People's militia during the years of unrest. IV. Third militia

The term " Time of Troubles"was accepted by historians of the 18th-19th centuries. During the Soviet period, historians rejected it as "noble-bourgeois", proposing instead "peasant war and foreign intervention", which, of course, does not fully correspond to the definition of this period. Now the concept of "Troubles" is returning, and at the same time it is proposed to call the events of the early 17th century in Russia a civil war, because almost everyone was involved in them. social groups and layers. Hidden interventionCrisis situation at the beginning of the 17th century. in Russia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took advantage (Lithuania and Poland united by the Union of Lublin in 1569). Having fled from the Kremlin Chudov Monastery to Poland and declaring himself Tsar Dmitry (in fact, he died in 1591 in Uglich), Grigory Otrepiev was supported by Polish magnates, with the help of whom he, at the head of a 4,000-strong army, launched a campaign against Moscow in 1604. Peasants and townspeople of the western border lands began to go over to his side, and after Godunov’s unexpected death, the boyars. In June 1605, False Dmitry I entered Moscow and was proclaimed tsar. However, the policies he pursued did not satisfy either the ruling elite or the masses. The cup of patience was filled with his wedding with the Catholic Marina Mnishek. On May 17, 1606 he was killed. Vasily Shuisky became tsar, ruling primarily based on the interests of the boyars and at the same time strengthening enslavement measures. Peasant uprising A continuation of previous uprisings was the peasant uprising led by Ivan Bolotnikov (1606-1607). The campaign also began from the western Russian lands (Komaritskaya volost). The army was diverse in social composition: Cossacks, peasants, serfs, townspeople, service people of all ranks. The uprising had a tsarist orientation: Bolotnikov himself acted as the governor of Tsar Dmitry Ivanovich. After conducting a series of successful battles against government searches, the Bolotnikovites approached Moscow. After a two-month siege, due to the betrayal of the nobles, they were forced to retreat to Kaluga, and then Tula, where they capitulated to the tsarist army. The reasons for the defeat were spontaneity, poor armament, diversity social composition rebels, vagueness of the program. Transition to open intervention Even when Vasily Shuisky was leading the siege of Tula, a new impostor appeared in Poland - False Dmitry II, who, unlike False Dmitry I, put forward by internal forces, from the very beginning was a protégé of the Polish king Sigismund III. His army included Polish troops, Cossacks, as well as remnants of the Bolotnikovites. Having defeated Shuisky's troops in several clashes, in June 1608 the impostor approached Moscow and stopped in the town of Tushino. The Tushino camp was formed. Orders and the Boyar Duma were formed, the patriarch was “named” (he became Filaret, in the world the boyar Folor Nikitovich Romanov). Thus, the Tushins resisted the tsarist government and the government of Vasily Shuisky. Their power extended to a significant part of the country (north and northwest). A powerful fortress, the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, was besieged. Taking advantage of the fact that the Moscow government entered into an alliance with Sweden in February 1609, Poland, which was at war with it, moved on to open intervention in Russia. In September, the siege of Smolensk by Sigismund III began. The further task was the direct conquest of Russian lands, and the Polish king began to lay claim to the royal throne. In the summer of 1610, Polish troops moved towards Moscow. Under these conditions, the boyars and nobles carried out a coup in July 1610: they overthrew Shuisky. A transitional government of seven boyars was formed - the “seven boyars” (1610-1612). The boyars, planning to place the Polish prince Vladislav on the Russian throne, allowed Polish troops into the Kremlin, led by Hetman Gonsevsky, who began to rule autocratically in the country. And in the north the Swedes took over the occupation. Russia faced a direct threat of losing its independence. The First and Second People's Militia Now only relying on the masses could it be possible to win and preserve the independence of the Russian state. The idea of ​​a national militia is maturing in the country. By February-March 1611, the first militia was formed. Its leader was the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov. Soon the militia laid siege to Moscow, and on March 19, a decisive battle took place, in which the rebel Muscovites took part. It was not possible to liberate the city. Remaining at the city walls, the militia created the highest authority - the Council of the Whole Land. On June 30, 1611, the “Verdict of the Whole Land” was adopted, which provided for the future structure of Russia, but infringed on the rights of the Cossacks and also had a serfdom character. After the murder of Lyapunov by the Cossacks, the first militia disintegrated. By this time, the Swedes had captured Novgorod, and the Poles, after a months-long siege, had captured Smolensk. The second militia began to be created in one of the largest cities in the country - Nizhny Novgorod. It was headed by Nizhny Novgorod elder Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. With the help of the population of many cities, they collected material resources. In the spring of 1612, the militia moved to Yaroslavl, where a government and orders were created. In August, the militia entered Moscow. After eliminating the attempts of the Polish detachment of Chodkiewicz to penetrate the Kremlin to help the Polish garrison located there, he surrendered. On October 26, 1612, Moscow was liberated. “Despite all the consequences of the oprichnina,” notes the modern historian N.N. Pokrovsky, “the importance of the zemshchina, which saved the fatherland from foreign robbery, was confirmed on a national scale.”

31. The first Romanovs. Socio-economic and political development of Russia in comparison with Renaissance Europe Historians include Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 - 1645) and his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645 - 1676) as the first Romanovs.
Mikhail Fedorovich inherited a completely ruined country. The Swedes were in Novgorod. The Poles occupied 20 Russian towns. The Tatars plundered the southern Russian lands without interruption. Crowds of beggars and gangs of robbers roamed the country. There was not a ruble in the royal treasury. The Poles did not recognize the elections of the Zemsky Sobor of 1613 as valid. In 1617, the Polish prince Vladislav organized a campaign against Moscow, stood at the walls of the Kremlin and demanded that the Russians elect him as their king.
And the young tsar sat in the Kremlin. He didn’t even have the troops to leave the Kremlin and fight Vladislav. Father Metropolitan Filaret, an experienced politician, could have helped him in the affairs of government, but he was in Polish captivity. Michael's position on the throne was desperate.
But society, tired of the disasters of the Time of Troubles, rallied around its young king and provided him with all possible assistance. At first, the Tsar’s mother and her relatives, the Boyar Duma, played a large role in governing the country. For the first 10 years of the reign, the Zemsky Sobors met continuously. In 1619, the king's father returned from Polish captivity. In Moscow he was proclaimed patriarch. Based on the interests of the state, Filaret removed his wife and all her relatives from the throne. Intelligent, powerful, experienced, he and his son confidently began to rule the country until his death in 1633. After that, Mikhail himself quite successfully dealt with the affairs of government. Measures of the Romanovs to lead the country out of the Time of Troubles The Romanovs defended the country's independence. Mikhail did not have the strength to fight his opponents. It was necessary to make peace with those with whom it was possible. It was not difficult to come to an agreement with the Swedes. They did not need the swampy Russian lands in the north of the country. Their goal was to cut off Russia from the Baltic Sea.
In 1617, the Treaty of Stolbovo was concluded with Sweden (the village of Stolbovo, not far from Tikhvin, modern Leningrad region). Sweden returned Novgorod, but retained the Baltic Sea coast.
The Poles were tired of the long war and agreed to a truce. In 1618, the Truce of Deulino was concluded for 14.5 years (the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery). The Poles returned the Tsar's father, Metropolitan Filaret, and other boyars to the Russians, but retained Smolensk, the most important Russian fortress on the western border, and other Russian cities.
Thus, Russia lost significant territories, but the Romanovs defended the independence of Russia.
The Romanovs put an end to crime in the country using the most brutal measures. Thus, the Cossack detachments of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky posed a great danger to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Marina Mnishek moved to him after the death of False Dmitry II. Marina Mnishek was a Russian Tsarina, and her son from the Tushinsky thief - "Vorenok" - was a legitimate contender for the Russian throne. I. Zarutsky’s detachment wandered around the country and did not recognize Mikhail Romanov as tsar. The Romanovs began to pursue I. Zarutsky. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky and Marina Mnishek to the Moscow authorities. I. Zarutsky and 3-year-old Ivan - “Vorenok” - were hanged in Moscow, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she died.
The Romanovs filled the state treasury:

· they taxed more and more categories of the population;

· the government embarked on outright financial adventures - sharply increased the price of salt (salt was the most important food product, the population bought it in large quantities), minted copper coins instead of silver;

· borrowed from large monasteries and did not repay the debts;

· actively developed Siberia - 1/3 of all income was brought to the treasury by the sale of Siberian furs abroad. These basic measures allowed the Romanovs to lead the country out of the deepest political and economic crisis. The Romanovs were able to overcome the consequences of the Time of Troubles in 30 years.
During the reign of the first Romanovs, the most important events in Russian history took place: the adoption of the Law Code of 1649, the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653, the reunification of Ukraine with Russia in 1654.
Adoption of the “Conciliar Code” of 1649 During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich at the Zemsky Sobor in 1649, the “Cathedral Code” was adopted - new collection laws.
The Council Code consisted of 25 chapters and contained about 1000 articles. The Code was first printed in 2000 copies and remained in force until 1832.
The “Conciliar Code” of 1649 completed the long process of the formation of serfdom in Russia, which began in 1497.
Church reforms of Patriarch Nikon. During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1653, Patriarch Nikon carried out church reforms. They shook the spiritual foundation of society - the Russian Church.

Since to mid-17th century Finally there was relative stabilization inner life of the Russian state, fundamentally new priorities are coming to the forefront of public consciousness. For the first time, there is a shift in the consciousness of citizens towards an interest in European values ​​and way of life. At this time, Europe is experiencing the era of great geographical discoveries, the development of oceanic civilizations, and the first prerequisites for the processes of globalism arise in European political and social systems. Russian consciousness, fueled by the echoes of these phenomena, synthesizes the first prerequisites for Westernizing sentiments in society, government system feels a conscious need to borrow some features of Western power and social systems. The liberalization of consciousness manifested itself precisely in the reforms of Patriarch Nikon. At the same time, the reverse processes that kept Russia on the path of Europeanization led to the brutal and final enslavement of the peasantry.

32. Popular movements in Russia in the 17th century. The 17th century is called the “rebellious century.” The scope and severity of popular movements were explained by many reasons: the completion of the process of enslavement of the peasantry and the deterioration of the situation of the tax-paying classes (the Council Code of 1649), energetic actions aimed at centralizing the state (in particular, an increase in taxes, streamlining the monetary system, attempts to reduce state expenses and etc.), church schism. The straw that overflowed the cup of patience was often the clumsy and even criminal behavior of civil servants (bribery, red tape). Feature social movements of the 17th century. - participation of a wide variety of segments of the population: townspeople and service people, nobles, Cossacks, peasants, archers, and sometimes boyars. The series of urban uprisings was opened by the Moscow Salt Riot of 1648. The protest of the archers against non-payment of wages merged with the discontent of the townspeople, outraged by the abuses of employees, and the nobles, who demanded to cancel fixed-term summers and attach peasants to the land. The rebellion took such acute forms that it forced Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich to hand over the hated dignitaries (L. Pleshcheev, P. Trakhaniotov, etc.) to execution, send the head of government, boyar B. Morozov, into exile and urgently convene the Zemsky Sobor and adopt the Council Code. Unrest also occurred in Voronezh, Vladimir, Kozlov, etc. In 1650, uprisings broke out in Novgorod and Pskov. Protesting against the decision to pay off debts with Sweden by transferring grain reserves to it, as well as against rising prices, the Novgorod and Pskov residents removed the tsarist governors from power, established an elected government headed by zemstvo elders and sent petitioners to Moscow. The response was the arrival of government troops in Novgorod and Pskov and the suppression of the protest (Novgorod submitted relatively easily, Pskov resisted for several months). The last major urban uprising was the Copper Riot in Moscow (1662), caused by an unsuccessful monetary reform: the minting of copper coins inflated the ruble exchange rate, prices rose, and the salaries of soldiers and archers and the income of artisans fell. Pogroms of boyar households, the appearance of excited petitioners before the Tsar in Kolomenskoye, brutal reprisals and public executions - this is the history of this rebellion. Throughout the 17th century. it was restless on the Don, in Cossack villages. From time immemorial, fugitive serfs from the central regions of Russia came here for freedom and security. The Cossacks, the main military support of the state on the southern borders of Russia, had to be reckoned with. In the traditions of the Don Cossacks there were “campaigns for zipuns”, predatory raids on the coast of the Azov, Black, and Caspian seas. This is how the movement of Cossacks and peasants began under the leadership of Stepan Razin. In 1667-1669. his detachment attacked merchant and royal caravans on the Volga and the Caspian Sea (possessions of Persia). In 1670, having rested on the Don, Razin set out on a campaign against the “sovereign traitors” - boyars, governors, nobles, clerks, for the “good king” and “will” (calls of the “charming”, from the word “to seduce”, letters ). The rebels claimed that they were supported by the disgraced Patriarch Nikon and Tsarevich Alexei. Peasants, townspeople, archers, and peoples of the Volga region joined the movement. Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Samara, Saratov were captured, and Simbirsk was besieged. Only at the beginning of October did the troops manage to defeat the main forces of the rebels. Razin went to the Don, where he was captured, handed over to the Tsar and executed in Moscow in June 1671. In the uprising of S. Razin, all the features of popular movements of the 17th-18th centuries are noticeable: spontaneity, weak organization, locality, cruelty, which was shown by both the rebels and the authorities. It gave rise to conflicts and church schism. The Old Believers, who held on to the “ancient faith” and rejected the “Latin charm” (the liturgical books and rituals corrected according to Greek models), resisted desperately and stubbornly. In 1668, an uprising broke out in the Solovetsky Monastery. It took eight years to suppress the protest of the monks who did not want to accept church innovations. The depth, radicalism, high pace of Peter’s transformations, the harsh and even cruel nature of their implementation explain the massiveness and diversity of forms of popular movements of the late 17th - first quarter of the 18th centuries: the uprising of the Streltsy (1682 and 1698), the uprising of the Streltsy and townspeople in Astrakhan ( 1705-1706), Bashkir uprising (1705-1711), uprising of the Cossacks led by Kondraty Bulavin (1707-1708). The participation of the archers, townspeople, Cossacks, peoples of the Volga region and the Urals, Old Believers, and peasants gives a clear idea of ​​the price that society paid for the necessary, but extremely painful reforms. The culmination of the popular movements of the second half of the XVIII V. (peasant uprising in Kizhi, plague riot of 1771 in Moscow, etc.) was an uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. In terms of scope (Middle and Lower Volga region, Ural region, Trans-Ural region), number (at least 30 thousand) and composition of participants (Cossacks, serfs, peoples of the Volga region, schismatic Old Believers, working people of Ural factories), level of organization (Pugachev, declaring himself miraculously saved by Emperor Peter III, established a “military board”, issued “manifestos” on the abolition of serfdom, all taxes, conscription, appointed “generals” from among his associates, established his own order) the Pugachev movement became the most powerful movement of popular protest in history Russia. This was the response of the masses to the strengthening of serfdom, the infringement of the freedoms of the Cossacks, and the merciless treatment of workers of the Ural factories. There are three stages in Pugachev’s movement: September 1773 - April 1774 (siege of Orenburg by the rebels, successful actions near Ufa, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, etc., defeat at the Tatishchev Fortress); May-July 1774 (successful actions in the Urals, capture of Kazan and heavy defeat inflicted by General Michelson); July-September 1774 (flight, which, according to A. S. Pushkin, seemed like an invasion: movement along the Volga to the south, the capture of Saransk, Penza, Saratov, the siege of Tsaritsyn and the defeat inflicted by the rebel army under the command of A. V. Suvorov) . Pugachev, betrayed by the Cossack elders, was executed in Moscow in January 1775. Pugachev’s uprising had very serious consequences: Catherine II’s refusal of plans for reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism; reorganization of the local government system; liquidation of Cossack self-government on the Don, abolition of the Zaporozhye Sich; great economic damage. At the same time, the Pugachev era clearly showed that serfdom was becoming obsolete and was becoming the cause of dangerous social discontent.

During the Time of Troubles, the first militia was led by Prokopiy Petrovich Lyapunov, a Russian political and public figure. He came from a seedy noble family of Ryazan. First militia service people entered - nobles from Tula, Seversk, Kaluga and Ukrainian lands, children of boyars, Cossacks. They were joined by the remaining military detachments of Vasily Shuisky.

Internal political situation in Russia (1608-1610)

At the time of the creation of the first militia (it was headed by P. P. Lyapunov), the internal situation in the country consisted of the following tragic events. False Dmitry II, who appeared in 1607, secured significant support and approached Moscow, wanting to capture it, but he failed to do this, and he stopped in Tushino, located 12 km from the capital. It was recognized by many Russian cities. The exception was Nizhny Novgorod, Smolensk, Kolomna and most cities of Siberia. These cities remained loyal to Shuisky.

The situation was difficult. The only way out, according to Shuisky, is to enlist the support of the Swedes. Charles IX met him halfway and sent a significant detachment of Swedes to Russia. They were led by Jacob Delagardie, and the detachment of Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky came from the Russian side. Together they carried out several operations against the troops of False Dmitry II, liberating a number of territories, including the city of Pskov. These events are reflected in a historical work called Vremnik by Ivan Timofeev.

Polish intervention

In 1609 Concerned about this situation, the Polish king Sigismund III invaded the Moscow kingdom. Polish troops under the leadership of the Lithuanian hetman Jan Sapieha captured most of the territory of central Russia, besieged Smolensk, but were unable to take it. False Dmitry, after many of his comrades and troops abandoned him, was forced to flee to Kaluga, where he was killed.

The detachments of Sapieha and Zholkiewski, moving further into the interior of the country and reaching Moscow, besieged it. This served as a prerequisite for the organization of the first militia, headed by the small nobleman P. P. Lyapunov. The Swedes captured Novgorod and Ladoga. The Polish hetmans send a letter to the boyars, in which they proposed betrayal - to depose Vasily Shuisky and elect Prince Vladislav, the son of King Sigismund, as king.

Shuisky was deposed and tonsured a monk. In September 1610, the gates of the Kremlin were opened and the Poles entered it, taking possession of the treasury and all the treasures. The prince Vladislav, shouted out by the boyars, was recognized as the king, subject to the adoption of the Orthodox faith, which he did not intend to accept.

Creation of the first militia (led by I. Lyapunov)

The outrages of the Poles in all the occupied lands led to the fact that the patriotic movement went in three directions:

• From above - this is the rejection of the Poles as non-believers represented by the Orthodox Church. Patriarch Hermogenes, despite the threat of the boyars and Poles, sent letters to all parts of the country in which he called on all Orthodox Christians to defend their state.
• Service people - the nobles understood that the Polish protege would be served by the Poles, who flocked to Moscow from everywhere. The outsiders did not need their services. In addition, their estates located in the occupied territories were subjected to plunder and destruction. Therefore, the first people's militia began to be created, headed by the nobleman P.P. Lyapunov.
• Below - the peasants, tired of the robbery of the Poles and Ukrainian Cossacks who sided with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, took their property and livestock and went into the forests, where spontaneous resistance groups arose. The Poles, coming to the villages in the hope of finding food and fodder, as well as guides, were left with nothing.

The Russians, misled, supported False Dmitry II and considered him the true heir of Ivan the Terrible, could not come to terms with the Polish-Lithuanian interventionists. The popular movement against the hated Poles expanded.

Understanding the seriousness of their situation, the Poles called for help from the Cossacks, who were the first to encounter Lyapunov’s militia by besieging the city of Pronsk, but the Zaraysk governor Dmitry Pozharsky came to his aid, who helped put the Cossacks to flight.

March on Moscow

P.P. Lyapunov, who led the first people's militia, appealed to the people of Nizhny Novgorod to help defeat the enemy. In addition, appeals from Patriarch Hermogenes were sent to them with a call to defend Orthodoxy and the Russian land. Here a second people's militia was created, led by the zemstvo elder Minin, which advanced to Moscow in March 1611, along the way acquiring new detachments organized in the cities through which they passed.

Lyapunov's militia was replenished with former supporters of False Dmitry: boyars and princes, as well as Cossack atamans Prosovetsky and Zarutsky, who later betrayed him. In March 1611, the militia moved to Moscow. The detachments of the first militia were led by Lyapunov and Pozharsky. They besieged the city, within which an uprising broke out.

The 7,000-strong Polish garrison in Moscow, which included 2,000 German mercenaries, brutally suppressed the uprising; by order of Hetman Gonsevsky, the city was set on fire. But Prince Pozharsky’s troops managed to penetrate the city. They settled in Zamoskvorechye. Attempts by the Poles to dislodge them from there were unsuccessful. In the battle on Lubyanka, Prince Pozharsky was wounded, he was transported to the Trinity Monastery. The Poles settled in Kitay-Gorod and the Kremlin.

Betrayal of the Cossacks

Having surrounded the Poles, the leaders of the militia did not continue the offensive, but began to build the bodies of the future government. A new Zemsky Sobor was formed, the basis of which was the headquarters of the militia. It was at this time that fundamental disagreements between the nobility and the Cossacks emerged; these contradictions were expressed primarily in the relations between Prokopiy Lyapunov and Ivan Zarutsky.

This became known to the Poles, they used their old and proven method - fabrication, in in this case a forged letter allegedly written by Lyapunov. It said that the leader of the first militia was allegedly going to destroy the Cossack atamans. Having called the unsuspecting Lyapunov to the Cossack circle, the Cossacks hacked him to death with swords. All the nobles left the camp.

Zarutsky, after the approach of the Novgorod militia led by Minin and Pozharsky, fled, taking with him Marina Mnishek and her son. The first militia ceased to exist.

1. Definitions of the Troubles

   Causes of the Troubles

   Board of the False Dmitrievs

   Seven Boyars

   First militia

   Second militia

   Accession of the Romanovs

   End of the intervention

RUSSIAN TROUBLES AND THE PEOPLE'S MILITARY.

1.1 Definitions of the Troubles

The concept of “Troubles” came into historiography from the popular vocabulary, meaning primarily anarchy and extreme disorder in public life.

According to K. S. Aksakov and V. O. Klyuchevsky, at the center of events was the problem of the legality of the supreme power. N.I. Kostomarov reduced the essence of the crisis to the political intervention of Poland and the intrigues of the Catholic Church. A similar view was expressed by the American historian J. Billington; he directly spoke of the Troubles as a religious war. I. E. Zabelin viewed the Troubles as a struggle between herd and national principles. The representative of the herd principle was the boyars, who sacrificed national interests for the sake of their own privileges. Such an idea was not alien to Klyuchevsky.

A significant block in the historiography of the Troubles is occupied by works where it is presented as a powerful social conflict. S. F. Platonov saw several levels of this conflict: between the boyars and the nobility, between landowners and the peasantry, etc. N. N. Firsov in 1927 spoke about the peasant revolution as a reaction to the development of commercial capital.

V. B. Kobrin defined the Time of Troubles as “a complex interweaving of various contradictions - class and national, intra-class and inter-class.”

EndXVI- XVIIV. - the time of the Troubles, a severe political, social, spiritual, moral crisis that gripped Russian society and brought it to the brink of collapse.

1.2 Causes of the Troubles

The most significant causes of the Troubles are associated with the tragic consequences of the oprichnina and the Livonian War: the ruin of the economy, the growth of social tension, the silent ferment of almost all segments of the population. Russian historian S.F. Platonov found the exact words to describe the mood that arose in the country: “There was not a single public group that was happy with the way things were going... Everything was shocked... everything lost stability.” The reign of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor Ioannovich (1584-1598) did not change the situation for the better: the tsar was sick and weak, and he could not restrain the enmity of the boyar factions. The death of Ivan the Terrible's youngest son Dmitry in Uglich in 1591 deprived the last legitimate heir from the Rurik dynasty of the throne. Fyodor Ioannovich (1598), who died childless, was its last representative. The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov (1598-1605) as Tsar, who ruled energetically and, according to historians, wisely. But he failed to stop the intrigues of the disgruntled boyars. Rumors about the tsar's involvement in the murder of Dmitry excited the country. The most severe crop failure of 1601-1603. and the subsequent famine made an explosion of social discontent inevitable.

TO internal reasons external ones were added: the neighboring Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was in a hurry to take advantage of the growing weakness of Russia. The appearance in Poland of a young Galich nobleman, a monk of the Kremlin Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, who declared himself “the miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry,” became a real gift for King SigismundIIIand many tycoons. At the end of 1604, having converted to Catholicism, having achieved the tacit support of SigismundIII, having enlisted the help of the Polish magnate Mniszek (whose daughter Marina was declared his bride), False Dmitry entered the southern regions of Russia. Troubles have begun.

1.3 Reign of the False Dmitrievs

In the fall of 1604, False Dmitry invaded Russia, many cities in the south of Russia went over to the side of the impostor, he was supported by Cossack troops and thousands of disgruntled peasants. In April 1605, Boris Godunov suddenly died, and the boyars did not recognize his son Fedor as tsar; The army under the command of the tsarist governors Basmanov and Golitsyn goes over to the side of False Dmitry, Fedor and his mother are strangled. In June, the impostor becomes Tsar DmitryI. His further fate was predetermined: he could not fulfill the promises made to the Poles (convert Russia to Catholicism, give Poland significant territories). The boyars no longer needed Otrepyev. On May 17, 1606, dissatisfied with the arrogance of the Poles who gathered for the wedding of False Dmitry and Marina Mniszech, and with the wedding itself, which awarded the royal crown to a Catholic, the boyars rebelled.

The Muscovites, led by the Shuisky boyars, killed more than 1,000 Poles. Marina Mnishek was saved by the boyars. She and her entourage were exiled to Yaroslavl. False Dmitry, pursued by the rebels, jumped out of the window of the Kremlin Palace and was killed. Three days later, his corpse was burned, his ashes were placed in a cannon, from which they were fired in the direction from which the impostor came.

The Zemsky Sobor elected boyar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky as the new king, who gives a sign of the cross with a promise to rule together with the Boyar Duma, not to impose disgrace and not to execute without trial. Rumors are spreading again about Dmitry's new miraculous salvation. In the summer of 1606, an uprising broke out in Putivl, which was joined by very different segments of the population - peasants, townspeople, archers, nobles. The uprising is led by the fugitive military slave Ivan Bolotnikov. The rebels reach Moscow, besiege it, but are defeated (one of the reasons is that the nobles, led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov, went over to the side of the Tsar). Bolotnikov with his loyal supporters retreats to Tula and for several months resists the royal regiments. In the summer of 1607, the rebels surrendered, Bolotnikov was captured, exiled to Kargopol and killed there.

Meanwhile, the turmoil is growing. A new impostor, False Dmitry, appearsII(there is no exact information about who he was), the surviving participants in Bolotnikov’s uprising, the Cossacks led by Ivan Zarutsky, and Polish detachments unite around him. Marina Mnishek also recognizes the impostor as her husband. From June 1608 False DmitryIIsettles in the village of Tushino near Moscow (hence his nickname - “Tushino thief”) and besieges Moscow. The Troubles lead to the actual split of the country: two kings, two boyar dumas, two patriarchs (Hermogenes in Moscow and Filaret in Tushino), territories recognizing the power of False DmitryII, and territories remaining loyal to Shuisky.

1.4 Seven Boyars

The successes of the Tushenians forced Shuisky to conclude an agreement with Sweden, hostile to Poland, in February 1609. In exchange for the Russian fortress of Korela, the tsar receives military assistance, the Russian-Swedish army liberates a number of cities in the north of the country. But the participation of the Swedish corps in Russian events gives the Polish king SigismundIIIreason to start an open intervention: in the fall of 1609, Polish troops besieged Smolensk. Meanwhile, the actions of the Tushins (siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, robberies, looting) deprive False DmitryIIpopulation support. The impostor flees from Tushino, and the Tushino residents who left him conclude an agreement with the Polish king at the beginning of 1610 on the election of the eldest son of the prince, Vladislav, to the Russian throne. The Poles, having inflicted a crushing defeat on the tsarist army near the village of Klushino, are rapidly approaching Moscow. In July 1610, the boyars forced Vasily Shuisky to abdicate the throne and announced that power was passing to a government of seven boyars - the Seven Boyars.

The Seven Boyars in August 1610 signed with SigismundIIIan agreement on the election of Vladislav as king, provided that he converts to Orthodoxy. In September, Polish troops enter Moscow.

The turmoil has not been overcome. The Seven Boyars have no real power; Vladislav refuses to fulfill the terms of the agreement and accept Orthodoxy. Patriotic sentiments are growing, and calls for an end to strife and restoration of unity are intensifying. The Moscow Patriarch Hermogenes becomes the center of gravity of patriotic forces, calling for a fight against the interventionists.

1.5 First militia

In 1611, the First Militia was created. Participating in it are the noble detachments of P. Lyapunov, the Cossacks of D. Trubetskoy and I. Zarutsky, and former Tushino residents. A temporary government body is established - the “Council of the Whole Earth”. In February of the same year, the militia moved towards Moscow. It was headed by the “Council of All the Earth”. The leading role in the militia was played by the Cossacks under the leadership of Ataman I. Zarutsky and Prince D.T. Trubetskoy and the nobles, headed by P.P. Lyapunov. The militia managed to capture the White City, but the Poles held Kitay-Gorod and the Kremlin.

The siege of Moscow dragged on. In the camp of the besiegers, contradictions grew between the nobles and the Cossacks. Adopted on June 30, 1611 on the initiative of Lyapunov, the “Sentence of the Whole Land” prohibited the appointment of Cossacks to positions in the management system and demanded that fugitive peasants and slaves be returned to their owners. This caused indignation among the Cossacks. Lyapunov was killed. In response, the nobles abandoned the militia, and it disintegrated.

On June 3, 1611, Smolensk fell. Sigismund announced that not Vladislav, but he himself would become the Russian Tsar. This meant that Russia would be included in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In July, the Swedes captured Novgorod and surrounding lands.

1.6 Second militia

In the fall of 1611, at the call of the Nizhny Novgorod merchant elder K.M. Minin, the formation of the Second Militia began. The leading role in it was played by the townspeople. Prince D.M. became the military leader. Pozharsky. Minin and Pozharsky headed the “Council of the Whole Earth”. Funds for arming the militia were obtained thanks to voluntary donations from the population and mandatory taxation on a fifth of property. Yaroslavl became the center for the formation of the new militia.

In August 1612, the Second Militia united with the remnants of the First Militia, still besieging Moscow. At the end of August, the militia did not allow Polish Hetman Y.K. to break into Moscow. Khodkevich, who went to the aid of the garrison with a larger convoy. At the end of October, Moscow was liberated.

1.7 Accession of the Romanovs.

In January 1613, in order to elect a new tsar, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, at which the question of choosing a new Russian tsar was raised. The Polish prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl Philip, the son of False Dmitry, were proposed as candidates for the Russian throne.IIand Marina Mnishek Ivan, nicknamed “Vorenko”, as well as representatives of the largest boyar families.

From many candidates, the Council selects the 16-year-old grand-nephew of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife Anastasia Romanova, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, a representative of an ancient and popular boyar family among various segments of the population, with whom hopes are associated for a return to order, peace and antiquity. An embassy was sent to the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma, where Mikhail and his mother were at that time. Mikhail arrived in Moscow and was crowned king on July 11. Soon, the leading place in governing the country was taken by his father, Patriarch Filaret, who “mastered all royal and military affairs.” Power was restored in the form of an autocratic monarchy. The leaders of the fight against the interventionists received modest appointments. D.M. Pozharsky was sent by the governor to Mozhaisk, and K. Minin became the Duma governor.

1. End of the intervention

The government of Mikhail Fedorovich faced the most difficult task - eliminating the consequences of the intervention. The greatest danger to him was posed by the Cossack detachments that wandered around the country and did not recognize the new king. Among them, the most formidable was Ivan Zarutsky, to whom Marina Mnishek moved with her son. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky to the Moscow government in 1614. I. Zarutsky and “Vorenok” were hanged, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she probably died soon.

The Swedes posed another danger. After several military clashes and then negotiations, the Peace of Stolbovo was concluded in 1617 (in the village of Stolbovo, near Tikhvin). Sweden returned to Russia Novgorod land, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation. After the Peace of Stolbovo, King Gustav Adolf said that now “Russia is not a dangerous neighbor... it is separated from Sweden by swamps, fortresses, and it will be difficult for the Russians to cross this “trickle” (the Neva River).

The Polish prince Vladislav, who sought to gain the Russian throne, organized in 1617-1618. march to Moscow. He reached the Arbat Gate of Moscow, but was repulsed. In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618, the Deulino truce was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which retained the Smolensk and Chernigov lands. There was an exchange of prisoners. Vladislav did not give up his claims to the Russian throne.

Thus, basically the territorial unity of Russia was restored, although part of the Russian lands remained with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. These are the consequences of the events of the Time of Troubles in Russian foreign policy. In the internal political life of the state, the role of the nobility and the upper classes of the town increased significantly.

During the Time of Troubles, in which all layers and classes of Russian society took part, the question of the very existence of the Russian state and the choice of the path of development of the country was decided. It was necessary to find ways for the people to survive. Troubles settled primarily in the minds and souls of people. Under specific starting conditionsXVIIV. a way out of the Troubles was found in the regions and the center realizing the need for strong statehood. The idea of ​​giving everything for the common good, rather than seeking personal gain, has prevailed in people's minds.

After the Time of Troubles, a choice was made in favor of preserving the largest power in eastern Europe. In the specific geopolitical conditions of that time, the path of further development of Russia was chosen: autocracy as a form political rule, serfdom as the basis of the economy, Orthodoxy as an ideology, class stratum as a social structure.

The long and difficult crisis was finally broken. According to many historians, the Time of Troubles was the first civil war in Russian history.

The government of the seven boyars, who became Polish puppets, did not even think about repelling the enemy. The people rose up to fight for liberation. In Ryazan, under the leadership of the nobleman Lyapunov, the first militia was formed from nobles, townspeople and Cossacks. In the spring of 1611 It approached Moscow and began the siege. However, in the summer, a struggle broke out between the noble militia and the Cossack peasant part, which ended with the murder of Lyapunov and the collapse of the first militia. The situation in the country also worsened due to the fall of Smolensk. Taking advantage of Russia's weakness, the Swedes occupied Novgorod. This news caused new wave liberation movement. Nizhny Novgorod became the center for the formation of the second militia. It was organized and inspired by the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin, and headed by Dmitry Pozharsky. By the end of 1612 Moscow was liberated and the interventionists were defeated. The Time of Troubles ended with large territorial losses for Rus'. Smolensk was occupied by the Poles, and Novgorod by the Swedes. According to the Stolbovo Peace Treaty of 1617. Sweden returned Novgorod, but retained Izhora with the banks of the Neva and the Gulf of Finland. Russia was deprived of access to the Baltic Sea. In 1618 The Deulin truce was concluded, the Smolensk land passed to Poland. The economic devastation lasted for a long time. Nevertheless, historical significance the fight against interventionists is that the Russian people defended the independence of Russia.

19. The beginning of the reign of the Romanovs. End of the Troubles.

In the specific historical conditions of the beginning of the 17th century. the priority was the restoration of central power, which meant the election of a new king. The Zemsky Sobor met in Moscow, at which, in addition to the Boyar Duma, the highest clergy and metropolitan nobility Numerous provincial nobility, townspeople, Cossacks and even black-sown (state) peasants were represented. 50 Russian cities sent their representatives. The main question was the election of a king. A fierce struggle broke out around the candidacy of the future tsar at the council. Some boyar groups proposed calling a “prince’s son” from Poland or Sweden, others nominated candidates from the old Russian princely families (Golitsyns, Mstislavskys, Trubetskoys, Romanovs). The Cossacks even offered the son of False Dmitry II and Marina Mnishek (“warren”). After much debate, the members of the cathedral agreed on the candidacy of 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the cousin of the last tsar from the Moscow Rurik dynasty, Fyodor Ivanovich, which gave reason to associate him with the “legitimate” dynasty. The nobles saw the Romanovs as consistent opponents of the “boyar tsar” Vasily Shuisky, while the Cossacks saw them as supporters of “Tsar Dmitry”. The boyars, who hoped to retain power and influence under the young tsar, did not object either. On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor announced the election of Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. An embassy was sent to the Ipatiev Monastery in Kostroma, where Mikhail and his mother “nun Martha” were hiding at that time with a proposal to take the Russian throne. This is how the Romanov dynasty established itself in Russia, ruling the country for more than 300 years. One of the heroic episodes of Russian history dates back to this time. A Polish detachment tried to capture the newly elected tsar, looking for him in the Kostroma estates of the Romanovs. But the headman of the village of Domnina, Ivan Susanin, not only warned the tsar about the danger, but also led the Poles into impenetrable forests. The hero died from Polish sabers, but also killed the nobles lost in the forests. In the first years of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the country was actually ruled by the Saltykov boyars, relatives of the “nun Martha,” and from 1619, after the return of the Tsar’s father, Patriarch Filaret Romanov, from captivity, the patriarch and “great sovereign” Filaret. The Troubles shook the royal power, which inevitably increased the importance of the Boyar Duma. Mikhail could not do anything without boyar council. The local system, which regulated relationships within the ruling boyars, existed in Russia for more than a century and was exceptionally strong. The highest positions in the state were occupied by persons whose ancestors were distinguished by nobility, were related to the Kalita dynasty and achieved the greatest success in their careers. The transfer of the throne to the Romanovs destroyed the old system. Kinship with the new dynasty began to take on paramount importance. But the new system of localism did not take hold immediately. In the first decades of the Troubles, Tsar Mikhail had to put up with the fact that the first places in the Duma were still occupied by the highest titled nobility and the old boyars, who had once tried the Romanovs and handed them over to Boris Godunov for execution. During the Time of Troubles, Filaret called them his worst enemies. To enlist the support of the nobility, Tsar Mikhail, having no treasury or lands, generously distributed Duma ranks. Under him, the Boyar Duma became more numerous and influential than ever. After Filaret's return from captivity, the composition of the Duma was sharply reduced. The restoration of the economy and state order began. In 1617, in the village of Stolbovo (near Tikhvin), an “eternal peace” was signed with Sweden. The Swedes returned Novgorod and other northwestern cities to Russia, but the Swedes retained the Izhora land and Korela. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea, but it managed to get out of the war with Sweden. In 1618, the Truce of Dowlin was concluded with Poland for fourteen and a half years. Russia lost Smolensk and about three dozen more Smolensk, Chernigov and Seversk cities. The contradictions with Poland were not resolved, but only postponed: both sides were not able to continue the war any further. The terms of the truce were very difficult for the country, but Poland refused to claim the throne. The Time of Troubles in Russia is over. Russia managed to defend its independence, but at a very heavy price. The country was ruined, the treasury was empty, trade and crafts were disrupted. It took several decades to restore the economy. The loss of important territories predetermined further wars for their liberation, which placed a heavy burden on the entire country. The Time of Troubles further strengthened Russia's backwardness. Russia emerged from the Troubles extremely exhausted, with huge territorial and human losses. According to some estimates, up to a third of the population died. Overcoming economic ruin will be possible only by strengthening serfdom. The country's international position has sharply deteriorated. Russia found itself in political isolation, its military potential weakened, and for a long time its southern borders remained practically defenseless. Anti-Western sentiments intensified in the country, which aggravated its cultural and, ultimately, civilizational isolation. The people managed to defend their independence, but as a result of their victory, autocracy and serfdom were revived in Russia. However, most likely, there was no other way to save and preserve Russian civilization in those extreme conditions.

20. Major events during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (salt riot, copper riot, dispute between the tsar and the patriarch, city uprisings, Stepan Razin’s riot).

1646 - Salt riot in Moscow, the population of the city attacked the royal retinue. Muscovites wanted to be given two clerks and boyar Morozov, who was the tsar's educator. He managed to hide from the angry people, and the Muscovites carried out lynching over the clerks Trakhaniotov and Pleshcheev. This influenced the authorities, and the salt tax was abolished, while at the same time increasing the collection of direct taxes. Soon the situation began to escalate again, the state demanded from the population more money. They began to levy taxes not on land, but on households; they took taxes on income several times; they issued copper coins that were worth the same as silver coins.

1648 - Publication of a decree on the indefinite search of fugitive peasants. Return of Smolensk, Chernigov and a number of other cities to Russia.

1649 - Compilation of the “Code” (a set of Russian laws).

1654 - Pereyaslav Rada. Reunification of Left Bank Ukraine with Russia.

1654-1667 - War with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for the annexation of Left-Bank Ukraine, ending with the Truce of Andrusovo (January 30, 1667).

1656-1658 - War with Sweden, which ended with the Truce of Valiesar (December 20, 1658) for three years.

1658 - Construction of new cities in Siberia begins (Nerchinsk, Irkutsk, Selenginsk).

1662 - Copper riot in Moscow. By that time, prices had increased sharply again, and many refused to believe in copper coins and demanded only silver ones. The revolt was suppressed, but the minting of coins was stopped.

1662-1666 - Establishment of regular infantry with the involvement of more than a hundred foreign colonels. 1668-1676 - Solovetsky uprising.

1670-1671 - Rebellion led by Stenka Razin, which ended with his execution. The actions of Razin and his followers evoke sympathy among the people and a desire to support them, and over time they attract them, so thousands of ordinary people, peasants and townspeople go over to Razin’s side and help ensure that the movement achieves its goal. Stepan Razin creates “charming letters” - appeals that attract simple people, burdened by constant, unfair taxes. Construction of the first Russian ships in the village of Dedilovo on the Oka River.

21. Culture of Russia in the 19th century.

XV11th century A unique period in the history of Russian culture. It completes the development of culture over the previous centuries. This transition of culture in the 11th century, in turn, led to very interesting trends in it. Many genres continue to exist, but new content is maturing within them, exploding them from the inside. There are processes of secularization, secularization of culture, and its humanization. Interest in a person and his life intensifies. All this breaks out of the narrow framework of the medieval canon, sometimes creating crisis phenomena, and sometimes leading to an unprecedented rise of spirit, which now stuns our imagination. This century turned out to be a turning point for the development of Russian music. Church music is becoming more festive. “Kants” appear - musical works that were performed outside the church. In Russian architecture of the 11th century. Also occupies a special place. The desire to abandon age-old canons and “secularize” art manifested itself with enormous force. Wooden architecture played a major role in the development of architecture in general. Back at the end of the 15th century. An order for stone affairs arose, concentrating the best forces in this area. The techniques of stone architecture have improved, and the volume of buildings has become significantly more complex. Various side chapels and extensions are adjacent to the main mass, covered porch galleries, etc. are becoming common. Craftsmen began to widely use colored tiles, complex brick belts and other decorative details, which is why the facades of buildings take on an unusually elegant, colorful appearance. The first collections of proverbs appeared, many of which have survived to this day. Legends, songs and tales are widespread. One of their favorite heroes is Stepan Razin, who is endowed with heroic traits and finds himself in the same circle with the epic heroes. Handwritten books are becoming more widespread, especially collections that contain various materials. The increase in written records led to the final victory of cursive writing and new attempts to organize paper production in Russia. Along with handwritten books Printed books became more and more widespread. There was an active printing house, which also produced educational literature (for example, “Grammar” by Meletiy Smotrytsky). One of the main monuments of socio-political thought and literature remained still chronicles. At this time, the patriarchal vaults, the Belsky and Mazurin chroniclers, and the vaults of 1652 and 1686 were created. and many other chronicle monuments. Along with all-Russian ones, provincial, local, family and even family chronicles appear. The focus of the writers of that time was increasingly on questions of economic life and political problems.

22. Beginning of the reign of Peter I. Power struggle.

From 1682 to 1696 The Russian throne was occupied by the sons of Tsar Alexei from different marriages - Peter (1672-1725) and Ivan (1666-1696). Since they were minors, the ruler was their sister Princess Sophia (1657-1704), who ruled from 1682 to 1689. During this period, the role of Prince V. Golitsyn (1643-1714), the princess’s favorite, increased.

In 1689, Peter I came of age, got married and showed a desire to fight the old outdated boyar traditions. Sophia made an attempt, with the help of the archers, dissatisfied with the creation of regiments of the new system and the loss of many of her privileges, to deprive Peter of power. However, she failed. Peter was supported by the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, many boyars and nobles, the Moscow Patriarch and even some streltsy regiments. Peter retained the throne, punished the rebel Streltsy, disbanded the Streltsy army, and Sophia was tonsured into a monastery.

In 1696, Ivan V died, Peter became the sole ruler. Peter's first task was to continue the fight for Crimea. He directed his actions towards capturing Azov, a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. But due to poorly prepared siege equipment and the lack of ships, the Russian troops failed. Then Peter began building a fleet on the river. Voronezh. Having built 30 large ships in one year, doubling his land army, Peter in 1696 blocked Azov from the sea and captured it. To gain a foothold on the Sea of ​​Azov, he built the Taganrog fortress. In 1697, he went with the “Great Embassy” to Europe, combining a diplomatic mission with a variety of educational tasks in shipbuilding, military affairs, and crafts.

23. Northern War. Main battles.

1. Having secured the support of a number of European powers, Peter I declared war on Sweden in 1700, and the Northern War began (1700–1721).

2. At the first stage of the war, Russian troops were defeated during the siege of Narva. The first setbacks, however, did not break Peter; he energetically set about creating a regular army.

3. The Russians won their first significant victory near Dorpat at the end of 1701. This was followed by new victories - the capture of the Noteburg (Oreshek) fortress, which received the new name Shlisselburg.

4. In 1703, Peter I founded a new city - St. Petersburg - to protect the Neva from the Swedes. He later moved the capital of Russia here. In 1704, Russian troops managed to capture Narva and the Ivan-Gorod fortress.

5. The most significant battle of the Northern War was the victorious Battle of Poltava for the Russian army (June 27, 1709), which changed the entire course of the war and increased the prestige of Russia.

6. The war after the Battle of Poltava continued for another 12 years. It ended in 1721 with the Peace of Nystad.

Year and place of battle

Result

1703, spring-fall of Nyenschantz

1704 - Capture of the cities of Yam, Koporye, Dorpat, Narva

1710-Capture of Riga, Revel, Vyborg, Kexholm

1714 - Capture of the Åland Islands, landing on the Swedish coast

24. The main reforms of Peter I.

The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) were to maximize the power of the tsar, increase the military power of the country, territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

Military reform. A regular army was created through conscription, new regulations were introduced, a fleet was built, and equipment was built in a Western manner.

Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders - by collegiums. The “Table of Ranks” was introduced. The decree on succession to the throne allows the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter accepted the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was abolished, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to government salaries. No15

Changes in the economy. A capitation tax was introduced. Up to 180 manufactories were created. State monopolies were introduced on various goods. Canals and roads are being built.

Social reforms. The Decree on Single Inheritance (1714) equated estates to estates and prohibited their splitting during inheritance. Passports are being introduced for peasants. Serfs and slaves are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first Vedomosti newspaper, a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. Nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles, beard shaving, smoking, and assemblies are introduced.

Results. Absolutism is finally taking shape. Russia's military power is growing. The antagonism between the top and bottom is intensifying. Serfdom begins to take on slave forms. The upper class merged into one noble class.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled; in 1705-1706. There was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria.

25. The era of palace coups in the ΧVΙΙΙ century.

January 28, 1725 Peter 1 died. The question arose about the heir. According to the decree on succession to the throne (1722), the emperor must appoint his own heir. However, he did not have time to do this. The contenders for the throne were Peter's widow, Ekaterina Alekseevna, and his grandson, Peter Alekseevich. Menshikov, with the help of the guards regiments, elevated Ekaterina Alekseevna to the throne. Since she did not show state abilities, Menshikov became the de facto ruler of the country. For better government, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body that limited the power of the Senate. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich - the husband of Peter I’s eldest daughter Anna . The majority of the Supreme Privy Council was made up of the closest advisers of Peter 1, only Prince D. M. Golitsyn belonged to the old nobility. P. A. Tolstoy’s attempt to oppose A. D. Menshikov led to his exile and death on Solovki. This election opens the era of palace coups. A palace coup is a change of power carried out by a narrow circle of members of court groups and the hands of guard regiments. In May 1727 Catherine 1 died. Shortly before her death, she chose 12-year-old Tsarevich Peter, the son of the murdered Tsarevich Alexei, as her successor. After the death of Catherine, as during her life, the country was actually ruled by Menshikov; by decree of the emperor, he appointed himself generalissimo. Menshikov hoped to marry his daughter Maria to Peter 11. But during Menshikov’s illness, the Dolgorukov princes and Vice-Chancellor Osterman reinstated Peter against his Serene Highness. Menshikov was arrested, deposed by decision of the Upper Privy Council and, together with his family, exiled to the Siberian city of Berezov, where he died 2 years later. The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. In it, all affairs were carried out by four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyn, as well as the master of intrigue A.I. Osterman. The Dolgorukies came to the fore. Sixteen-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the Tsar’s closest friend in hound hunting and his other pastimes. Ivan's sister Catherine became the "sovereign bride". The nobles who came to Moscow for the coronation and wedding, as well as the court that moved to the old capital, witnessed the illness and death of Peter II in his fifteenth year of life. Peter's death occurred precisely on the day of the announced wedding. The Romanov dynasty ended in the male line. The question of a new emperor had to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.

Disputes immediately began in the Privy Council about the candidacy of the ruler of Russia. It was decided to invite the niece of Peter 1 (daughter of his brother Ivan) - Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). The symbol of Anna’s reign became the Secret Chancellery, headed by A. I. Ushakov, which monitored speeches against the empress and “state crimes” (the famous “word and case"). 10 thousand people passed through the Secret Chancellery.

The absolutist state met the demands of the nobles to expand their rights and privileges. Thus, under Anna Ioannovna, the distribution of land to the nobles was resumed. In 1731, sole inheritance, introduced by Peter the Great's decree of 1714, was abolished, and estates were recognized as the full property of the nobility. Two new guards regiments were created - Izmailovsky and Horse Guards, where a significant part of the officers were foreigners. Since the 30s of the 18th century. noble minors were allowed to enroll in the guards regiments, train at home and, after an exam, be promoted to officers. In 1732, the Land Noble Cadet Corps was opened to train nobles. This was followed by the opening of the Naval, Artillery, and Page Corps. Since 1736, the service life for nobles was limited to 25 years. In the fall of 1740. Anna Ivanovna fell ill and died in October. But, dying, she took care of the heir: the two-month-old son of Anna Leopoldovna’s niece, Ivan 1V Antonovich, was appointed to him, and Biron became his regent. Biron reigned for only 22 days. He was overthrown by Minich, and Anna Leopoldovna became regent. In November 1741 The guards-conspirators, outraged by the dominance of the Germans, elevated the daughter of Peter I, Ekaterina Petrovna (1741-1761), to the throne. Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed the goal of her reign to be a return to the order of her father, Peter the Great. The rights of the Senate, the Berg and Manufactory Collegium, and the Chief Magistrate were restored. Under Elizabeth, a university was opened in Moscow (1755, January 25) - the first in Russia. The conference at the highest court took the place of the abolished Cabinet of Ministers. The activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible. To support the nobility, the Noble Land Bank was established. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, 33-year-old Peter III (1761-1762) became Emperor of Russia. The quarrelsome, unbalanced Peter III did not like Russians, but he idolized Frederick II. A fan of Prussian drill, Peter III said that he preferred to be a colonel in the Prussian army than to be an emperor in Russia. This “adult child” did not develop as a mature personality; he spent most of his time in revelry and loved shift parades. His favorite pastime was playing soldiers.

The six-month reign of Peter III amazes with the abundance of adopted state acts. During this time, 192 decrees were issued. The most important of them was the Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberty to the Russian nobility of February 18, 1762. The Manifesto exempted nobles from compulsory state and military service. A nobleman could leave service at any time, except during war. It was allowed to travel abroad and even enter foreign service, to give children homeschooling. On June 28, 1762, guards officers led by the Orlov brothers and the wife of Peter III, Catherine, carried out a palace coup. The Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments enthusiastically supported the new ruler, who was proclaimed autocratic empress in the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The Manifesto on the accession of Catherine II to the throne was read in the Winter Palace. The Senate and Synod swore allegiance to her. The next day, Peter III signed his abdication from the throne. A few days later he died (apparently he was killed by Alexei Orlov and the guards.

26. “Enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II.

It is known that the reign of Catherine coincided with the era of enlightenment. One way or another, the ideology of the enlighteners - Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and others influenced the policies of European monarchs. Catherine did not escape such influence. Possessing a lively mind and developed thinking, she was familiar with the works of the Enlightenment and their views on government and governance. Already as a Russian empress, she corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, discussing with them the problems of organizing power and the role of the monk in governing society. We must not forget that the empress had to implement her views, gleaned from the Enlightenment, in a huge autocratic state, based on the political and economic dominance of the nobility, which did not tolerate infringement of its interests. Finding the resultant between the goals of power and the privileged class was not easy. However, the events of the first years of Catherine’s reign are traditionally associated with the implementation of a policy of enlightened absolutism. In addition to the distribution of state-owned lands and peasants, already familiar to the aristocracy, as a reward to participants in the palace coup, Catherine carried out a number of reforms that helped strengthen her power. So, she abolished the special Hetman rule in Ukraine, reformed the Senate, in which she saw a danger to her autocratic

authorities. In order to avoid the possibility of interference in the competence of the supreme power and to streamline its work, Catherine divided the Senate into 6 departments, thereby making it a purely administrative body, deprived legislative rights. 4 St. Petersburg and 2 Moscow departments of the Senate became independent institutions with their own range of affairs and their own office, which destroyed the unity of the Senate and weakened it. Contrary to the personal desire of the Empress to abandon all legislative acts adopted by Peter 111, she had to confirm some of them, and above all: the Decree on the abolition of the Secret Investigation Office of the Chancellery; decree on transfer to the state. management of monastic and church lands (secularization); prohibition of buying peasants into factories. But the most remarkable event of the beginning of Catherine’s era, of course, was the work of the Statutory Commission. Even in her youth, having studied the views of European philosophers, and again returning to this activity as an empress, Catherine came to the conclusion that order and stability in the state, the well-being of her subjects, could be ensured by achieving compliance with the laws. Therefore, she saw her immediate task in creating a new, more advanced system of legislation to replace the archaic Council Code of 1649. Another interesting undertaking of Catherine 11 was the creation in 1765. A free economic society, which was supposed to promote rational methods of farming. For this purpose, various works on agronomy, breeding, animal husbandry, etc. began to be published.

27. Diplomacy and wars of Catherine’s time.

The reign of Catherine 11 occupies a special place in the history of Russian diplomacy. For the first time since the era of Peter 1, the outstanding victories of the Russian army were supported by no less brilliant successes of diplomats. Türkiye, incited by France and England, declared war on Russia in the fall of 1768. Military operations began in 1769 and were carried out on the territory of Moldova and Wallachia, as well as on the Azov coast, where, after the capture of Azov and Taganrog, Russia began building a fleet. In 1770, the Russian army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories at the Larga and Cahul rivers (tributaries of the Prut River) and reached the Danube. In the same year, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and admirals G.A. Spiridov and I.S. Greig, leaving St. Petersburg, entered the Mediterranean Sea through Gibraltar and completely destroyed the Turkish squadron in Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor. The Turkish fleet was blocked in the Black Sea.

In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V.M. Dolgorukov captured Crimea, which meant the end of the war. However, Turkey, relying on the support of France and Austria and taking advantage of the internal difficulties of Russia, where the Peasant War was going on, disrupted the negotiations. Then in 1774 the Russian army crossed the Danube. Troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov defeated the army of the Grand Vizier near the village of Kozludzha, opening the way to Istanbul for the main forces led by P.A. Rumyantsev. Türkiye was forced to ask for peace. Peace of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhiy 1774. Determining the program of Russian foreign policy in the Black Sea-Balkan direction for decades, the effective mediating role of Russia during the Teshen Congress of 1779, the proclamation in 1780. The principle of armed maritime neutrality, which became a serious contribution of Russia and the strengthening of the legal basis of international relations, the annexation of Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, the signing of the Geogievsky Treaty with Eastern Georgia in 1783, the inclusion of Lithuania into the Russian state, the reunification of Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine with it. This is far from a complete list of achievements of Catherine’s era. The orientation towards non-state interests was organically combined in the foreign policy activities of Catherine 11 with the diplomatic practice of the era of late absolutism with its desire to “round the borders” and weaken its neighbors. “Rounding the borders”, carrying out multi-vector territorial expansion, Catherine built an empire, guided by the political and moral concepts of her time. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine firmly took the leadership of foreign policy into her own hands and did not let go of it until the end of her days. The main feature of Catherine’s foreign policy should be the compliance of the foreign policy course pursued by the Empress with the long-term state interests of Russia. Pragmatism, flexibility, ability to take advantage of circumstances.

28. Pugachev rebellion 1773-1775.

In 1773 In the Yaitsky Cossack army, Emelyan Pugachev proclaimed himself Peter 111 Fedorovich. Pugachev was a Don Cossack. He called for the overthrow of the noble Empress Catherine 11, who took it by deceit. E. Pugachev found support on Yaik. The performance began on September 17, 1773. He approached Orenburg and besieged it. The number of rebels reached 30 thousand. Human. March 22, 1773 There was a battle

with the tsarist troops, the Pugachevites were defeated. Pugachev issued a manifesto in which he called for the destruction of nobles and tsarist officials and the liberation of peasants from serfdom. To replenish his army, he rushed to the south, where he was joined by Don and Yaik Cossacks and barge haulers. With them he approached Tsaritsyn, but was never able to take possession of the city. It was soon defeated by the government army. September 12, 1774 He was captured and handed over to the Russians. January 10, 1775 Pugachev and his closest associates were executed.

29. Uprising of the Highlanders North Caucasus under the leadership of Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma).

On March 8, 1785, the Chechen religious and political figure Sheikh Mansur (Ushurma) spoke in the village of Aldy preaching gazavat (holy war) against the Russian army in the Caucasus. In June 1785, the army of Sheikh Mansur defeated the Russian punitive detachment of Colonel Pieri, and in July-August besieged the Kizlyar fortress. By autumn, the uprising spread to the territory of Kabarda and Dagestan. In November 1785, Mansur was defeated in Kabarda, and in January 1787, Colonel Retinder's detachment suppressed the uprising in Chechnya. In the summer, Sheikh Mansur, who went beyond the Kuban, led an uprising of the Trans-Kuban Circassians and Nogais, which was suppressed in October of the same year, and in 1788-1789 he led unrest among the Trans-Volga Kyrgyz-Kaisaks. In June 1791, Mansur actually led the defense of the Turkish fortress of Anapa. After the capture of Anapa by Russian troops on June 21, 1791, Sheikh Mansur was captured and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress (he died on April 13, 1794 in custody). Despite the suppression of the uprising of Sheikh Mansur, the Russian administration of the Caucasus was actually unable to create its own governing bodies on the territory of Chechnya.

30. Reign of Paul I. His domestic and foreign policies.

Domestic policy.

Paul began his reign by changing all the orders of Catherine's rule. During his coronation, Paul announced a series of decrees. In particular, Paul established a clear system of succession to the throne. From that moment on, the throne could only be inherited through the male line; after the death of the emperor, it passed to the eldest son or the next oldest brother if there were no children. A woman could occupy the throne only if the male line was suppressed. With this order, Paul excluded palace coups, when emperors were overthrown and erected by the force of the guard, the reason for which was the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne (which, however, did not prevent the palace coup on March 12, 1801, during which he himself was killed). Also, in accordance with this decree, a woman could not occupy the Russian throne, which excluded the possibility of temporary workers (who accompanied empresses in the 18th century) or a repetition of a situation similar to the one when Catherine II did not transfer the throne to Paul after he came of age. Paul restored the system of collegiums, and attempts were made to stabilize the financial situation of the country (including the famous action of melting down the palace coin services). With the manifesto on three-day corvee, he prohibited landowners from performing corvee on Sundays, holidays and more than three days a week (the decree was almost not implemented locally). He significantly narrowed the rights of the noble class compared to those granted by Catherine II, and the rules established in Gatchina were transferred to the entire Russian army. Fearing the spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russia, Paul I banned young people from traveling abroad to study, the import of books was completely prohibited, even sheet music, and private printing houses were closed. The regulation of life went so far as to set a time when the fires in houses were supposed to be turned off. By special decrees, some words of the Russian language were removed from official use and replaced with others. Thus, among those seized were the words “citizen” and “fatherland” that had a political connotation (replaced with “everyman” and “state”, respectively), but a number of Paul’s linguistic decrees were not so transparent - for example, the word “detachment” was changed to “detachment” or “command”, “execute” to “execute”, and “doctor” to “doctor”.

Foreign policy.

Paul's foreign policy was inconsistent. In 1798, Russia entered into an anti-French coalition with Great Britain, Austria, Turkey, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. At the insistence of the allies, the disgraced A.V. Suvorov was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. Austrian troops were also transferred to his jurisdiction. Under the leadership of Suvorov, Northern Italy was liberated from French domination. In September 1799, the Russian army made Suvorov's famous crossing of the Alps. However, already in October of the same year, Russia broke the alliance with Austria due to the Austrians’ failure to fulfill allied obligations, and Russian troops were recalled from Europe.

31. Culture of Russia in the 8th century.

In the 18th century, the pace of cultural development accelerated, which was associated with economic success. The secular direction in art has become the leading one, replacing the traditionalist culture of previous centuries, permeated with a religious worldview. The nature of education is changing, it is also becoming mainly secular. In 1701, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was founded in Moscow. From the senior classes of this school, transferred to St. Petersburg, later, in 1715, the Maritime Academy was created. Then the Artillery, Engineering, Medical schools, the School of Clerical Servants, and mining schools were opened. In 1708, a civil printed font, Arabic numerals, was introduced, which made it easier to learn. But education as a whole remained class-based, since it did not become universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population. An outstanding event was the creation of Moscow University in 1755 on the initiative and project of M.V. Lomonosov and the opening of the Academy of Arts in 1757. Geographic knowledge about the country expanded. The interior regions of Siberia, the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Arctic Ocean, and Central Asia were examined. In the middle of the century, geographer I.K. Kirillov published the first “Russian Atlas”. V.N. Tatishchev and M.V.

Lomonosov laid the foundation for Russian historical science. Outstanding scientists of that time worked in Russia: mathematician L. Euler, founder of hydrodynamics D. Bernoulli, naturalist K. Wolf, historian A. Schletser. Later, a cohort of Russian scientists appeared - astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky, mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographers and ethnographers S.P. Krasheninnikov and I.I. Lepekhin, physicist G.V. Richman. Writers, poets and publicists A.D. enriched Russian literature with their works. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, N.I. Novikov, later A.N. Radishchev, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, N.M. Karamzin et al.

32. Alexander I. Domestic and foreign policy.

Alexander I abolished all the innovations of Paul I: he restored the “letters of letters” to the nobility and cities, freed the nobles and clergy from corporal punishment, declared an amnesty to all those who fled abroad, returned up to 12 thousand disgraced and repressed people from exile, abolished the Secret Expedition, which was engaged in the investigation and reprisal.

After 1801, it was forbidden to print advertisements for the sale of serfs without land, but such sales were allowed. In 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued, which allowed peasants to buy their freedom by agreement with the landowners. The censorship statute of 1804 was the most liberal in the 19th century. in Russia. In 1803 - 1804, a reform of public education was carried out: representatives of all classes could study, continuity of educational programs was introduced, and new high boots and privileged lyceums were opened - Demidovsky (in Yaroslavl) and Tsarskoye Selo. State bodies were transformed. management. Through the efforts of M.M. Speransky's old Peter's collegiums were replaced by ministries. In 1811, a law strictly delineated the rights and responsibilities of the Senate, the Committee of Ministers and the State. advice. New state order management existed with minor changes until 1917. In 1805 - 1807, Alexander I took part in coalitions against Napoleon, was defeated at Austerlitz (1805) and was forced to conclude the extremely unpopular Peace of Tilsit in Russia (1807). But successful wars with Turkey (1806-12) and Sweden (1808-09) strengthened Russia's international position. Vost. were annexed. Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812) and Azerbaijan (1813), Duchy of Warsaw (1815). Since 1810, Russian rearmament began. army, the construction of fortresses, but with the archaic system of recruitment and serfdom, this could not be completed. Having granted a liberal constitution to the Kingdom of Poland, he promised in 1818 that this order would be extended to other lands “when they reach proper maturity.” In 1816 - 1819, a peasant reform was carried out in the Baltic states. Secret projects for the abolition of serfdom in Russia were prepared, but, faced with stiff opposition from the nobles, Alexander I retreated. Since 1816, military settlements have been established, and the role of Alexander I in their creation is no less significant than A.A. Arakcheeva. From 1814, the king became interested in mysticism, bringing Archimandrite Photius closer to him.

In 1822, Alexander I issued a rescript banning secret societies and Masonic lodges, and in 1821 - 1823 introduced an extensive network of secret police in the guard and army. In 1825, he received reliable information about a conspiracy against him among the troops, went south, wanting to visit military settlements, but caught a bad cold on the way from Balaklava to the St. George Monastery. The unexpected death of Alexander I, a healthy and not yet old man, gave rise to numerous legends.

33. Patriotic War of 1812. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army (1812-1815)

Causes and nature of the war. The outbreak of the Patriotic War of 1812 was caused by Napoleon's desire for world domination. In Europe, only Russia and England maintained their independence. Despite the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia continued to oppose the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Napoleon was especially irritated by her systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, realizing the inevitability of a new clash, were preparing for war. Napoleon flooded the Duchy of Warsaw with his troops and created military warehouses there. The threat of invasion looms over Russia's borders. In turn, the Russian government increased the number of troops in the western provinces.

Napoleon became the aggressor. He began military operations and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people the war became a liberation and Patriotic war, since not only the regular army, but also the broad masses of the people took part in it.

Correlation of forces. In preparation for the war against Russia, Napoleon gathered a significant army - up to 678 thousand soldiers. They were led by a galaxy of brilliant marshals and generals - L. Davout, L. Berthier, M. Ney, I. Murat and others. They were commanded by the most famous commander of that time - Napoleon Bonaparte.

Active preparations for the war that Russia had been waging since 1810 brought results. She managed to create modern armed forces for that time, powerful artillery, which, as it turned out during the war, was superior to the French. The troops were led by talented military leaders - M. I. Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich and others.

However, at the initial stage of the war, the French army outnumbered the Russian one. The first echelon of troops that entered Russia numbered 450 thousand people, while the Russians on the western border were about 210 thousand people, divided into three armies. The 1st - under the command of M.B. Barclay de Tolly - covered the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd - led by P.I. Bagration - defended the center of Russia, the 3rd - under General A.P. Tormasov - was located in the southern direction .Plans of the parties. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory up to Moscow and sign a new treaty with Alexander to subjugate Russia. Napoleon's strategic plan was based on his military experience acquired during the wars in Europe. He intended to prevent the dispersed Russian forces from uniting and deciding the outcome of the war in one or more border battles. The balance of forces forced the Russian command to initially choose a strategy of active defense. As the course showed

war, this was the most correct decision.

Stages of war. The history of the Patriotic War of 1812 is divided into two stages. First: from June 12 to mid-October - the retreat of the Russian army with rearguard battles in order to lure the enemy deep into Russian territory and disrupt his strategic plan. Second: from mid-October to December 25 - a counter-offensive of the Russian army with the goal of completely expelling the enemy from Russia.

The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Neman and invaded Russia by forced march.

The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, avoiding a general battle. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with in separate parts the French, exhausting and weakening the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him.

Two main tasks faced the Russian troops - to eliminate disunity (not allow themselves to be defeated one by one) and to establish unity of command in the army. The first task was solved on July 22, when the 1st and 2nd armies united near Smolensk. Thus, Napoleon's original plan was thwarted. On August 8, Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army. This meant solving the second problem. M.I. Kutuzov took command of the combined Russian forces on August 17. He did not change his retreat tactics. However, the army and the whole country expected a decisive battle from him. Therefore, he gave the order to look for a position for a general battle. She was found near the village of Borodino, 124 km from Moscow.

Battle of Borodino. M.I. Kutuzov chose defensive tactics and deployed his troops in accordance with this. The left flank was defended by the army of P.I. Bagration, covered by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes. In the center there was an earthen mound where the artillery and troops of General N.N. Raevsky were located. The army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly was on the right flank.

Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defenses of the Russian army on the flanks, encircle it and completely defeat it.

The balance of forces was almost equal: the French had 130 thousand people with 587 guns, the Russians had 110 thousand regular forces, about 40 thousand militias and Cossacks with 640 guns.

Early in the morning of August 26, the French launched an offensive on the left flank. The fight for flushes lasted until 12 noon. Both sides suffered huge losses. General P.I. Bagration was seriously wounded. (A few days later he died from his wounds.) Borodino was a moral and political victory for the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, while Napoleonic’s was significantly weakened. Far from France, in the vast Russian expanses, it was difficult to restore it.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. Napoleon followed, but did not strive for a new battle. On September 1, a military council of the Russian command took place in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, contrary to the general opinion of the generals, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812.

M.I. Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, carried out an original plan - the Tarutino march-maneuver. Retreating from Moscow along the Ryazan road, the army turned sharply to the south and in the Krasnaya Pakhra area reached the old Kaluga road. This maneuver, firstly, prevented the French from seizing the Kaluga and Tula provinces, where ammunition and food were collected. Secondly, M.I. Kutuzov managed to break away from Napoleon’s army. He set up a camp in Tarutino, where the Russian troops rested and were replenished with fresh regular units, militia, weapons and food supplies.

The occupation of Moscow did not benefit Napoleon. Abandoned by the inhabitants (an unprecedented case in history), it burned in the fire. There was no food or other supplies in it. The French army was completely demoralized and turned into a bunch of robbers and marauders. all peace proposals French Emperor were unconditionally rejected by M.I. Kutuzov and Alexander I.

On October 7, the French left Moscow. On October 12, another bloody battle took place near the town of Maloyaroslavets. Once again, neither side achieved a decisive victory. However, the French were stopped and forced to retreat along the Smolensk road they had destroyed.

Expulsion of Napoleon from Russia. The retreat of the French army looked like a disorderly flight. It was accelerated by the unfolding partisan movement and the offensive actions of the Russians.

The patriotic upsurge began literally immediately after Napoleon entered Russia. Robbery and looting French. Chinese soldiers caused resistance local residents̆. But this was not the main thing - the Russian people could not put up with the presence of invaders on their native land. Names go down in history ordinary peoplĕ (G. M. Kurin, E. V. Chetvertakov, V. Kozhina), who organized partisan detachments. “Flying detachments” of regular army soldiers led by career officers (A.S. Figner, D.V. Davydov, A.N. Seslavin, etc.) were also sent to the French rear.

At the final stage of the war, M.I. Kutuzov chose the tactics of parallel pursuit. He took care of every Russian soldier and understood that the enemy’s forces were melting every day. The final defeat of Napoleon was planned near the city of Borisov. For this purpose, troops were brought up from the south and north-west. Serious damage was inflicted on the French near Krasny in early November, when out of 50 thousand people in the retreating army, more than half were captured or died in battle. Fearing encirclement, Napoleon hastened to transport his troops across the Berezina River on November 14-17. The battle at the crossing completed the defeat of the French army. Napoleon abandoned her and secretly left for Paris. M.I. Kutuzov’s order to the army of December 21 and the Tsar’s Manifesto of December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War. But Napoleon still kept almost all of Europe in subjection. To ensure its security, Russia continued military operations in Europe. In January 1813, Russian troops entered Prussia. Austria, England, and Sweden joined Russia. In October 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place - the “battle of the nations.” Napoleon was defeated. In March 1814 Paris fell. In 1814-1815 took place Congress of Vienna European countries, Norton resolved the issue of the post-war structure of Europe. By decision of the congress, the Polish kingdom entered the Russian Empire. In March 1815, Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an agreement to form a quadruple alliance. Victory in Patriotic War strengthened Russia's international position as a strong European power.

The time of troubles at the beginning of the 17th century became a serious test of strength for the Moscow state: the Polish-Swedish intervention was aimed at dividing it, and in order to prevent this, the people organized themselves into the first militia in 1611. However, serious contradictions soon emerged between its leaders, which led to the collapse of the first national formation in Russian history.

Time of Troubles

In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich, the Rurik dynasty that had ruled the Russian lands since time immemorial came to an end. As a result of lengthy intrigues, Boris Godunov (1598-1605), the brother-in-law of the late tsar, became the new tsar. He came from a family of noble boyars, but despite this, he managed to rise to the pinnacle of power and had every opportunity to become the founder of a new dynasty. This was prevented by a dark story from the past: in 1591, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry, died in Uglich under mysterious circumstances. Rumors immediately spread that Godunov was involved in this. The death of Dmitry allowed the phenomenon of imposture to develop, which largely provoked the Troubles in Russian state.

False Dmitry

The first impostor was the fugitive monk of the Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev. In 1605, Godunov died suddenly, and with the support of Polish troops, Otrepiev managed to take the throne. But his defiant behavior turned all layers of society against the new king, and as a result of a conspiracy he was killed. Boyar Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), a representative of a side branch of the Rurikovichs, became the new tsar. He was not popular, did not have significant forces, and during his reign Russia was gradually engulfed in civil war. The strongest blow to his power was dealt by the appearance of a new Tsarevich Dmitry, who miraculously escaped, and occupied the village of Tushino near Moscow. Realizing that anarchy in the Muscovite kingdom was becoming widespread, Poland and Sweden considered the moment opportune for an open invasion, supposedly with the aim of supporting the legitimate tsar.

Intervention

Open interference of these two countries in Russian affairs began after the deposition of Shuisky. The former king, despite resistance, was tonsured a monk. The boyars swore allegiance to the Polish, but made it a condition for his conversion to Orthodoxy. During the interregnum, a committee of seven representatives of the most noble families was elected, which went down in history as the Seven Boyars. Sigismund delayed negotiations on the Orthodox baptism of his son in every possible way and, perhaps, planned to become the Tsar of Moscow himself. The formal recognition of Vladislav's power allowed the Poles to rule in Moscow. They no longer needed False Dmitry II. In December 1610 he was killed.

The first zemstvo militia would not have been possible if not for the activity of the highest hierarch of the Russian Orthodox Church. Seeing the chaos that had engulfed the Muscovite kingdom, and also understanding the aspirations of the Poles to turn Russia into one of the provinces of their state, he began to disseminate appeals, the essence of which boiled down to the need to repel the invaders. The Patriarch spoke about this in sermons and during services. Gradually, the idea of ​​a militia took root in the minds of both representatives of the upper stratum of society and the lower classes.

The Poles created all sorts of obstacles to the patriarch's activities. He was forcibly removed from the throne and imprisoned in the Chudov Monastery, where he died of hunger in 1612.

Organization of the people's militia

The patriarchal letters made the greatest impression in Ryazan. Local governor Prokopiy Lyapunov announced a fundraiser to organize a militia. Soon he was joined by former supporters of False Dmitry II, led by Prince Trubetskoy and Cossack ataman Zarutsky. The official goal of the first militia of 1611 was a march on Moscow and its liberation from the Poles.

Enough short term Lyapunov managed to gather a significant army. In addition to purely Ryazan formations and Tushino detachments, regiments from Vladimir, Murom, Yaroslavl, Suzdal and other cities joined the militia. The support of Nizhny Novgorod residents was especially significant. The importance of this city and its arsenal were so great that Lyapunov sent his representatives there to ask for support. It was then that the dates for the march on Moscow were agreed upon.

Start of hostilities

As already mentioned, the Poles mainly counted on the growing unrest in the Russian state. The emergence of a patriotic spirit popular formation was not part of their plans. That is why the interventionists tried to destroy this idea in the bud by invading the Ryazan lands. Lyapunov was besieged in Pronsk, but the regiments of Prince Dmitry Pozharsky managed to free the Ryazan governor.

On February 17, 1611, the main part of the Nizhny Novgorod regiments advanced to Moscow, simultaneously connecting with other formations. March 19 The first militia was already at the walls of Moscow. Having learned about this, the residents of the capital rebelled against the power of the Poles. This did not allow the interventionists to immediately engage in battle with the militia, and some of their regiments were able to penetrate into Moscow. Prince Pozharsky was able to break through to Sretenka and drive the Poles to Kitay-Gorod. During this operation he was seriously injured. The actions of other units were no less successful. Realizing that it would not be possible to cope with the militias by force, the Poles set Moscow on fire.

Arrival of new troops and discord

On March 24, Cossack detachments led by Ataman Prosovetsky approached the walls of Moscow. They had at their disposal siege weapons and “walking cities” - small mobile fortresses, usually made from ordinary carts. Three days later, the main forces of the militia, led by Lyapunov, appeared at the walls of the capital. By the beginning of April, there were a little more than a hundred thousand people near Moscow.

The first people's militia of 1611 failed to become a unified organization. The leaders of individual detachments, Cossack atamans, and governors could not agree among themselves. Formally, a collegial governing body was created - the Council of the Whole Land. In fact, this similarity to the familiar Boyar Duma led endless debates about who would lead the first militia. In 1611, full awareness of the need for a joint action against the invaders had not yet occurred.

Organizational design of the militia

Local disputes and the struggle for power led to the fact that such significant forces gathered near Moscow were virtually inactive. At the beginning of April, shelling of the capital's towers was still underway, but they soon stopped.

The militia leaders managed to reach a shaky agreement. The council of the entire land was headed by Lyapunov, Zarutsky and Trubetskoy. After some time, the “Verdict” was adopted, according to which a control system was established both in the militia and in the lands under its control. This document repeated the structure of government institutions that existed even before the dynastic crisis and related events. In particular, the entire land under the control of the Council was introduced. Among the most important are Razryadny, Zemsky and Local.

Collapse of the First Militia

The division of supreme power between the three leaders of the popular formation was a compromise step. Since the powers of one were limited by the powers of the other two leaders of the Council of the Whole Land, a struggle for sole power was inevitable between them. Thus, the leaders of the first militia of 1611 quickly forgot about the reasons for its formation.

The Polish interventionists understood this very well. Having made sure that it was precisely due to internal contradictions that the militia was not able to begin the assault on Moscow, the invaders tried with all their might to prevent the cessation of internal struggle in it. For this purpose, falsified documents were sent to Zarutsky’s Cossacks, from which it followed that Lyapunov intended to disband their regiments. Believing the insinuations, the Cossacks summoned Lyapunov to their gathering and hacked him to death. The consequence of this was the withdrawal of the noble regiments from near Moscow.

From this moment on, the first militia actually ceases to exist. At the walls of the capital, only Cossack detachments remained, commanded by Zarutsky and Trubetskoy. This situation continued until the arrival of the forces of the second militia, assembled by Prince Pozharsky and the Nizhny Novgorod merchant

The Council of the Whole Land formally continued to be the highest authority in the territories not subject to the Poles. However, the absence of a single leader led to the emergence of a new impostor. On March 2, the Council swore allegiance to False Dmitry III. Subsequently, this made it possible not to listen to his opinion for years.

The meaning of the militia

Despite the lack of practical benefit, the activities of the First Home Guard meant a lot for the further fight against the Poles and Swedes. For the first time, the ability of the people to self-organize in a critical situation was demonstrated. The very idea of ​​a people's militia was picked up and developed by one of its most prominent participants - Prince Pozharsky. When creating a new popular formation, he took into account the mistakes of the past. In particular, the new association did not consider it necessary to cooperate with people from Tushino, whose participation, by and large, led the First Militia to collapse. On the other hand, the existence of such powerful opposition in the country to the plans of the Polish gentry forced the Polish king to seriously think about further prospects for intervention. Thus, the psychological effect is the main result of the first militia of 1611.