-sacrifice, or simply sacrifice in the name of universal human values. The heroic can manifest itself through the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic and the comic.

Pathos of drama

Like heroism, drama is generated by the contradictions of life. Drama arises when the high aspirations of people, and sometimes even life, are threatened with defeat or death. Dramatic events and situations can be generally natural and random, but only the former are the themes of works. Hegel noted that art is interested primarily in the socio-historical characteristics of the lives of the depicted individuals.

When people wage an intense political struggle, become victims of repression, and consciously prepare for wars of liberation, a deep drama of people’s actions and experiences arises. The writer can sympathize with the characters who find themselves in a dramatic situation; such drama is ideologically affirming pathos. He can also condemn the characters responsible for causing the dramatic situation. In tragedy. Aeschylus' "Persians" described defeating the Persian fleet in a war of conquest against the Greeks. For. Aeschylus and Ancient. Greece's experience of dramatic events by the Persians is an act of condemnation of the enemy who encroached on the freedom of the Greeks. The pathos of drama. Pron iknute "The Lay of Igor's Regiment" Using an example. Igor, the author of the work shows what sad consequences the princely civil strife leads to.

In the story. M. Kotsyubinsky "Fata morgana", in the novel. Balzac's "Père. Goriot" drama arises as a result of social inequality. The drama of events and experiences can have an ideologically affirming character. This kind of drama characterizes the "Song of Fr. Roland", which depicts the struggle of the Frankish troops. Charles V with the Saracens and death. Roland and. Olivera V. Ronsylvanian Gorges by Oliver V. Ronsilvan Gorge.

Personal relationships between people are often characterized by drama. The heroine of the novel. L. Tolstoy's "Anna. Karenina", who did not experience happiness in family life, first recognized him with. Vronsky, left her husband, broke with the hypocritical world, took upon herself the full burden of class oppression, but could not stand it and committed suicide.

Sentimentality

Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a trend. Theorist of German sentimentalism. F. Schiller in the article

“On Naive and Sentimental Poetry” (1796) named the Roman poet as the founder of sentimental poetry. Horace, extols in his own. Tibur "calm luxury" F. Schiller calls. Horace's post "Oswiche enoi and the corrupted era" Schiller wrote that sentimentality arose when naive life with its moral integrity and purity became a thing of the past or was relegated to the periphery of social relations. For the emergence of a sentimental worldview, it was necessary that dissatisfaction with its shortcomings should appear in society and that progressive forces would find pleasure in the pursuit of a morally pure and civil life, leaving a past life, like leaving the past.

G. Pospelov believes that talking about the sentimental pathos of the works. Horace,"Bucolics" of Virgil, idylls. Theocritus, stories. The foal "Daphnis and Chloe" does not stand because they do not have the "emotional reflection of the people themselves and even more so of their authors." He finds the first glimpses of sentimentality in the works of the Provençal troubadours (12th century). The pathos of sentimentality was clearly manifested in XVIII literature century her ger. OEM was a simple, modest, sincere person who retained the vestiges of patriarchy. This hero became the subject of artistic reflection, becoming the subject of artistic reflection.

The origins of sentimental feelings in Ukrainian literature reach the 17th-18th centuries, they originate in the Baroque era. Sentimentalist writers are imbued with sympathy for heroes who cannot find harmony. Monet in real life They are far from socio-political conflicts, but close to nature, their sensitivity comes from the “heart” of the heroes. I. Kotlyarevsky ("Natalka. Poltavka"). G. Kvitki-Osnovyanenko. Eat. Combs ("Tchaikovsky") are characterized by unshakable moral convictions, the desire to overcome one's suffering, internal stoicism of one's suffering, internal stoicism.

The formation of Ukrainian sentimentalism was significantly influenced by the cordocentric character of Ukrainian philosophy. “Unlike the Western European philosophical tradition, where the “heart” never had an ontological aspect,” notes I. Limborsky, “it has been in Ukrainian thinkers since the time of G. Skovoroda acts as both the source of all feelings and an instrument of knowledge, which should be unconditionally trusted and carefully trusted."

In the textbook "Introduction to Literary Studies" ed. G. Pospelov has the following definition of sentimental pathos: “This is spiritual touching caused by the awareness of moral dignity in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral, privileged environment.”

Conditions for the emergence of sentimental pathos also exist in the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. A striking example is the story. F. Dostoevsky's "Poor People" is his hero, an official. Devushkin is poor, little man, who is known to be disrespected by employees for only copying papers. But he is proud that he honestly earns his piece of bread, considers himself a respectable citizen, highly values his “ambition”, his reputation, and is ready to protect himself from humiliation in the form of humiliation.

The pathos of sentimentality is present in the works. Yu. Fedkovich ("Love is a disaster"). P. Grabovsky ("The Seamstress")

The ability for emotional reflection contributed to the emergence of not only sentimentality, but also romance

Romance

Sentimentality is a reflection of tenderness, emotion, caused by a past life with its simplicity, moral perfection of relationships and experiences. Romance is a reflective passion directed towards the sublime, towards the ideal. The word “romantic” (French romantique) first appeared in English poetry and criticism in the mid-18th century (Thomson, Collins) to define the pathos of creativity.

Romance is most often associated with the idea of national independence, civil freedom, equality and brotherhood of peoples, this is an uplifting mood

O. Veselovsky called romantic writers enthusiasts. Romance is the enthusiasm of emotional aspirations and feelings. It appeared in the Middle Ages and permeates works about legendary knights and love lyrics. Petrarch, novel. Cervantes "Don Quixote", tragedy. Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" Romantic pathos is present in the works of sentimentalists, romantics, realists, etc. Neo-romanticists and neo-romantics.

Yu. Kuznetsov defines romantic pathos as “a dreamy and elated mood, which is characterized by outbursts of feelings, a heightened experience of unusual events, the process of activity, opposed to everyday life”

Humor and satire

Humor (Latin humor - moisture) is a reflection of the funny, amusing in life phenomena and characters, a manifestation of an optimistic, cheerful attitude towards reality, the triumph of healthy forces over backward ones, without promising ones. Humor can be soft, benevolent, sad, sarcastic, caustic, vulgar. “The object of humor,” according to the observation of Yu. Kuznetsova, “is not a holistic phenomenon, object or person, but individual and flaws in generally positive phenomena that are inadequate to the specific situation of human actions toppings...

Humor, including the contradictions and contrasts of life, is created primarily by metaphor, and not by comparison, which makes it possible to reveal the sublime in a limited, petty fact, so in artistic expression it often takes on an optimistic rather than critical tone.

Humor is basically a manifestation of an optimistic, humanistic attitude towards reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the joyless, unpromising. According to opinion. Voltaire, satire should be biting and at the same time funny. The sting of satire is directed against socially significant ugly facts. The object of satire is socio-comic, dangerous for society and people, the object of humor is elementary comic. Laughter in satire and humor has different tones, different levels of social and artistic comprehension life phenomena. Humorous and satirical tonality sometimes coexist in one work. Humor and satire can combine such types of comics as wit, irony, sarcasm, and methods such as pathos, pun, caricature, parody, joke, hyperbole.

Closely related to the idea is pathos (Greek pathos - feeling, passion) - inspiration, a passionate experience of emotional upliftment caused by an idea or event. In pathos, thought and feeling form a single whole. Aristotle understood pathos as the passion that motivates one to write a work. By. Belinsky, pathos is “an idea - passion.” “From here,” notes A. Tkachenko, “the conceptual tautology originates: you define an idea through pathos, and pathos through an idea. The apogee of departure from the original essence of the concept of pathos can be considered the statement, according to which all types of pathos are created by contradictions of social characters, writers interpret them on the basis of ideological positions. These positions include the partisanship of the writers’ social thinking and are determined by the classism of their worldview.” Tkachenko believes that the authors of the textbook "Introduction to Literary Studies" edited. G. Pospelov, naming such types of pathos as heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, humorous, sentimental, romantic, does not respect the unity of other classification criteria. Dramatic, tragic, satirical are associated with genres, and sentimental and romantic are associated with literary movements. Pathos, in my opinion. A. Tkachenko, is excessive rhetorical theatricality. He suggests using the term “tonality.” A type of tonality is pathos. In addition to the pathetic tonality, there is a lyrical tonality with such subtypes as sentimentality, romance, humorists, melancholy; dramatic with tragic, satirical, sarcastic, sentimental, romantic subspecies; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic; epic with subtypes: heroic, descriptive, fantastic.

Each type of tonality has its own shades. So, in lyrics, the tonality can be nostalgic, melancholic, mathematical. Positive emotions are associated with a major key. According to opinion. A. Tkachenko, pathos is more historical, deliberate than tonality.

Heroic pathos

Since the era. Renaissance, national-historical heroism is closely connected with the formation of feudal states, and subsequently - bourgeois nations

Pathos of drama

Sentimentality

Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a trend. Theorist of German sentimentalism. F. Schiller in the article

G. Pospelov believes that talking about the sentimental pathos of the works. Horace,"Bucolics" of Virgil, idylls. Theocritus, stories. The foal "Daphnis and Chloe" does not stand because they do not have the "emotional reflection of the people themselves and even more so of their authors." He finds the first glimpses of sentimentality in the works of the Provençal troubadours (12th century). The pathos of sentimentality was clearly manifested in the literature of the 18th century. OEM was a simple, modest, sincere person who retained the vestiges of patriarchy. This hero became the subject of artistic reflection, becoming the subject of artistic reflection.

The origins of sentimental feelings in Ukrainian literature reach the 17th-18th centuries, they originate in the Baroque era. Sentimentalist writers are imbued with sympathy for heroes who cannot find harmony. Monet in real life they are far from socio-political conflicts, but close to nature, their sensitivity comes from the “heart” of the heroes. I. Kotlyarevsky ("Natalka. Poltavka"). G. Kvitki-Osnovyanenko. Eat. Combs ("Tchaikovsky") are characterized by unshakable moral convictions, the desire to overcome one's suffering, internal stoicism of one's suffering, internal stoicism.

Conditions for the emergence of sentimental pathos also exist in the literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. A striking example is the story. F. Dostoevsky's "Poor People" is his hero, an official. Devushkin is a poor, little man who is known to be disrespected by the employees for only copying papers. But he is proud that he honestly earns his piece of bread, considers himself a respectable citizen, highly values his “ambition”, his reputation, and is ready to protect himself from humiliation in the form of humiliation.

The pathos of sentimentality is present in the works. Yu. Fedkovich ("Love is a disaster"). P. Grabovsky ("The Seamstress")

The ability for emotional reflection contributed to the emergence of not only sentimentality, but also romance

Romance

Romance is most often associated with the idea of national independence, civil freedom, equality and brotherhood of peoples, this is an uplifting mood

Humor and satire

Humor is basically a manifestation of an optimistic, humanistic attitude towards reality, the triumph of healthy forces over the joyless, unpromising. According to opinion. Voltaire, satire should be biting and at the same time funny. The sting of satire is directed against socially significant ugly facts. The object of satire is socio-comic, dangerous for society and people, the object of humor is elementary comic. Laughter in satire and humor has a different tone, different levels of social and artistic understanding of life phenomena. Humorous and satirical tonality sometimes coexist in one work. Humor and satire can combine such types of comics as wit, irony, sarcasm, and methods such as pathos, pun, caricature, parody, joke, hyperbole.

1. (Greek suffering), a passion that causes an action that entails suffering, as well as the suffering itself experienced fundamentally. waste element in antiquity. If P. is in the middle of a tragic actions, then this is pathetic. tragedy (as opposed to ethical, in which character and its development are more important). P.'s effect in tragedy intensifies when P. appears unexpectedly. P. belongs to the emotional elements of tragedy and creates in it, as in pathetic. music (playing the flute), creatures, the premise of catharsis. P.'s action in poetry and music is not aimed at educating the listener, but is associated with pleasure. Plato therefore argues with tragedy, while Aristotle justifies it.

2. city on zatt. coast of Cyprus, colonized in Mycenaean times by the Arcadians. Place of veneration of Aphrodite.

Great definition

Incomplete definition ↓

PATHOS

from Greek pathos – suffering, inspiration, passion), the emotional content of a work of art, feelings and emotions that the author puts into the text, expecting the reader’s empathy. In modern literary criticism, the term is used in combination with “the pathos of a work” - for example, the pathos of “Dead Souls” and “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol (according to the author himself) - “laughter visible to the world through tears invisible to him.” In the history of literature, the term “pathos” had different meanings: in ancient theory, pathos is passion as a property of the soul, its ability to feel something. In German classical aesthetics, pathos is a set of passions that determines the content of human behavior. For the German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, pathos is the essential content of the human “I” (for example, the pathos of Romeo is his love for Juliet). V. G. Belinsky for the first time shifts the emphasis from the properties of a person to the properties of the text: pathos is characteristic not of the writer or his hero, but of the work or creativity as a whole. Modern literary criticism close to Belinsky's interpretation. Sometimes the word “pathetic” is used to mean “too emotional, too tragic.”