In the beginning, in the Universe there was only the primeval water chaos of Hun-tun, shaped like a chicken egg, and formless images wandered in the pitch darkness. In this World Egg Pan-gu arose spontaneously.
For a long time Pan-gu slept soundly. And when he woke up, he saw darkness around him, and this saddened him. Then Pan-gu broke the egg shell and went outside. Everything that was light and pure in the egg rose up and became the sky - Yang, and everything heavy and rough sank down and became the earth - Yin.
After his birth, Pan-gu created the entire Universe from the five primary elements: Water, Earth, Fire, Wood and Metal. Pan-gu took a breath, and winds and rains were born, exhaled - thunder rumbled and lightning flashed; if he opened his eyes, then day came, when he closed them, night reigned.
Pan-gu liked what was created, and he was afraid that heaven and earth would mix again into primeval chaos. Therefore, Pan-gu firmly rested his feet on the ground and his hands on the sky, not allowing them to touch. Eighteen thousand years have passed. Every day the sky rose higher and higher, the earth became stronger and larger, and Pan-gu grew, continuing to hold the sky at outstretched arms. Finally, the sky became so high and the earth so solid that they could no longer merge together. Then Pan-gu dropped his hands, lay down on the ground, and died.
His breath became wind and clouds, his voice became thunder, his eyes became the sun and the moon, his blood became rivers, his hair became trees, his bones became metals and stones. From Pangu's seed pearls arose, and from bone marrow - jade. From the same insects that crawled on Pan-gu’s body, people turned out. But there is another legend, which is no worse.
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The ancestors of people are also called the pair of divine twins Fu-si and Nui-wu, who lived on the sacred mountain Kun-lun. They were children of the sea, the Great God Shen-nun, who took on the guise of half-humans, half-snakes: the twins had human heads and the bodies of sea dragon snakes.There are different stories about how Nyu-wa became the ancestor of humanity. Some say that she first gave birth to a shapeless lump, cut it into small pieces and scattered it all over the earth. Where they fell, people appeared. Others claim that one day Nyu-wa, sitting on the shore of a pond, began to sculpt a small figurine from clay - a likeness of herself. The clay creature turned out to be very joyful and friendly, and Nui-ve liked it so much that she sculpted many more of the same little men. She wanted to populate the whole earth with people. To make her work easier, she took a long vine, dipped it into liquid clay and shook it. The scattered lumps of clay immediately turned into people.
But it is difficult to sculpt clay without bending, and Nyu-wa was tired. Then she divided people into men and women, commanded them to live in families and give birth to children.
Fu-si taught his children to hunt and fish, make fire and cook food, and invented “se” - a musical instrument such as a gusli, a fishing net, snares and other useful things. In addition, he drew eight trigrams - symbolic signs reflecting various phenomena and concepts, which we now call the “Book of Changes”.
People lived a happy, serene life, knowing neither hostility nor envy. The land bore fruit in abundance, and people did not have to work to feed themselves. Born children were placed in bird's nests, as if in a cradle, and the birds amused them with their chirping. Lions and tigers were as affectionate as cats, and snakes were not poisonous.
But one day the spirit of water Gun-gun and the spirit of fire Zhu-zhong quarreled among themselves and started a war. The spirit of fire won, and the defeated spirit of water, in despair, hit its head and Mount Buzhou, which supported the sky, so hard that the mountain split. Having lost its support, part of the sky fell to the ground, breaking it in several places. Underground waters gushed out of the breaches, sweeping away everything in its path.
Nuwa rushed to save the world. She collected stones of five different colors, melted them over the fire and repaired the hole in the sky. In China, there is a belief that if you look closely, you can see a patch in the sky that differs in color. In another version of the myth, Nyu-wa repaired the sky with the help of small shiny stones, which turned into stars. Then Nyu-wa burned a lot of reeds, collected the resulting ashes in a heap and dammed the water streams.
Order was restored. But after the repair, the world became slightly askew. The sky inclined to the west, and the sun and moon began to roll there every day, and in the southeast a depression formed into which all the rivers on earth rushed. Now Nyu-wa could rest. According to some versions of the myth, she died, according to others, she ascended to heaven, where she still lives in complete solitude.
And accordingly, their civilization as the original culture of the local region, let us dwell on the migration hypothesis.
Research by modern Sinologists points to two areas from which the Chinese could have come: East Turkestan (more precisely, the Tarim Valley) or the Kunlun Mountains (this region is more often indicated).
Another theory is based on the more or less long residence of the Chinese in the most remote settlement located in Chinese territory on the way from Akkadia. This hypothesis is consistent with recent evidence that the Khotanese civilization came from the Punjab in the 3rd century BC. e.
Some scholars dispute the Akkadian origin on the grounds that the first Chinese rulers were identified with the Babylonian rulers, and the Chinese Po-Bzings (Cantonese Bak-Zings) with the Bak-Sings, or Bak tribes, but the hypothesis does not at all exclude their Akkadian origin.
It is obvious that in any case, migration to China occurred gradually in the direction from Western or Central Asia directly to the banks of the Yellow River. The Chinese may have traveled southwest through Burma and then northwest through what is now China.
The settlement of these lands, therefore, occurred from southwest to northeast or in a northeasterly direction along the Yangtze River and further north, and not at all from north to south, as was usually believed.
Objections to the Southern Origins Theory
The last route we have outlined calls whole line objections; most likely, the hypothesis associated with it appeared in order to provide additional evidence to support the theory that the Chinese came from the Indochina Peninsula.
The hypothesis is based on the fact that among the ancient Chinese ideograms there are images of tropical animals and plants, and also on the fact that the most archaic language forms were found in the south, and that both the Chinese and Indo-Chinese groups of languages are tonal.
However, these and similar facts are refuted by the assumption that the Chinese arrived from the north or northwest gradually, group by group, and those who came later pushed those who had arrived earlier to the south, so that the most ancient and homogeneous tribes of the Chinese were found precisely in the places we indicated .
It then turns out that the tonal languages of the Indochinese Peninsula should be considered as the languages of the first migratory groups. As for ideograms, animals and plants of the temperate zone are more often found in them, rather than of the tropical zone.
But even if it were possible to prove that these particular animals and plants today are found mainly in the tropics, this statement cannot serve as proof that the Chinese came from the tropics - after all, the climate of Northern China was once much milder than it is now, and animals such as tigers and elephants lived in dense jungles; later they actually began to be found only in southern latitudes.
Advancement of peoples from north to south
The theory of the southern origin of the Chinese, which we will discuss below, assumes a gradual spread of Chinese tribes from the southern or central regions to the north, but there is no doubt that movement in the opposite direction also occurred at the same time.
Linguistic research data show that the areas of modern Western Gansu and Sichuan provinces were inhabited by people who were ethnic Chinese. Over time, they advanced into modern Tibet and are now known as Tibetans.
In the territory of modern Yunnan province lived representatives of the Shan, or Lao (modern Lao) people; under the threat of the Mongol invasion, they had to move to the peninsula located in the south and become Siamese. In Indochina, without entering into family ties with the Chinese, lived the Vietnamese, Khmers, Mons, Khazis, Colorians (some of them scattered across the mountains of Central India) and other tribes that inhabited Southern China in prehistoric times. As they moved south, the Chinese were forced out and went in the opposite direction.
The emergence of the Chinese
Thus, it seems unlikely that the Chinese could have come from East Turkestan to the banks of the Yellow River, where the first traces of their settlements were discovered. This is the area where the provinces of Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan meet.
Then, that is, around 2500 or 3000 BC. e., the arriving tribes were distinguished by a relatively more developed culture. The lands located to the east and west of this territory were inhabited by local tribes, with whom the Chinese waged continuous wars, as well as with dangerous animals and dense thickets. But the Chinese still mixed with the local population through interethnic marriages and gradually began to establish permanent settlements - centers of the emerging civilization.
Kunlun Mountains
In Chinese mythology, these places were considered the abode of the gods - the ancestors of the Chinese nation. It should be noted that they do not at all coincide with the real Kunlun ridge - a range of mountains separating Tibet from Chinese Turkestan, as well as with the Hindu Kush. The above gave grounds to correlate the Kunlun Mountains with Babylon. This uncertainty became the reason for combining the Central Asian and East Asian theories of the origin of the Chinese.
One of the myths tells that the god Nyu-wa (Nyu-gua) lived in the Kunlun Mountains - supposedly one of the creators of people, according to another myth - and the first ancestors of people themselves - Nyu and Kua. At first glance, this point of view seems very encouraging. However, this legend is actually of Taoist origin.
Reaching a height of 4800 meters, Mount Kunlun is the center of the world. The source of immortality is located on it, and the four main world rivers originate here. This plot is presented not only in Chinese, but also in Hindu, as well as in Sumerian mythologies, so the information does not seem particularly valuable to us.
Unfortunately, it would take too much time to discuss in detail such interesting problems as the origin of the Chinese and the rise of their civilization, or the similarities between China and Western Asia in pre-Babylonian times and other issues, but we are forced to confine ourselves to the most general considerations.
Preliminary conclusions
Anticipating the emergence of more reliable information in the future, we will express preliminary considerations, or rather even a hypothesis: the ancestors of the Chinese people came from the west, from Akkad, Elam or Khotan, but most likely from Akkad or Elam through Khotan.
The ancestors of the Chinese moved towards the territory that modern China occupies continuously over a long period of time. They first settled around the bend of the Yellow River, and then began to spread to the northwest, west and south. They conquered, absorbed, or displaced the indigenous people from their lands, gradually spreading throughout the area known today as South and Southwest China.
Local peoples came from Western Asia during the Neolithic period, that is, much earlier than the tribes who arrived around the 25th or 26th centuries BC. e. Having assimilated among the Chinese living in the south, they left a deep mark on the culture of Japan. Let us note that even today they differ from the northern Chinese in appearance, in language, and in their entire spiritual and psychological make-up, material culture and economic structure.
Natural conditions
China lies within the temperate, subtropical and tropical zones. The southwestern part of the territory is occupied by the Tibetan Plateau (average altitude about 4500 m), framed by the mountain systems of the Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun, Nanshan and the Sino-Tibetan mountains; in the west and northwest lie the plains (Tarim, Dzhungar, Alashan) and the mountains of the Eastern Tien Shan. The eastern part of the country is lower; in the northeast - the Manchurian-Korean Mountains, the Greater and Lesser Khingan, the plains in the Sungari River basin; to the south - the Loess Plateau, the Great Chinese Plain; in the south - the Nanling Mountains, the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau.
The climate in the west is continental, in the east it is predominantly monsoonal. Average January temperatures range from minus 24 °C in the north and in the Tibetan Plateau to plus 18 °C in the south, and in July on the plains from plus 20 to 28 °C. Annual precipitation ranges from 2000–2500 millimeters (in the south and east) to 50–100 millimeters (in the north and west). Typhoons are common in autumn. Western regions - area of internal drainage; in the east there is an extensive network of rivers, the main ones being the Yangtze, Yellow River, Songhua, and Zhujiang. The most significant lakes: Kukunor, Dongting, Poyang. To the west is the Taklamakan Desert, to the north is part of the Gobi Desert. Forest occupies about 8 percent of the area.
At first, the Chinese occupied a relatively small area of their future country. It was an oblong area located between the 34th and 40th degrees north latitude and the 107th and 114th parallels. It was located around a bend of the Yellow River and covered an area of approximately 5 million square miles, gradually extending to the sea coast in the northeast.
About a million people lived here; after the invasion of foreigners, the population doubled. This territory can be called the place where China was born. The first, feudal, period of its existence lasted approximately two thousand years, from the 24th to the 13th centuries BC. e.
In the first centuries of the monarchical period, which lasted from 221 BC. e. until 1912 of our time, the territory of China expanded to the south - it included all eighteen provinces, making up the formation known as the Celestial Empire, or True China (the part of the territory located east of Gansu and most of Sichuan were not included).
By the time of the Manchu conquest, at the beginning of the 17th century, China occupied the entire territory located between 18 and 40 degrees north latitude and 98 and 112 degrees east longitude (it consisted of eighteen provinces and was called the Middle Kingdom), which included the vast remote territories of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, Kukunar, Tibet and Korea, as well as Vietnam and Burma, whose rulers were Chinese vassals. The territory of China thus extended over more than 13 million square kilometers, including 5 million square kilometers occupied by eighteen provinces.
In general, the land turned out to be mountainous in the west and east, but as it approached the sea it became smoother. The country's topography was defined by three mountain systems and huge alluvial plateaus, with soils in the northern, western and southern parts. The entire territory of China was crossed by three huge and about thirty large rivers with many tributaries that reached the most remote corners.
In terms of geological features, the large alluvial soils of the plateau were located over bases of granite, red sandstone or limestone. In the north, the plateau consisted of loess, a rock resulting from the petrification of sand blown by winds from the Mongolian plateau.
The oldest mountains were in the north; as they moved south, they became younger, and sometimes there were traces of volcanic activity. They are rich in minerals: coal and iron are mined here, as well as gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and jadeite.
Of course, the climate of such a vast territory is heterogeneous. In the north, winters are long and harsh, summers are hot and dry, and there is a short rainy period in July and August. In the south, summers are long, hot and humid, and winters are short. Temperatures vary accordingly: from forty-degree heat in the south to almost the same frost in the northern part of the country.
The lowest level of precipitation (40 millimeters) is in the north, in the south it is five times higher, and in other parts of the country the amount of precipitation also varies. In the south, typhoons rage from July to October.
Vegetation, fauna and agriculture
The flora of China is abundant and surprisingly diverse. The main agricultural crop is rice, and its cultivation area covers the northern half of the country. A large area of its cultivation is located south of the Yangtze River, east of Dongting and the great Xijiang River, in the northern part of Guangdong Province. Other main crops include wheat, barley, maize, millet, legumes, yams, sweet and regular potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, zucchini, ginseng, bamboo, indigo, pepper, tobacco, groundnuts, poppy, melon, cotton.
In 350, tea began to be cultivated in the southern and central provinces. However, there are also plantations in the far north, say in Shandong, the main region for cultivating this crop in modern China.
A variety of fruits were also grown there: dates, mulberries, oranges, lemons, pomelo, persimmons, pomegranates, pineapples, figs, coconuts, mangoes, bananas and other fruits traditional for Eastern countries.
China's fauna is no less rich: tigers, panthers, leopards, bears, sables, otters, monkeys, wolves, 27 species of ruminants and many rodents. Rhinoceroses, elephants and tapirs still live in Yunnan Province. There were also about 700 species of birds and numerous varieties of fish and insects. Among domestic animals, we note the camel and buffalo.
Social structure
As noted above, the Chinese fought for territory from local residents. As the incoming tribes spread, the autochthonous population was simply destroyed, assimilated with them, or pushed south.
In the end, non-Chinese tribes had no choice but to develop swampy places, forests of the south, or inaccessible mountainous areas that were unsuitable for living. So much labor was required to clear the land of forest that new settlements often looked like islands in the thicket, just as the displaced people lived in enclaves surrounded by the Chinese who dominated around them.
In the 3rd century BC. e. Clashes between the Chinese and northern nomadic tribes begin, which continued for many centuries. In the first six centuries AD there was communication with the Parthian kingdom, Turkey, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, India and Indochina, and in the 8th century - with the Arab world. Europe became acquainted with the life of the Chinese thanks to tireless Christian travelers.
From the 10th to the 13th centuries, the north of the country was occupied by the Khitans, and soon the entire empire at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries was under the rule of the Mongols for 88 years. Over the next four centuries, trade and cultural ties remained between them.
Permanent diplomatic relations with its western neighbors were established after a series of wars that were fought in the 18th-19th centuries. At the same time, the Chinese rulers always refrained from any alliances, because they were completely confident in their own invincibility. Since 1537, as a result of wars or agreements, foreign powers gained control over Chinese territories and established their settlements there. Under pressure from Western countries and the Japanese, China lost a number of border territories and extensive possessions on the islands.
As an agricultural country, China constantly felt the need for a single national idea that could unite the country, so any outside intervention was seen as a tragedy and a violation of general peace.
Anthropological characteristics of the population
The first tribes that came to Northern China, without exception, belonged to the white race, but in the appearance of modern residents practically nothing has been preserved from the appearance of their distant ancestors. They were distinguished by wide-set, almond-shaped eyes, a fold of skin above the inner corner of the eye socket.
The hair is black, straight, coarse, facial hair is sparse, beards are rare. The skin of residents of the southern regions is darker than that of northerners.
The volume and weight of the brain are slightly below average. Emotionally, the Chinese are calm, hardworking, unusually resilient, courteous and even ceremonious. They are characterized by a high sense of duty, at the same time they can be both timid and fearful, and cruel.
Until recently, the Chinese were relatively conservative, prone to stereotypical thinking, a special adherence to traditions, sometimes unimaginative, apathetic, suspicious and superstitious.
As a result of mixing with other races, the character traits of the Chinese have changed greatly in the process of natural physical and intellectual development.
Family relationships
The individual elements of the marriage ceremony that have survived to this day indicate that the original form of marriage was borrowed, and the Book of Songs testifies to the same. Most likely, marriage existed as a stable form (as opposed to relationships based on the purchase of slaves) already in ancient historical times. Although formally his monogamous form was legalized in China, in fact a man could have several concubines in addition to his wife, their number depended only on his material capabilities. The higher his social status, the more concubines and maids he had in the house. Up to several hundred women lived in the palaces of rulers and princes.
In earlier times, and throughout the history of China, polyandry (polyandry) occurred, which, however, did not spread as widely as polygamy.
Usually a man got married at twenty, a girl got married at fifteen, and celibacy after thirty for men and for women over twenty was officially condemned.
In Shandong province, wives were usually older than their husbands. Marriages were concluded with the assistance of a matchmaker, who received the consent of the parents for the betrothal; the opinion of the young people was not taken into account. Official registration there was no marriage.
After the agreement was concluded, parents on both sides blessed the newlyweds. Sometimes the bride came to the groom's house, where special rituals were performed in order to receive the protection of family spirits.
After a short stay at the groom's house, they came to the house of the bride's parents, where similar rituals were performed. The marriage was not considered valid until a return visit took place.
The woman had practically no rights in society, while the husband became the absolute master and could even kill his wife for treason. Divorce was common, and the right was always considered to be the husband, who could reject his wife simply for disobedience or even for chatter.
The widower could not bear the mourning period and almost immediately married again. If a widow did this, it could be regarded as a violation of fidelity to her deceased husband. Often a widow would mutilate herself or even commit suicide to avoid remarriage - then after her death she would be honored for this act. After all, a woman continued to be considered married both in this world and in the next, so remarriage was perceived as a violation of fidelity. This did not apply to a man who, after remarriage, added another family member to his clan without violating anyone’s rights.
Marriage during the monarchy and during the republic
The matrimonial system of early classical times, which we have already written about, remained virtually unchanged over the long period of the monarchy - from 221 BC. e. to 1912. As before, the main thing was considered to be to give birth to a boy who would inherit power and continue the veneration of ancestors.
It seemed that no one entered into a forced marriage, but bachelors and spinsters were rare. Concubines were subordinate to the wife, who was considered the mother of both her own and their children. However, this did not mean her supremacy at all: unconditional obedience was also required from her; she could not own property, and her husband could force her into anything, including prostitution.
The latter was widespread, although marriage was entered into at a fairly early age and a man could have concubines. In fact, the institution of concubines turned out to be nothing more than legalized prostitution.
Since the establishment of the republic in 1912, Western trends have been observed in Chinese family relationships. The essence of the family contract remained practically the same; the most noticeable changes were felt in the conduct of the marriage ceremony.
Now she has approximately equally combined old and new traditions, for example, marriage contracts were concluded regulating the property rights of the parties in a subsequent divorce. Behavior in the family has also changed, more so for women than for men. The bride's national dress allowed her to wear a European-style hat. Having gained greater freedom, women began to leave their own homes, sit at the table with their husbands, attend social events, and began to dress and have fun in a European way.
Let us note one of the completely unexpected consequences of women's liberation, which even the most far-sighted sociologists did not foresee. Most of those Chinese who did not object to the Europeanization of their family structure, appearing with their wives in society, often discovered that they were inferior to their sociable and active companions, and even more so to European women.
Women from families that steadily followed the behests of their ancestors, still doing hard housework and completely powerless, as throughout the history of the country, could not compete with the graceful, European-educated wives of their neighbors, and only these women could be taken out by their husbands. light without losing your dignity. True, we add that the number of marriages of Chinese men with European women in percentage terms turned out to be insignificant.
Parents and children
The power of parents over children was the same as the power of men over their wives. Infanticide caused by poverty often occurred: first of all, girls who were not really needed “on the farm” were killed. This happened mainly in three or four provinces, but in other places it was not so widespread.
Although punishment for infanticide was introduced under the Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799), it only concerned the killing of children for the purpose of using their bodies for medical purposes; Thus, it can be argued that infanticide was practically not officially prohibited.
In cases where child abuse became too scandalous, local officials issued decrees condemning such acts.
By making a purchase or entering into a contract, a man could adopt or adopt the "acquisition" as a member of his clan with all the corresponding rights, regardless of origin; The sons of all wives and mistresses had equal rights, regardless of seniority. Illegitimate children received half of the inherited share. During the lifetime of parents or grandfathers, the estates were not divided.
The head of the family was considered only a lifelong tenant of the family property, endowed with certain rights. Personal inclinations were not taken into account. All that mattered was honoring parents. Usually the heir was established by oral or written order.
In the absence of a father, any man from this family could become the head of the family, but most often the younger brother. The guardian had full power and could dispose of income from the estate under his care, but did not have the right to alienate property.
History contains many examples of the extraordinary devotion of children to their parents, sometimes manifested in self-mutilation or even suicide - this was done when this was a condition for healing their parents from incurable diseases or to save their lives.
Political history
As already noted, coming from the west, the Chinese limited their settlements to the territory where the modern provinces of Shanxi, Shaanxi and Henan connect. It extended eastward to the shores of Haizhouwan Bay. Between one and two million people lived in an area approximately 1,200 kilometers long and 600 kilometers wide.
During the first two thousand years of recorded history, the region's boundaries changed significantly. At the same time, beyond the undescribed and practically unidentified borders of the south were the Zhou, or colonies, mainly inhabited by the Chinese. During the period we are considering, they significantly expanded their lands by capturing neighboring territories.
In the XIV century BC. e. In ancient China, the early slave state of Yin emerged, conquered in the 11th century BC. e. Zhou tribe. Zhou state by the 7th century BC. e. divided into a number of independent kingdoms. At the end of the 3rd century BC. e. the centralized Qin Empire arose in China, which was replaced by the Han Empire (206 BC - 220 AD). In the 3rd-6th centuries AD. e. China broke up into a number of independent states. At the end of the 6th century, the country was unified under the rule of the Sui dynasty. During the reign of the Tang dynasty (618–907), a long peasant war took place from 874–901. In the 12th century, Northern China was conquered by tribes of nomadic Jurchens, and in the 13th century, China was conquered by the Mongols, whose yoke was overthrown in 1368. At the end of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the Peasants' War of 1628–1645 broke out. To suppress it, the Manchus were called in to help; they quelled the unrest and established their dominance in China (their Qing dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911).
In the middle of the 19th century, aggression began against China European countries, as a result of which, according to the treaty, enslaving conditions were imposed on China, and the country was divided into spheres of influence of the USA, France and Great Britain. They helped the Qing government suppress the Taiping Peasant War (1850–1864). By the beginning of the 20th century, China had become a semi-colony, and a liberation movement began in the country under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen.
In 1911, a popular revolution took place, as a result of which the Qing dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was formed. In 1912, Sun Yat-sen created the Kuomintang party, and in 1921 the Communist Party of China was founded. Until 1927, China carried out Civil War between provincial rulers. In 1927-1928, the territorial integrity of China was restored. Chiang Kai-shek became the chairman of the national government in Nanjing. In 1931, Japan captured Manchuria and created the state of Manchukuo on its territory. In 1937, Japan began an open war to conquer all of China. After Japan surrendered in 1945, civil war began again in China. The Chinese People's Liberation Army occupied all of mainland China and forced Chiang Kai-shek to flee to Taiwan; On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed, led by Mao Zedong.
Government
In the most general form, the structure of the Middle Kingdom can be represented as follows: the emperor and his subjects. The Emperor was considered the Son of Heaven, embodying the will of the almighty Heavenly Lord. He not only ruled the state, but was also the chief legislator, commander-in-chief, high priest and master of ceremonies.
The entire population was divided into four groups. The first, shi, included officials (later scientists), they were divided into shen - officials (titled nobility) and shen shi - small nobility; the second group, the Nun, included farmers; in the third, kun, - artisans, artisans; the fourth group, the Shan, are traders.
The entire territory of the country was divided into provinces, the number of which varied from nine in early times to thirty-six under the first emperor (221 BC). At first they were separate states, the governance structure of which repeated the central government of the Middle Kingdom (Zhongguo). The origin of this self-name dates back to the period of the Zhou dynasty (XI century BC - 221).
The location of the central government and, accordingly, the capital of the empire changed several times. Initially, the capital was in Pingyang (modern Shanxi province). During the feudal period, the capital was moved eleven times, and finally it became the city of Yin.
The provincial administration was in the hands of twelve governors. They led the provincial nobility. Civil and military power were not separated. Family nobility and large landowners were often at the ruler's court, and courtiers were often sent to govern other regions with the rank of princes.
The emperor was considered the guarantor of the legislative and administrative powers. Each ruler had the same rights within his province. The income received by the treasury consisted of land and poll taxes, which were levied on farmers, as well as tithes, which were paid by artisans, merchants, fishermen, and lumberjacks. Separate taxes were taken from tribes conquered by the Chinese.
Throughout the imperial period, the structure and operating principles of the administrative system changed little, with some changes only occurring towards the end of the monarchical period. However, even in 1912 they continued to believe in the divine origin of the emperor, who united in his person the highest civil, legislative, military and spiritual power; the same division of the nation into classes was preserved.
The main ministries were located in the capital - Beijing. Most of them existed in feudal times. All affairs in the provinces were managed by a small group of officials, which included the governor, military commander, local treasurer, and judge. In addition, there was also the position of governor, to whom two or three provinces were subordinate at once. He controlled the collection of duties, was in charge of the armed forces, and relations with foreign states.
At first, appointment to a position was carried out by inheritance or by choosing a successor. Later, state examinations were introduced to test the professional suitability of candidates. Usually the examinee took part in public competitive written examinations on knowledge of the legal system. The formation of the examination procedure was completely completed by the 17th century and was abolished in 1903, when official positions were opened to graduates of colleges organized on modern principles.
In 1912, after the overthrow of the Qing monarchy, China became a republic with an elected president and a parliament consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Various government departments were reorganized along Western lines, and a huge number of new government institutions were established. However, a general constitution was never adopted.
Legislation
As in other feudal and monarchical states, Chinese legislation consolidated a system of subordination, subordination to the ruler, and did not contribute to the establishment of justice in society. The laws were aimed at blaming and punishing, not reforming, those convicted.
For an offense or a crime, they were punished very severely: they burned the brand, cut off the nose, cut off the legs to the knees, some were castrated; For serious crimes they were sentenced to death. Sometimes the entire family, clan, and even neighbors of the condemned person were punished. We can say that the punishing sword of the law knew no mercy or restrictions.
However, despite the cruelty of punishment, characteristic of all states Ancient world, the Chinese have created an excellent legal system. This activity began with the update of the “Code of Punishments”, adopted under the ruler My in 950 BC. e. The first permanent code of laws was published in 650 BC. e., and the last one - in 1647 AD. e. entitled “Laws and Regulations of the Great Qing Dynasty.”
The largest legislative monument is the “Classical Laws,” compiled by Li Gui, a statesman who was in the service of the first ruler of the state of Wei (IV century BC).
Initially, it established only two types of punishment - the death penalty and caning. A variation of the first was “painful death,” or transformation into a “pig man,” when the condemned man’s tongue was torn out and then his arms and legs were cut off. It was introduced around 1000 AD. e. and banned in 1905. Traitors, women who killed their husbands, and murderers of an entire family (at least three people) were sentenced to this punishment. Although the most cruel forms of punishment were prohibited by law, they were still used in many places until the end of the existence of the monarchy. From antiquity until the mid-19th century, the tradition of blood feud for murder was preserved.
Torture of the accused began already in the courts. To obtain a confession, without which a sentence was never passed, the accused were placed in stocks, hung by their bound fingers and toes, shackled in chains, or tied in a contorted position. I note that even after the fall of the monarchy, as well as 4000 years ago, the true meaning of the concept of “due punishment” had a special meaning for the Chinese.
Towards the end of Manchu rule, the judicial system began to undergo significant reform, which was facilitated by pressure from foreign powers. As a result, a new criminal code was adopted. It is noteworthy that even after the proclamation of the republic, a significant part of the population continued to support the harsh laws, fearing that their repeal would lead to disruptions in public peace and the loss of “Chinese characteristics.” The new code prohibited excessively cruel punishments and torture, retaining only beheading, hanging or strangulation.
A careful reading shows that it was modeled on Japanese laws; and at the same time, it was an imitation of the Western criminal code, and therefore completely incompatible with living conditions in China. The republican authorities quickly realized that it should be modernized so that it would become a convenient, precise legislative instrument that meets the Chinese mentality.
The practical application of the law was in the hands of police officials, who interpreted it in accordance with their interests. Even someone acquitted by the Supreme Court could be kept in prison until they were stripped dry. It should also be noted that the idea underlying the criminal code of “ fair trial", which obeys only the law, has remained a pipe dream.
Local government
The main unit of local government was the county. All orders of senior officials were carried out by district commanders, who were sovereign local rulers. His duties were quite varied: he was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing imperial decrees, in charge of public works, religious rites, was a judge of first instance in criminal and civil cases, and the head of a prison and police.
The lowest administrative unit was considered whether - a community led by an elder - lizhan. It included at least one hundred households. The community was divided into smaller ones - jia, which united ten courtyards; the head of the jia was the headman - Jiazhang. On the wall of each house there was a sign with the names of all adult men. Every ten jia was bao and obeyed the foreman. Since the 17th century AD. e. there was a system of mutual responsibility - baojia. Each family member was responsible for everyone else. In 1873, a man was sentenced to death for digging up the grave of a member of the imperial family. His entire family of eleven people was sentenced to death.
Army structure
In the pre-state period, China had no army at all. If necessary, everyone who could hold a weapon in their hands exchanged the plow and hoe for sabers, bows and arrows and went to fight. Each village had its own militia. When the fields were cleared after the harvest, the peasants practiced martial arts.
The ruler personally led the troops; under his command there were six armies, controlled by the six highest representatives of the nobility - this was the basis of the government army. On campaigns, the ruler took with him tablets with the names of his ancestors, as well as the gods of his land and fertility.
The main part of the army were chariots drawn by four horses. They housed warriors with spears, javelin throwers and archers. In order not to interfere with each other, the archers stood on buskins. In total there were about a thousand chariots in the army. During battles, the chariots were located in the center, the archers on the left, and the spearmen on the right flank. War elephants, which also carried archers, were used as striking forces. Flags and kites were used for signaling, and troops advanced to the sound of gongs, drums and pipes. After the victory, the army commander presented the emperor with the ears of the leader of the defeated warriors.
After establishing absolute monarchy the army became regular. All men aged 23 to 56 were recruited for military service, although in other years even twenty-year-olds could be recruited. If necessary, for example, when war was declared or when repelling external aggression, men were called up again.
Military service lasted two years. First, the recruits were trained, after which they were sent to garrisons stationed throughout China. Some of them, after training, were sent to remote garrisons located in fortresses that stood along all the borders of the empire. There the service conditions were the most difficult. We do not know whether this duty was part of the compulsory two-year service, or whether hired soldiers served on the border.
In the 6th century AD e. China had a huge army of about a million and a quarter, but it changed depending on the circumstances. In 627 AD e. In the permanent combat units there were 900 thousand people aged from 20 to 60 years.
During the Mongol dynasty (1280-1368), there was also a fleet of 5 thousand ships, commanded by 70 thousand trained warriors. The Mongols completely changed their war tactics and clearly improved the fighting skills of the Chinese.
In 1614, the Manchus, who conquered China, established an army consisting of "eight banners", which included units of the Mongols, Manchus and Chinese. The local population organized a "Green Standard Army", divided into land and sea forces, replacing regular troops with "courageous" ones. Jung - warriors who were included in the lists and called up depending on the circumstances.
After the war with Japan in 1894, the army was reformed along European lines; changes concerned uniforms, weapons, and the procedure for conducting military operations. The fleet was similarly reformed and became more modern. The army began to be treated with respect, as in other countries. For a long time, the soldier, like the priest, was considered a person who did not produce useful products, and was therefore treated with disrespect.
Simultaneously with the recognition of the need to defend the country, it became clear that the army must protect the country not only from obvious enemies who threatened it from land or sea, but also from their secret collaborators who could seize command of the army, thereby gaining control over the entire military system.
Professional associations
During the feudal period, there were professions of healers, musicians, poets, teachers, prayer writers, architects, scribes, artists, fortune-tellers, organizers of ceremonies, orators and many others. All of them were in one way or another connected with religious cults, which predetermined their close relationship. And then the author of a historical work could simultaneously be a statesman, a scientist and even a general. One person combined the talents of a writer and a teacher, a musician and a poet. Priests usually served as healers. At the same time, there were also experienced doctors, but there were few of them, and there were no female doctors at all.
Veterinarians also practiced, treating domestic animals, and there were also musicians, usually belonging to the poorest segments of the population. The greatest respect was enjoyed by literate people who knew how to draw up business papers and mastered the art of calligraphy.
Educational institutions
Schools, academies and universities were located in villages, counties, regions and provinces. Education was divided into stages: “primary” and “higher, or major, education.” There were special schools for teaching dance and music; it is known that there were libraries. Not only in the capital, but also in other cities there were associations of literature lovers.
Regardless of what form and direction education took, it was standard and constituted the first step for an official climbing the career ladder. Mandatory for the applicant was not only knowledge of the Buddhist canon, but also the works of Confucius, Mencius, as well as the ability to write poetry and prose works. Mastery of the art of calligraphy was also required, because the text should not contain a single incorrectly or carelessly written hieroglyph.
Learning to read and write began in childhood, and at the same time literary preferences were formed. Education was expensive, so often only one or two family members could receive a full education. As a rule, they sought to occupy a certain position in order to improve the situation of their family. IN Western countries initial training was universal and anyone could receive it.
The path to knowledge, as mentioned above, began at an early age, and this tradition was preserved for many centuries. At first, students mechanically memorized not only simple texts, but also the works of Confucius and other classical authors.
This state of affairs continued until the abolition of the old competitive system in 1905. examination system, it was replaced by a modern one introduced in schools, colleges and universities throughout the country. New system is reviving the Chinese spiritually, and its results will eventually become obvious to the entire world community.
The bulk of the population were farmers, artisans and traders. Among them, professional skills were passed on from fathers and grandfathers to sons and grandsons. Deviation from tradition was considered an insult to one's ancestors. The elders showed how to work and developed the appropriate skills and natural abilities in the children.
In China there were also charitable institutions: hospitals, almshouses, orphanages; Banking associations engaged in insurance and loans, tourist clubs, trading communities, anti-opium associations, funeral parlors, and many other institutions modeled on Western organizations developed throughout the country.
Deliberate mutilation of the body
Like some other ancient peoples, such as the Mayans, the Chinese have known, albeit few, cases of deliberate mutilation of the body. They should be distinguished from injuries of natural origin, received during war or as a result of punishment for a crime.
Their application was prescribed by custom and was deliberate, and in some cases even dictated by law. Traditionally, infants' skulls have been reshaped using bandages to narrow the skull at the top. Foot binding for girls is widely known. It came into use around 934, although some believe it was much earlier, around 583. However, the custom did not become widespread immediately; most likely, at least a century passed before footbinding became a tradition.
An unusually painful operation was performed at the age of six or seven: the girls were bent to the sole of all the toes, except the big one, pressing them with bandages. Every week the bandages were tightened tighter.
Gradually, the sole took on an arched shape, reminiscent of a lotus flower. Such a foot almost prevented the woman from moving.
It is not known exactly where this custom came from. It is believed that the basis was the desire to copy the small legs of the imperial concubines. They were especially admired by Emperor Li Houzhu of the Tang Dynasty. He had a concubine, Yao Nian, whose feet resembled lotuses.
In addition, at the age of 12-14, the girl’s breasts were tightened, since it was believed that her figure should “shine with the harmony of straight lines.” Thin waist and small legs were considered signs of grace.
Wearing braids and shaving the front of the head was a symbol for men of slavish dependence on the Manchus. This tradition was introduced in 1645 when they conquered China. The absence of a braid was considered a violation of the imperial decree. Foot binding and braiding were only abolished in 1912, when the monarchy fell and China became a republic.
Funeral rites
Over the long period of their civilization, the Chinese created an elaborate system of funeral rites. As Li Zhi notes, “rituals are the greatest achievement of people, for which life is worth living.”
The Chinese believed that death was just a state of suspended activity, when the soul leaves the body, but can return there even after a long period of time, so the Chinese were in no hurry with burial: they fed the corpse; Having climbed to the roof, they loudly called out to the soul, begging it to return. Finally convinced that the soul could not be persuaded to return to the body, they placed the deceased in a coffin and buried him. At the same time, he was provided with everything necessary for ordinary life (food, clothing, wife, servants). From the Chinese point of view, the life of the deceased continued in the next world.
Having forced or convinced the spirit to enter the memorial tablet, which was used during the burial ceremony, it was brought back to the house, installed in the tomb, in the main hall, and a hieroglyph was drawn shu, meaning "lord", and they worshiped her. It was believed that this would appease the spirit of the deceased. If the offerings were made constantly, then the spirit that left the body did not harm those living in the house whom it left.
Parting with the deceased was accompanied by shrill screams, screams, stomping, and beating one's chest. In ancient times, even clothes, housing and personal belongings were given to the deceased. Relatives moved to shelters made of clay, fasted or ate only brown rice, and slept on straw. All conversations were conducted only about death and burial; The performance of official and public duties and marriage ceremonies were postponed; it was not allowed to play music or leave the family clan.
During the long period of the monarchy, funeral rites became more and more refined and majestic. Although after the establishment of the republic the customs were no longer observed so carefully, they were still preserved in their main features.
The death of a family member became a very heavy burden for many, and this was not only due to the postponement of marriage ceremonies.
Notifications were sent to friends about the unfortunate event. After receiving it on specified days, the addressee was obliged to send gifts, money, and slaves. He had to come himself and join the lamentations of the hired mourners, and also attend the prayers read by the priests. It was believed that the funeral rite would not be completed and would lead to harm for loved ones if all the ceremonies were not performed at the right time or if the family neglected its individual elements. The same applied to the marriage ceremony.
While in the West cemeteries were an arrangement of graves, in China a cemetery belonged to a family or clan. Usually these were picturesque places with neatly planted trees, between which there were grave mounds and plaques.
The cemeteries looked like villages, and the graves looked like houses. Usually, a huge marble turtle was built to the north of the grave, on the back of which was placed a tablet with an inscription that a European would consider a tombstone.
The burial grounds of the last two imperial dynasties, the Ming and Qing, are majestic structures stretching across a vast territory. Traditionally, these types of buildings were located on hillsides and faced natural or artificial lakes or seas.
In Egypt, the burial structures of many rulers have been preserved, but in China only those discussed above have survived to this day. Typically, rival dynasties destroyed the graves of their predecessors. Despite such vandalism, China has the most magnificent ensemble of imperial tombs.
The originality of social relations
There were special regulations that defined all types of relationships between people: the relationships of juniors to seniors, seniors to juniors and to their equals.
Officials differed in the shape of their headdress, the cut of their clothing, emblems, weapons, writing tablets, the number of servants, the number of horses, and the height of their houses. Both everyday life and the activities of officials were regulated to the smallest detail. Visits, forms of address, and presentation of gifts were carried out in strict accordance with certain rules that were known to everyone and strictly observed by all members of society. Any Chinese child memorized these rules, like the tercets from the book “Ashi Jing”, and followed them strictly.
The etiquette accepted in China was not just different from the Western, but was diametrically opposed, which is why misunderstandings, excesses and, as a result, alienation constantly arose. In this regard, people most often remember the procedure for removing one's hat before the emperor and the nature of ancestor worship.
As a rule, the stranger was not aware of the traditions of China. In particular, it is not customary to take off your hat when entering a house or a temple, shake hands with your owner, or express approval by clapping your hands - after all, in old China they clapped their hands to ward off sha-shi - deadly influence of evil spirits. It is impossible to clap your hands, approving the statement of a Chinese, as Europeans who are not aware of national customs do, because this can be regarded as an insult.
If our diplomats knew and followed these subtleties, perhaps they would be able to avoid many complications, and sometimes even wars.
Habits and customs
Several times a year the Chinese held holidays. One of them is the beginning of the New Year. On this occasion, an incredible number of fireworks were displayed, people had fun in their homes, drank and ate delicious food. For several days we went to visit friends and relatives. It was believed that on the eve of the holiday, the kitchen god Tuan Nien descended from Heaven to learn about the sins of people and then report to the Heavenly Lord. To keep Tuan Nien's lips sealed and prevent him from talking too much about what he saw on earth, he was fed honey and other sticky foods.
The plots and houses were cleaned, new paper images of guardian gods were pasted on the entrance doors, strips of red paper with hieroglyphs containing wishes for happiness, wealth, good luck, and long life were hung. They were placed on tables covered with a red tablecloth. There were flowers and decorations everywhere: garlands, holiday flags.
Business life ceased, celebrations continued during the first half of the first lunar month.
The holidays ended after the three-day Lantern Festival. He was born during the Han Dynasty, two thousand years ago. In front of all the buildings, countless lanterns of all sizes, shapes and colors were lit, except white or a shade of undyed matter, for these colors were considered mourning.
About 800 years later, that is, about 1200 years ago, innovations were introduced: paper dragons several hundred meters long slowly moved along the street. They were carried on the heads of many men so that only their legs were visible, so it seemed as if huge snakes were writhing and slowly crawling along the street.
In addition to the holidays of the Four Seasons, celebrated on the days of the equinoxes and solstices, eight others were celebrated, four of which were associated with the veneration of spirits. Let's call the Early Festival of Spirits, which took place on the fifteenth day of the second lunar month, and the Festival of Tombstones. The latter occurred around the third day of the third lunar month, when the graves were put in order and special offerings were made to the dead. The Middle Spirit Festival took place on the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month, and the Late Spirit Festival on the fifteenth day of the tenth lunar month.
It is believed that the Dragon Festival on boats (on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month) was celebrated in memory of the poet Qu Yuan, who threw himself into the river, unable to withstand the palace intrigues and machinations of the courtiers. The main content of the rituals was requests for abundant rains for a good harvest.
The name reflects the meaning of the holiday; it takes place in the form of a competition on multi-oared boats in the shape of dragons. At the same time, texts of spells are attached to the doors of homes, a special kind of rice pudding is eaten, and intoxicating drinks are drunk.
On the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, the Midsummer holiday is celebrated; Europeans call it Remembrance Day. Then the women worship the Moon and offer pies and fruits as food. They believe that on this day the gates of purgatory open and hungry ghosts come out to enjoy everything that people offer them for a month.
On the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, the Chun-Yang festival was held, when anyone could climb to a high place, mountain or temple tower to fly a kite. It was believed that longevity could be achieved in this way. From this day the season of flying kites began. Over the next few months, the Chinese launched dragons, centipedes, frogs, butterflies and hundreds of other ingeniously made creatures into the sky, which they controlled using simple mechanisms using the power of the wind. They rolled their eyes, made various sounds, moved their paws, wings, and tails. There was a complete illusion that there were living beings in the sky.
The origin of this holiday, according to legend, is associated with a warning received by a scientist named Huan Jing from his mentor Fei Jiangfang from Henan, who lived during the Han Empire. One day, the spirit of a mentor appeared to a scientist in a dream and predicted that a flood would soon occur. In the morning, Huan Jing gathered his household and moved with them to a hill. Indeed, a flood soon occurred and their village was flooded. Upon returning, Huan Jing found that all his pets had died. He immediately made abundant sacrifices to the gods and celebrated this day as a holiday for the rest of his life.
Sports and games
The first Chinese sports competitions were games held during holidays, such as archery. The games were accompanied by military exercises. Favorite entertainment was hunting or games related to counting, chess (“the game of war”), badminton, throwing darts (for example, into a jug with a narrow neck), butting (the fighters wore masks with horns and sat on the shoulders of the attacker).
Since the same times, walking on stilts, football, throwing discs, rowing competitions, dog racing, cockfighting, kite flying, as well as dancing and singing puppets have been known - this is how the Chinese have been relaxing and having fun since ancient times.
Over time, most of the games were forgotten, so new entertainment was invented. Before the fall of the monarchy, during the reign of the Manchus, it turned out that badminton remained popular. They practiced lifting logs loaded with heavy stones; their length was approximately 1.5 meters, and at each end there was a load of 30-40 kilograms.
Also mentioned are flying snakes, fighting quails, playing cricket, releasing birds to catch seeds thrown into the air, walking through fields, playing chess, mahjong or dice. They made bets on winning in cricket, on winning in quail fights. Children's games were numerous and varied: they competed in strength, speed of reaction, accuracy and dexterity.
Traveling troupes performed on platforms built opposite the temples. Magicians, ventriloquists, acrobats, fortune tellers and storytellers gathered crowds of people, amused and entertained them. Even then, there were stationary theaters, and until recently, women’s roles were played by men. There are well-known shows where naked women are shown through a special opening.
In modern times, most outdoor games have been preserved in China. Let us note that indoor entertainment from the West has not taken root well.
Private life
In private life, in the rites of birth, death and marriage, all customs were carefully observed, which also reflected belief in supernatural forces. We usually woke up early. Shops closed at midnight, and until recently the streets were poorly lit or remained dark, with passers-by or their servants walking around with lanterns. Public baths are known in all cities and settlements.
Wealthy houses usually hired watchmen. We ate twice a day. In taverns or restaurants they gave dinners for friends, they were accompanied by musical or theatrical performances. Sometimes they were given after a meal.
European descriptions of the life of the Chinese say that the place of honor was located to the left of the head of the family: when seating a guest there, they expressed special concern for his safety. It was traditionally located opposite the door so that the guest could see the person entering and react accordingly.
Birds and lap dogs of the Chihuahua breed were kept as pets. Such a small yellow dog was considered a reliable guard in the house and cleaned the home of debris. Goldfish aquariums were often seen in upper and middle class homes. Rich people usually built gardens with decorative stone slides, ponds, built gazebos, and planted beautiful shrubs and flowers.
Shaving the head or beard, as well as cleaning the ears and massaging, was done by barbers. Men did not wear sideburns, and mustaches and beards appeared only after forty; before that time, hair grew very slowly. It was rare to see older people with thick facial hair like in the West. Both men and women carried snuff boxes, smoking pipes and fans. Educated members of society grew long nails. Women and girls, regardless of origin, used cosmetics liberally.
Industry and economy
In traditional China, there was a strict division of responsibilities between men and women. Men worked in the fields or were engaged in crafts, mining, trade, and participated in military operations.
Women took care of planting mulberry trees and silkworms, spinning, weaving, embroidering, mending old clothes, making holes in needles and sharpening them, gluing tin foil, making shoes, collecting and sorting tea leaves.
Trade gradually developed, which led to the specialization of individual areas: cod fishermen gathered in Shanxi, carpenters in Yizhou (Anhui), porcelain manufacturers in Yaozhou or Gansu.
As for the land, it quickly passed into private hands, and the owner began distributing it among his relatives or renting it out. Typically, lands were organized according to the well system. Around the public plot, cultivated by eight farming families, usually for the benefit of the state, eight private plots were organized in the form of squares.
From the beginning to the end of the monarchical period, the right to inherit land was vested only in the emperor. All other land was considered state land. It was mainly rented by rich clans or families and could not be transferred by inheritance or alienated. The owner annually paid a tax on it in kind in the form of part of the harvest or in money.
To be exempt from military service, it was possible to make monetary compensation in the form of a direct tax. Unknown at first, slavery existed as a special institution throughout the entire period of the monarchy.
The quantity of products produced depended on the intensity of labor of people and animals; only in the 20th century did machines begin to be widely used. The distribution of agricultural products was carried out from numerous centers, sold at fairs, shops and markets. The main trade routes by land and sea have remained virtually unchanged over the past two thousand years.
Chinese merchants traded with Western Asia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, and Arabia. Since the 17th century, exchanges took place mostly with European countries. Main vehicle there were horses, carts and boats. Since 1861, sailing ships were gradually replaced by steamships.
The exchange was of a barter nature. In exchange for fabrics, tea, porcelain and handicrafts, the Chinese received imported European goods. Silver ingots of different weights were used as a means of payment, samples changed during the reign of the new emperor. Until recently, copper money was used as a small change; paper tokens also became other means of payment, and silver ingots remained.
Along with the development of trade with other countries, silver dollars and colonial coins came into use. The different measures of weight and length in the north and south began to be partially calculated in the decimal system. But in everyday trade within the country, in the provinces they adhered to the traditional duodecimal measure.
Crafts
Hunting, fishing, cooking, weaving, dyeing, carpet making, metallurgy, glass, brick and paper making, printing, book binding were almost at the initial stage of development. Mechanical crafts were largely borrowed and were not distinguished by skillful execution. But pottery, carving and varnish technology were at an unusually high level of development; the products produced by Chinese craftsmen surpassed all world analogues in both quality and beauty.
Agriculture and livestock breeding
Since ancient times, the Chinese have strived to cultivate as much land as possible. With the exception of periods after devastating wars, they carefully looked after every piece of arable land. They even used mountain slopes and terraces to grow a variety of crops. However, the poverty of the peasants and the inaction of the government hindered the full development of agriculture and led to losses.
Usually in the north they received two harvests per year, and in the south - five in two years. Farmers made up at least two-thirds of the total working population. And although in most cases the most primitive methods were used, the incredible fertility of the soil and the enormous diligence of the peasants, along with the thoughtful use of fertilizers, made it possible to feed the country’s huge population.
The main cultivated grain crops were rice, wheat, barley, buckwheat, maize, kaoliang, several varieties of millet and oats. In addition to them, legumes, peas, oilseeds (sesame, rapeseed) crops, fibrous plants (hemp, Chinese nettle, jute, cotton), starchy root crops (yams, sweet potatoes), as well as tobacco, indigo, tea, sugar, and fruits were grown.
True, fruit growing was spontaneous, because scientific methods were not used. Plants were not replaced, but grafting, pruning, and selection were carried out, through which they achieved both enhanced development and the creation of dwarf plants.
Thanks to the high culture of agriculture, it was possible to obtain abundant harvests of vegetables even on small plots of land. In the 20th century, another problem arose: due to low profitability, small farms could not afford expensive foreign equipment; in addition, in most cases it turned out to be too bulky or difficult to operate.
Cattle breeding was no less developed. Let's name the main types of animals: pigs, donkeys, horses, mules, cows, sheep, goats, buffalos, yaks, poultry, ducks, geese, pigeons, as well as silkworms and bees.
Newly established ministry Agriculture and Commerce became the successor to the College of Agriculture, Manufacturing and Trade; Now it adapts Western techniques to the specifics of China, so good results can be expected.
Aesthetic feeling and morality
The Chinese have always admired beauty and found it in plants, music, poetry, literature, embroidery, painting, and porcelain. Flowers were planted almost everywhere, since almost every house had at least a small garden. Tables were often decorated with flowers in vases, baskets of fruit or sweets. Music came into use because it corresponded to the teachings of Confucius.
Paper with hieroglyphs written on it was so highly valued that it could not be thrown on the ground or stepped on. We admired the art of theater and professional storytellers. For the success of any enterprise, rituals were performed in temples.
However, until recently, streets and public places were not cleaned, and norms of behavior in society were not observed.
In China, elders in age and social status were traditionally deeply revered, and the authority of parents was unshakable. The possibility of “white lies” was recognized, that is, it was not condemned in any way and deception was not persecuted. Theft was not uncommon. Illegal extortions from rulers were considered a burdensome but inevitable burden.
Morality existed in society, but early marriages and concubinage were practiced, debauchery, drunkenness and corruption were known. Women were not considered full-fledged beings, they were deprived of their rights, and they were treated despotically.
Moral principles were set forth in classical works, and the foundations of the legal system were formed accordingly. Clan squabbles and battles between clans were a frequent occurrence; blood feud could last for several generations, because its fulfillment was considered a sacred duty. Ritual suicides were welcomed, which were often committed under the influence of unjust accusations. Based on the Buddhist dogma of the immortality of the soul, many strived for bodily immortality. The dignity of a man was considered to be endurance and the ability to hide his feelings.
At the same time, honesty and loyalty to one’s word were highly valued, especially among merchants, which was expressed in the saying: “A merchant’s word is stronger than a stone.” However, such relationships were obligatory only between Chinese, while deceiving a foreigner was not considered a sin.
Many smoked opium until its use became severely punished (in 1906-1916). But, despite the ban, opium continued to be smuggled, and bribed officials tried not to notice the cultivation of poppies.
Since ancient times, politeness and courtesy were considered the norm of behavior, and sometimes adherence to etiquette went to extremes. Politeness often masked true feelings. The deepest dislike for each other could be hidden behind the eloquent compliments. Many were fond of gambling, such as mahjong, sometimes losing huge fortunes.
Cult organizations
Like other peoples, the Chinese have created a system of beliefs in which several layers of different times can be distinguished. The legends about deities, good and evil spirits and invincible heroes inherited from Ancient China occupied great place in the spiritual life of the people during the Qing dynasty.
It is difficult to even approximately calculate how many gods the Chinese people worshiped. There was not a single craft, not a single sphere of life where people could do without appropriate patrons. When numerous fires broke out in Beijing in April 1908, people attributed them to the spirit of fire that descended to the earth. “When this sinister deity returns to his abode, the fires will stop,” they said.
The main one was the cult of Heaven. The Emperor was considered the representative of the Heavenly Lord on earth, so only he could perform rituals of worship of Heaven. He was considered the high priest, and the nobility, statesmen, civil and military officials acted as his assistants depending on their rank.
The worship of Heaven took place in the Temple of Heaven, which was at once a palace, a place of audience, and a council chamber. There they made offerings to Heaven, to the spirits of mountains and rivers, to ancestors and to all spirits. All these cults were also performed in special sacred places, and they had their own order of rituals and ceremonies. Along with the state cult of Heaven and Earth, “great,” “medium,” and “small” offerings to spirits were made in the form of animals, silver, grain, jade, as well as seasonal offerings to the altars; the clergy dressed in colors characteristic of a particular time of year.
Supporters of each of the existing movements, Taoism and Buddhism, had their own temples and monasteries. Priests and monks served in numerous village and roadside temples, at the tombs of their ancestors. In sacred places they worshiped the gods of thunder, rain, wind, fertility, and agriculture.
Attitudes towards Taoism and Buddhism changed, beliefs were sometimes encouraged, sometimes permitted, sometimes persecuted, but the hierarchy of the clergy and the very structure of the cult remained in the 20th century. Today, adherents of several religions coexist in China.
The main place among them is Confucianism, which was the state religion for many years. The cult of ancestors is no less widespread. Another group is adherents of Taoism. The observance of various annual festivals, such as All Souls' Day, when offerings are made to wandering and hungry spirits, reflects the close interconnection of the three religions (San Chao).
As the high priest, the emperor was personally responsible for the peace and order of the country, he confessed to Heaven and prayed that he would be punished for all the sins that his subjects committed. It has already been said above that, in addition to their usual duties, statesmen, nobility and officials performed the duties of priests of the state religion.
Even in the most elaborate ceremonies, performed on special occasions in Buddhist temples, there was nothing outwardly similar to one or another form of Christian worship, but in them it is easy to see similarities with solemn masses or “common prayer.” At the same time as worshiping Buddha, the Chinese could seek help from a local god or turn to spirits to avoid misfortune.
After China became a republic in 1912, the state cult disappeared and religious customs were less strictly observed, and many temples began to operate schools.
Religious ideas
The most important part of the Chinese belief system is the cult of ancestors. It became the basis of the state religion - Confucianism. Under the influence of the ideas of Taoism, which turned from a philosophical system into a cult system, traditions of worshiping spirits developed. The Chinese believed that the souls of dead people transmigrated into animals, insects, trees, and stones.
Originating in India, Buddhism was based on the belief in Buddha, who had superhuman powers. He believed that from a deified human being the soul transmigrates into someone or something: an elephant, a bird, a plant, a wall, a broom or any piece of inorganic matter.
These ideas corresponded to the Chinese mentality, so Buddhism deeply entered the culture, influencing both Taoism and ancient beliefs. Buddhism, with its concern for the future, was more understandable than Confucianism. Preaching compassion and preserving any life turned out to be an urgent need. If there was no belief in the transmigration of souls, then the existence of people would be much more difficult.
Apart from ancestor worship, religion did not fundamentally influence the daily life of the Chinese. It is unusual for them to express love for God as brightly as in Christianity. As for ancestor worship, it is gradually giving way to agnosticism.
Ancient Beliefs
Beliefs in good or evil spirits were common throughout China. Happy and unlucky days were also recognized. It was believed that eclipses of the Sun and Moon occur because a dragon wants to swallow these luminaries, and a rainbow is a consequence of the meeting of unclean fumes from the earth with sunlight.
Wearing protective amulets was practiced. To ward off evil spirits, flowering peach tree branches were hung over beds and doorways. Children and adults “locked their souls” with locks hanging on chains or cords tied around their necks. They believed that old bronze mirrors had magical powers: they could ward off evil spirits and even cure madness.
In order to protect themselves from illness, injury, fire or robbers, they wore pumpkin figurines, tiger fangs or rhinoceros teeth. Protective spells and good wishes were written down on paper, fabric, plant leaves, and then burned. The ashes were poured into a decoction and given to the sick person or child to drink.
Before starting any important business, they turned to fortune-tellers or predictors of the future. Fortune telling was done by plants (usually by yarrow) or with the help of sand, and most often in order to make sure that the plan was successfully fulfilled. Before setting off, they told fortunes using a coin thrown to the west.
There was a system of ideas associated with feng shui - “the art of achieving harmony between the living and the dead so that they correspond to the local flows of cosmic breath.” It stems from the cult of ancestor worship and has had a profound influence on Chinese philosophy and everyday life. Feng Shui received special development in the teachings of Zhu Xi and other philosophers of the Song Dynasty.
Science and education
Note that traditional Chinese education was mainly bookish, since the need for the development of those forms of knowledge that prevailed in the Western education system was considered secondary. The Chinese system developed in response to specific requirements and was largely determined by immediate needs.
Astronomy, or more precisely, astrology, was studied in order to draw up calendars and determine the timing of agricultural work. The daily ration depended on the harvest. Usually these were portions of rice, fruit and different varieties meat necessary for existence.
There are two periods of greatest flowering in philosophy: the first begins with Lao Tzu and Confucius in the 6th century BC. e. and ends with the “burning of books” by the first ruler of the Qin kingdom, Shihuang Di, in 213 BC. e.; the second begins with Zhou Zi (1017–1073) and ends with Zhu Xi (1130–1200).
Imperial Library in 190 BC. e. contained 2705 books on philosophy by 137 authors. There is no doubt that such zeal in the study of orthodox teaching was determined by written instructions from government agencies - which is why scientific knowledge did not develop.
Note that during the rule of the Manchus, who ended the more than four thousand year history of China, we know of only a few truly educated people who became famous for their works. The famous “Description of the Twenty-Four Dynasties” is considered one of the rarest phenomena of antiquity.
Knowledge of geography, mathematics, chemistry, botany and geology was limited to purely practical needs. In all these areas of knowledge, a huge store of information has been accumulated, demonstrating the amazing property of the Chinese - the ability to observe the world around them, and then accumulate and use this experience. Therefore, one cannot agree with some Western scientists who speak disparagingly about Chinese scientists.
The achievements of Chinese medicine are no less amazing for a European. Although Chinese doctors, based on careful observation of the human body, believed that the mind is located in the stomach, the soul in the liver, and thoughts come from the heart, they accumulated vast experience and created a unique system of knowledge about vital points, the impact on which could reduce suffering, relieve symptoms of diseases. Currently, Zhenjiu therapy and the art of acupuncture have entered the arsenal of modern medicine.
Language
Originally polysyllabic, Chinese later adopted a monosyllabic, isolating, uninflected form in which grammatical relationships were conveyed by the location of words in a sentence. Tone stress, that is, the pronunciation of the same sound with different pitches, also performs a semantic distinguishing function. In numerous dialects existing in different parts of the country, the most ancient linguistic relics have been preserved. All these features led to the need for a thorough articulation of norms and to the emergence of homonyms, since some words began to differ only in pronunciation. To distinguish similar hieroglyphs, there are special keys, or so-called phonetics, which indicate the exact or approximate sound of the sign. And today the same phoneme “ma” can mean an exclamation, hemp, a horse or a curse. The specific meaning depends on the context and is conveyed by the height of pronunciation.
Consequently, the language has been preserved in an archaic state; it does not have a system of inflection or paradigms similar to European declensions or conjugations. The word order in a sentence is traditional: subject, verb, direct object, indirect object. Gender is formed using gender particles, number - by prefixes, case - by the position of the word or the corresponding preposition.
Adjectives precede nouns, position determines the degree of comparison, so lack of punctuation leads to ambiguity. True, in recent works We are already finding punctuation marks. Learning begins with memorizing numerous words and phrases that are not found in old literature or dictionaries. Japanese borrowings further pollute the Chinese language.
Chinese characters do not need a lengthy description; those who cannot understand its meaning will enjoy it as an exquisite pattern, a peculiar harmony of lines drawn on paper or fabric. Hieroglyphs consist of word roots, keys, or phonetics. They are written down in vertical columns, arranged from right to left. In the 1st century AD e. a modern style of writing hieroglyphs was developed (kaishu - “model writing”). The total number of characters is approximately 50 thousand; in modern Chinese, 4-7 thousand characters are used.
Achievements of the Chinese
Over a centuries-long history filled with constant struggle for survival, the Chinese have come up with many useful devices. They built comfortable houses and beautiful palaces, in which they preserved the features of the most ancient primitive dwellings: flat walls, the entrance is always in the front, the wooden roof rests on massive pillars. The main room was flanked by extensions on either side.
To heat the room in the cold season, they used gans, or “stone beds” (that is, peculiar platforms built of bricks), inside of which a fire was lit. A similar design was used in ancient times in caves.
Windows and shutters opened upward (in ancient times, instead of them, mats or curtains were used, hanging in front of openings in the walls of cave dwellings).
The closed space of the courtyard was formed by four buildings located one opposite the other, one or more courtyards formed a common space. The farm was natural and fully met its needs for plant and animal food. They ate everything they could gather, catch, or grow; They didn’t eat milk, they drank tea. And before they began to grow it, food was washed down with wine.
Clothes were made from skins and furs, sewn from cotton fabrics, and later from silk. Under the Manchus, they began to wear their clothes, characteristic of nomadic peoples. Loose trousers, boots with wide toes that resembled hooves, and hair braided came into use.
Typically, braids were braided from the hair that grew on the back of the head, and the front was shaved. Unlike the Egyptians, the Chinese did not wear wigs. They almost always dressed in long clothes and despised Europeans for wearing too short dresses. Today, the Chinese also wear Western-style suits.
The Chinese built huge canals, bridges, aqueducts and even built the largest wall in the world - the only man-made object that can be seen from space.
The Chinese had the longest and widest roads. In some places, the remains of ancient tracks have been preserved, on the site of which roads or railways are now being built.
For the praise and fidelity of widows who did not remarry, the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire built special gates in their honor. Let us also note the pagodas and arched bridges of incredible beauty they created. Each city was necessarily surrounded by a high and strong wall, which was supposed to protect residents from raids and attacks.
The Chinese are known for constant improvements in a variety of tools and weapons, from writing utensils and fans to plows, carts and ships. They invented “fiery spears” and “flaming elephants”, which replaced bows and darts, chariots with spikes, battering guns and ballistas, guns with a matchlock, guns with 4-meter-long barrels placed on a tripod, iron helmets with holes for ears and shoulders.
The Chinese are also known for their greatest monuments literature, as well as fine porcelain. From the point of view of Europeans, Chinese musical compositions are not particularly elegant, since Chinese music based on a completely different melodic series. The painting is very unique. Sculpture is varied and expressive in its own way, especially works of small forms.
Werner alludes to Japan, which in 1931 captured Manchuria and created the puppet state of Manchukuo, and in 1937 began a war to capture the entire territory of China.
China is a country shrouded in myths and legends. The Middle Kingdom is an ancient state full of secrets and paradoxes. The hardworking Chinese people have always had a corner filled with poetry in their souls.
Only the Chinese were able to mix sublime philosophy and strange, sometimes meaningless beliefs .
The legends and myths of ancient China have changed over time. Primitive folk religion, the common sense of Confucius, the rituals and magic of Taoism, the sublime spirituality of Buddhism - a melting pot, a combination of gods for all occasions.
Some Chinese myths have something in common with legends of other cultures. For example, the creation myth is reminiscent of many similar stories in which the world is formed from the body of a primordial being.
In the beginning there was darkness everywhere and chaos ruled.
An egg formed in the darkness, and inside it a giant was born.
When it grew to gigantic size, it extended its huge limbs and thereby destroyed the shell. The lighter parts of the egg floated to the top and formed the heavens, while the dense parts sank down to become the earth.
This is how earth and sky appeared - Yin and Yang.
Pangu was pleased with his deed. But he was afraid that heaven and earth would merge again, so he stood between them . His head holds up the sky and his feet are firmly planted on the ground. Pangu grew at a rate of three meters per day over an 18,000-year period, increasing the space between sky and earth until they were fixed at a safe distance from each other. Having completed your mission, Pangu died with a clear conscience, and his body was used to create the world and all its elements .
Wind and clouds were formed from his breath , his voice became thunder and lightning, his eyes shone with the sun and the moon, his arms and legs appeared in the four directions of the world, his teeth and bones glittered with precious stones, and his phallus rose like mountains. His flesh turned into soil and plants, his blood into rivers, and so on.
The mythical period in the history of any country, in my opinion, is of the greatest interest. Many millennia have passed since then, but each time the scale of the activities of the ancient goddesses and gods, as well as the similarity of many of their exploits among peoples living on opposite ends of the Earth, amazes the imagination.
According to the Chinese version, the world was created by the divine Pangu. In the beginning, he slept in a huge egg in the midst of universal Chaos, the state of Great Infinity, in the Taoist tradition of Wu Tzu (無極, Wújí). This is reminiscent of Indian legends about the Night of Brahma, when there is neither day nor night, neither sky nor earth, the Universe sleeps. Pangu then awoke, stood up, and separated Heaven and Earth, Yin and Yang, initiating Taizi (太极, tàijí). The world became dual, polarities began to interact. Having accomplished this great deed, Pangu immediately died, and from his body our visible Universe appeared, and rivers, lakes, mountains, plants and many creatures appeared on Earth, among which was the giant Hua Xiu. Apparently, he was asexual, but gave birth to two children, brother and sister, Fuxi (伏羲) and Nüwa (女媧), creatures with a human face and body, but a snake tail, like the Indian ones. Here, of course, I would like to introduce theories about the arrival of reptilians on Earth, but we’ll leave that for another article.
Nüwa (女媧), is undoubtedly a much more ancient character than her brother. Even chronologically, Chinese historians begin to mention Fuxi together with her only from the 1st century AD. Obviously, as a tribute to the progressive patriarchy, when it is no longer convenient to attribute all the merits for saving the Earth and creating the human race to one woman. Before that, according to chronicles, Nyuva plowed for two, both a galloping horse and a burning hut.
As befits a mother goddess, she sculpted human figures from yellow clay and then brought them to life. At first I tried very hard, sculpting every detail, these figures turned into emperors, high-ranking officials, generals and scientists. But then, like a real woman, I got tired and decided to speed up the process at the expense of quality. She dipped the rope into the clay slurry and shook it off. From these lumps artisans and peasants emerged.
When the four pillars supporting the sky broke and the arch did not completely cover the earth, the Great Flood began. But the goddess, melting stones of five colors (representing the five sacred elements, metal, water, wood, fire and earth), plugged the heavenly holes with them, and, cutting off four legs of a giant turtle, made new pillars from them. Humanity was saved. True, the structure is slightly askew (after all, this is not a woman’s work), so all the rivers in China flow to the southeast.
Being half snake, Nuiva retained the ability to renew herself by shedding her old skin. Therefore, she remained forever young and beautiful. Her body was so divine that it continually gave birth to new living beings. Therefore, she became the patroness of marriage, wealth and fertility. Her half-serpentine essence is reminiscent of the powerful force of Kundalini, a fiery spiral of energy rising up along the spine.
Nuwa and Fusi. Drawing on silk Fuxi (伏羲), brother and husband of the almighty Nuwa, became one of the first three rulers of China. Its appearance marks the transition from matriarchy to patriarchal society. He is credited with introducing the institution of marriage. As the historian Ban Gu writes in the second half of the 1st century AD, before Fuxi, people did not know their father, knew only their mother, greedily devoured raw food without stockpiling, were dirty and had no laws. Like Prometheus in Greek mythology, Fusi taught people agriculture, fishing, hunting, crafts, and also invented writing after seeing the first eight trigrams on the shell of a huge divine turtle.
He developed the first laws and obliged everyone to observe them, and also taught people to follow the will of the gods by asking for blessings. According to legends, when there were no people on Earth yet, he wanted to marry his sister (remember Isis and Osiris), but Nuiva initially resisted. Then they decided to get a sign from above, dispersed to different mountains and lit fires. Their smoke combined, this was interpreted as a favorable omen. Nüwa and Fusi got married, and began to be depicted together, with intertwined snake tails, as a symbol of the union of male and female. Agree, it is very reminiscent of the Caduceus of Hermes, a rod capable of reconciliation. Or Uraeus of the Egyptian pharaohs.
Fuxi, according to legend, reigned from 2852 to 2737 BC. He died in Henan province, where there is a monument to him.
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The myth of Sui Ren who made fire
In ancient Chinese legends there are many smart, brave, strong-willed heroes who fought for the happiness of the people. Among them is Sui Ren.
In hoary antiquity, when humanity was still going through a barbaric period, people did not know what fire was and how to use it. When night fell, everything was shrouded in black darkness. The people, cowering, experienced cold and fear, and the threatening howls of wild animals could be heard around them every now and then. People had to eat raw food, they often got sick and died before reaching old age.
There lived one god in the sky named Fu Xi. Seeing people on earth suffering, he felt pain. He wanted people to learn to use fire. Then, with his magical power, he caused a strong hurricane with thunder and lightning, which rained down among the mountains and forests on earth. Thunder rumbled, lightning flashed and a loud crash was heard. Lightning struck the tree and ignited it; the flaring fire soon turned into a raging flame. People were very frightened by this phenomenon and fled in different directions. Then the rain stopped, everything was silent. It was very damp and cold. People came together again. They looked in surprise at the burning tree. One young man noticed that suddenly the usual howls of animals could no longer be heard around him. He wondered if the animals were really afraid of this bright sparkling fire. He came closer and felt warm. He shouted to the people in delight: “Don’t be afraid, come here. It’s light and warm here.” At this time they saw nearby animals burned by fire. A delicious smell emanated from them. The people sat around the fire and began to eat the meat of the animals. Before this they had never tasted such delicious food. Then they realized that fire was a treasure for them. They continually threw brushwood into the fire, and every day they stood guard around the fire, protecting it so that the fire would not go out. But one day the man on duty fell asleep and was unable to throw brushwood in time, and the fire went out. People again found themselves in cold and darkness.
God Fu Xi saw all this and decided to appear in a dream to the young man who was the first to notice the fire. He told him that in the far West there was one state, Suiming. There are sparks of fire there. You can go there and get some sparks. The young man woke up and remembered the words of the god Fu Xi. He decided to go to the country of Suiming and get fire.
He crossed high mountains, crossed fast rivers, walked through dense forests, endured many hardships and finally reached the country of Suiming. But there was no sun there, everything was shrouded in darkness, of course, there was no fire. The young man was very disappointed and sat down under the Suimu tree to rest for a while, broke off a twig and began to rub it on the bark of the tree. Suddenly something flashed before his eyes and illuminated everything around with a bright light. He immediately got up and went to the light. He saw several large birds on the Suima tree, which were pecking out bugs with their short and hard beaks. When they peck once, a spark flashes on the tree. The quick-witted young man immediately broke off several twigs and began to rub them against the bark. Sparks instantly flashed, but there was no fire. Then he collected the branches of several trees and began to rub them against different trees, and finally fire appeared. Tears of joy appeared in the young man's eyes.
The young man returned to his native land. He brought people eternal sparks of fire, which can be obtained by rubbing wooden sticks. And from that day on, people parted with cold and fear. People bowed to the courage and intelligence of the young man and nominated him as their leader. They began to respectfully call him Suizhen, which means the man who produced fire.
Fairy tale "Yao will give up the throne to Shun"
In long-term Chinese feudal history, it is always the emperor's son who takes the throne. But in Chinese myth, between the earliest emperors Yao, Shun, Yu, the cession of the throne was not based on family ties. Whoever has virtue and ability is recommended to take the throne.
In Chinese myth, Yao was the first emperor. When he grew old, he wanted to look for one heir. Therefore, he gathered tribal leaders to discuss this issue.
Some man Fang Chi said: “your son Dan Zhu is enlightened, it is expedient for him to ascend the throne.” Yao said seriously: “No, my son does not have good morals, he only likes to quarrel.” Another person said: “Gong Gong should take the throne, it is appropriate. It controls hydropower." Yao shook his head and said, “Gong Gong was eloquent, respectful in appearance, but different in heart.” This consultation ended without result. Yao continues to search for an heir.
Some time passed, Yao again gathered the tribal leaders. This time, several leaders recommended one common man- Shun. Yao nodded his head and said: “Oh! I also heard that this man is good. Can you tell me in detail about it?” All the people began to tell Shun's affairs: Shun's father, this is a stupid man. People call him "Gu Sou", that is, "blind old man." Shun's mother died long ago. The stepmother treated Shun badly. The stepmother's son's name is Xiang, he is very arrogant. But the blind old man adored Xiang very much. Shun lived in such a family, but he treats his father and brother well. Therefore, people consider him a virtuous person
Yao heard Shun's case and decided to observe Shun. He married his daughters Ye Huang and Nu Ying to Shun, also helped Shun build a food warehouse, and gave him many cows and sheep. Shun's stepmother and brother saw these things, they were both envious and jealous. They, together with the blind old man, repeatedly planned to harm Shun.
One day, a blind old man told Shun to repair the roof of a warehouse. When Shun climbed up the stairs to the roof, the blind old man below set fire to burn Shun. Fortunately, Shun took two wicker hats with him, he took the hats and jumped like a flying bird. With the help of the hat, Shun easily fell to the ground without injury.
The blind old man and Xiang did not leave, they ordered Shun to clean the well. When Shun was jumping, the Blind Old Man and Xiang threw stones from above to fill up the well. But Shun was digging a channel at the bottom of the well, he climbed out of the well and returned home safely.
Xiang does not know that Shun has already gotten out of the dangerous situation, he returned home contentedly and said to the blind old man: “This time Shun is definitely dead, now we can divide Shun’s property.” After that, he went into the room, unexpectedly, when he entered the room, Shun was already sitting on the bed playing the instrument. Xiang was very scared, he said embarrassedly, “Oh, I miss you so much!”
And Shun, as if nothing had happened, after Shun, as before, warmly addressed his parents and brother, the blind old man and Xiang no longer dared to harm Shun.
Then Yao observed Shun many times and considered Shun to be a virtuous and businesslike person. Deciding that he had given up the throne to Shun. The Chinese historian called this form of cession of the throne "Shan Zhan", that is, "abdicate the throne."
When Shun was the emperor, he was hard-working and humble, he worked like the common people, all the people believed in him. When Shun was old, he, too, thus chose the virtuous and intelligent Yu as his heir.
People became convinced that in the century of Yao, Shun, Yu there was no demand for rights and interests, the emperor and ordinary people lived well and modestly.
The Myth of the Five Sacred Mountains
Suddenly, one day, the mountains and forests were engulfed by a huge, fierce fire, the odes gushing from underground flooded the land, and the earth turned into a continuous ocean, the waves of which reached the sky. People could not escape from the ode that overtook them, and they were still in danger of death from various predatory animals and birds. It was real hell.
Nui-wa, seeing her children suffer, became very sad. Not knowing how to punish the evil instigator who was not destined to die, she began the hard work of repairing the sky. The work ahead of her was big and difficult. But this was necessary for the happiness of the people, and Nyu-wa, who dearly loved her children, was not at all afraid of the difficulties, and boldly took on the task alone.
First of all, she collected many stones of five different colors, melted them into a liquid mass on fire and used it to seal the holes in the sky. If you look closely, there seems to be some difference in the color of the sky, but from a distance it seems the same as before.
Although Nui-wa repaired the firmament well, she could not make it the same as before. They say that the northwestern part of the sky was slightly askew, so the sun, moon and stars began to move towards this part of the sky and set in the west. A deep depression formed in the southeast of the earth, so the flow of all the rivers rushed towards it, and seas and oceans are concentrated there.
A huge crab lived in the sea for a thousand years. The waters of all rivers, seas, oceans and even the heavenly river flow through it and maintain a constant level of water, without increasing or decreasing it.
In Guixu, there were five sacred mountains: Daiyu, Yuanjiao, Fanghu, Yingzhou, Penglai. The height and circumference of each of these mountains was thirty thousand li, the distance between them was seventy thousand li, on the tops of the mountains there were flat spaces of nine thousand li, on them stood golden palaces with stairs made of white jade. Immortals lived in these palaces.
Both the birds and animals there were white, and jade and pearl trees grew everywhere. After flowering, jade and pearl fruits appeared on the trees, which were good to eat and brought immortality to those who ate them. The immortals apparently wore white clothes and had small wings growing on their backs. Little immortals could often be seen flying freely in the azure blue sky above the sea like birds. They flew from mountain to mountain, looking for their relatives and friends. Their life was fun and happy.
And only one circumstance overshadowed her. The fact is that these five sacred mountains floated on the sea, without having any solid support under them. In calm weather this did not matter of great importance, and when the waves rose, the mountains moved in uncertain directions, and for the immortals flying from mountain to mountain, this created a lot of inconvenience: they thought they would quickly fly somewhere, but their path unexpectedly lengthened; going to any place, they each discovered that it had disappeared, and they had to look for it. This put a lot of work into my head and took a lot of energy. All the residents suffered and in the end, after consulting, they sent several envoys with a complaint to Tian Di, the heavenly ruler. Tian Di ordered the spirit of the North Sea, Yu Qiang, to immediately figure out how to help them. When Yu-Qiang appeared in the form of the god of the sea, he was relatively kind and, like the “land fish,” had the body of a fish, arms, legs, and rode two dragons. Why did he have the body of a fish? The fact is that originally it was a fish in the great North Sea and its name was Gun, which means “whale fish.” The whale was huge, one cannot even say how many thousands it was. He could shake his friend and turn into a pen bird, a huge evil phoenix. He was so large that his back alone stretched for who knows how many thousands of miles. Angry, he flew away, and his two black wings darkened the sky like clouds stretching to the horizon. Every year in winter, when the currents of the seas change their direction, he went from the North Sea to the South Sea, from a fish he turned into a bird, from the god of the sea - the god of the wind. And when the roaring and groaning, chilling and bone-piercing northern wind rose, it meant that Yu-Qiang, the god of the sea, who had turned into a huge bird, blew. When he turned into a bird and flew out of the North Sea, with one flap of his wings he raised huge wings that reached to the sky. sea waves three thousand li high. Customizing them hurricane wind, he climbed straight onto the ninety thousand li cloud. This cloud flew south for six months, and only after reaching the South Sea did Yu-Qiang descend to rest a little. It was this spirit of the sea and the spirit of the wind that the heavenly ruler ordered to find a suitable place for the immortals from the five sacred mountains.
Longbo, the land of giants, was tens of thousands of li north of the Kunlun Mountains. The people of this country apparently descended from dragons, which is why they were called “lunbo” - relatives of dragons. They say that among them lived one giant, who became sad from idleness and, taking a fishing rod with him, went to big ocean, what the East Sea, to fish. As soon as he stepped foot into the oda, he found himself in the area where the five sacred mountains were located. He took a few steps and walked around all five mountains. I cast the fishing rod once, twice, three times and pulled out six hungry turtles that had not eaten anything for a long time. Without thinking twice, he threw them on his back and ran home. He tore off their shells, began to heat them on fire and tell fortunes from the cracks. Unfortunately, two mountains - Daiyu and Yuanjiao - lost their support and the waves carried them to the Northern Limit, where they drowned in the great ocean. No matter how hard we try, we will not be able to find out how many immortals rushed back and forth across the sky with their belongings and how much sweat left them.
The heavenly lord, having learned about this, burst into mighty thunder, called upon his great magical powers and made the country of Lunbo become very small, and the inhabitants stunted, so that they would not deliriously go to other lands and do evil. Of the five sacred mountains of Guixue, only two sank, and the turtles holding the other three mountains on their heads began to fulfill their duty more conscientiously. They carried their load evenly, and from then on no misfortunes were heard of.
The Myth of the Great Pan Gu
They say that in hoary antiquity there was neither heaven nor earth in the world; the entire cosmos was like a huge egg, inside of which there was complete darkness and primordial chaos reigned.It was impossible to distinguish up from down, left from right; that is, there was no east, no west, no south, no north. However, inside this huge egg was a legendary hero, the famous Pan Gu, who managed to separate Heaven from Earth. Pan Gu was in the egg for no less than 18 thousand years, and one day, waking up from a deep sleep, he opened his eyes and saw that he was in complete darkness. It was so hot inside that he had difficulty breathing. He wanted to rise and straighten up to his full height, but the egg shell so tightly bound him that he could not even stretch out his arms and legs. This made Pan Gu very angry. He grabbed the large ax that had been with him since birth and hit the shell with all his might. There was a deafening roar. The huge egg split, and everything transparent and pure in it slowly rose high and was transformed into the sky, and everything dark and heavy sank down and became the earth.
Pan Gu separated Heaven and Earth, and this made him very happy. However, fearing that Heaven and Earth would close again. He supported the sky with his head and rested his feet on the ground; he took on a different form 9 times a day, using all his power. Every day he grew by one zhang - i.e. approximately 3.3 meters. Together with him, the Sky rose one zhang higher, and the earth, thus, became thicker by one zhang. So again 18 thousand years passed. Pan Gu turned into a large giant supporting the sky. The length of his body was 90 thousand li. It is unknown how much time passed, but finally the Earth hardened and could no longer merge with the Sky again. Only then did Pan Gu stop worrying. But by that time he was very exhausted, his energy was exhausted and his huge body suddenly crashed to the ground.
Before his death, his body underwent enormous changes. His left eye turned into a bright golden sun and his right eye into a silvery moon. His last breath became wind and clouds, and the last sound he made became thunder. His hair and mustache scattered into a myriad of bright stars. The arms and legs became the four poles of the earth and high mountains. Pan Gu's blood spilled onto the Earth in rivers and lakes. His veins turned into roads, and his muscles into fertile lands. The skin and hair on the giant’s body turned into grass and trees, and teeth and bones into gold, silver, copper and iron, jade and other treasures of the earth’s bowels; the sweat turned to rain and dew. This is how the world was created.
The myth of Nu Wa, who blinded people
At the time when Pan Gu created Heaven and Earth, humanity had not yet been born. A heavenly goddess named Nu Wa discovered that this land lacked life. Once she walked the earth alone and sad, she intends to create more life for the earth.
Nu Wa walked on the ground. She loved wood and flowers, but preferred cute and lively birds and animals. Having observed nature, she believed that the world created by Pan Gu was not yet beautiful enough, and the minds of birds and animals were not satisfied with her. She is determined to create a smarter life.
She walked on the banks of the Yellow River, squatted down and, scooping up a handful of water, began to drink. Suddenly she saw her reflection in the water. Then she took some yellow clay from the river, mixed it with water and, looking at her reflection, began to carefully sculpt a figure. Soon a lovely little girl appeared in her arms. Nyu Wa breathed lightly on her, and the girl came to life. Then the goddess blinded her a boy friend, they were the first man and woman on earth. Nü Wa was very happy and began to quickly sculpt other little people.
She wanted to fill the whole world with them, but the world turned out to be incredibly huge. How could this process be accelerated? Nü Wa lowered the vine into the water, stirred the river clay with it, and when the clay stuck to the stem, she lashed it onto the ground. Where the lumps of clay fell, to her surprise. Thus the world was filled with people.
New people appeared. Soon the whole earth was filled with people. But a new problem arose: it occurred to the Goddess that people would still die. With the death of some, new others will have to be sculpted again. And this is too troublesome. And then Nu Wa called all the people to her and ordered them to create their own offspring. So people, by order of Nü Wa, took responsibility for the birth and upbringing of their children. Since that time, under this Heaven, on this Earth, people themselves have created their offspring. This continued from generation to generation. That's how it all happened.
Fairy tale "The Shepherd and the Weaver"
The shepherd was a poor and cheerful bachelor. He has only one old cow and one plow. Every day, he worked in the field, and after that, he himself cooked lunch and washed clothes. He lived very poorly. Suddenly, one day, a miracle appeared.
After work, the Shepherd returned home; as soon as he entered, he saw: the room was clean, the clothes were freshly washed, and there was also hot and tasty food on the table. The shepherd was surprised and widened his eyes, he thought: What is this? Did the saints come down from heaven? The shepherd could not understand this matter.
After this, in last days, every day like this. The shepherd could not stand it, he decided to examine it so that everything would become clear. This day, as usual, the Shepherd left early, he hid not far from the house. Secretly observed the situation in the house.
After some time, one beautiful girl came. She entered the Shepherd's house and began to do housework. The shepherd could not stand it, and came out to ask: “Girl, why are you helping me with the housework?” The girl was scared, embarrassed and said quietly: “My name is Weaver, I saw that you lived poorly, and I came to help you.” The shepherd was very happy and boldly said: “Well, you will marry me, and we will work and live together, okay?” The weaver agreed. From that time on, the Shepherd and the Weaver got married. Every day, the Shepherd works in the field, the Weaver in the house weaves cloth and does housework. They have a happy life.
Some years passed, the Weaver gave birth to one son and one daughter. The whole family is cheerful.
One day, the sky was covered with dark clouds, two gods came to the Shepherd's house. They informed the Shepherd that the Weaver was the granddaughter of the heavenly king. Some years ago, she left home, the heavenly king searched for her non-stop. The two gods forcibly carried Weaver to the heavenly palace.
The shepherd, clutching two young children, looked at his forced wife, he was sad. He gave his beak to go to heaven and find the Weaver so that the whole family could meet. Well, an ordinary person, how can he get to heaven?
When the Shepherd was sad, the old cow, who had lived with him for a long time, said: “Kill me, wearing my skin, and you can fly to the heavenly palace to look for the Weaver.” The shepherd did not want to do this in any way, but he did not overreact the cow, and because he had no other measures, finally, reluctantly and with tears, he did according to the words of the old cow.
The shepherd put on the skin of a cow, carrying the children in a basket and flying to the sky. But in the heavenly palace there is a strict category, no one respects one poor ordinary person. The Heavenly King also did not allow the Shepherd to meet the Weaver.
The shepherd and the children repeatedly asked, and finally the heavenly king allowed them to meet briefly. The planted Weaver saw her husband and children, both sadly and cordially. Time passed quickly, the heavenly king gave the command that the Weaver was taken away again. The sad Shepherd was carrying two children and was chasing the Weaver. He fell repeatedly, and stood again when he would soon catch up with the Weaver, the evil heavenly empress pulling out a golden hairpin from the oxen and cutting one wide silver river between them. Since then, the Shepherd and the Weaver can only stand on the two banks, looking at each other far away. Only on June 7th of each year, the Shepherd and the Weaver are allowed to meet once. Then, thousands of magpies fly in and build one long magpie bridge over the silver river so that the Shepherd and the Weaver can meet.
Fairy tale "Kua Fu chases the sun"
In ancient times, a high mountain rose in the northern desert. In the depths of the forests, many giants live with great difficulty. Their head is called Kua Fu, two golden snakes weigh on his ears, and two golden snakes are clutched in his hands. Because his name is Kua Fu, this group of giants is called "Kua Fu Nation". They are good-natured, hardworking and courageous, they live blissfully and without struggle.
There is one year, the day is very hot, the sun is very hot, the forests are scorched, the river is dry. People endured it hard, and one after another they died. Kua Fu was very heartbroken for this. He looked up at the sun and said to his relatives: “The sun is very nasty! I will definitely guess the sun, capture it and make it submit to people.” Having heard his words, his relatives dissuaded him. Some said: “Under no circumstances should you go, the sun is far from us, you will be tired to death.” Some said: “The sun is so hot, you will warm yourself to death.” But Kua Fu had already decided so, looking at his sad, gloomy relatives, he said: “For the lives of people, I will definitely go.”
Kua Fu said goodbye to his relatives, in the direction of the sun, he ran with long strides like the wind. The sun in the sky is moving quickly, Kua Fu on the ground was running around headlong. He ran through many mountains, stepped over many rivers, the earth shook with a roar from his step. Kua Fu was tired from running, shook the dust out of his shoes, and a large mountain took shape. When Kua Fu was preparing dinner, he lifted three stones to support the pan, these three stones turned into three high opposing mountains, their height is a thousand meters.
Kua Fu ran after the sun without a break, and closer to the sun, his faith became stronger. Finally, Kua Fu caught up with the sun at the place where the sun fell. There is a red and light ball of fire in front of the eyes, thousands of golden lights shone on it. Kua Fu was very happy, he spread his arms, wanted to hug the sun, but the sun was so hot, he felt thirsty and tired. He reached the bank of the Yellow River, he drank all the water of the Yellow River in one breath. Then he ran to the bank of the “Uy River” and drank up all the water of this river. But that still didn't quench my thirst. Kua Fu ran to the north, there are large lakes that stretch along and across for thousands of li. The lakes have sufficient water to quench your thirst. But Kua Fu did not reach the large lakes and died halfway from thirst.
On the eve of death, his heart was filled with regret. He missed his family. He threw the staff from his hand, and a lush peach forest immediately appeared. This peach forest is lush all year round. The forest shields passers-by from the sun, fresh peaches quench their thirst, and allow people to eliminate fatigue and emerge with ebullient energy.
The fairy tale “Kua Fu chases the sun” reflects the desire of the ancient Chinese people to overcome drought. Even though Kua Fu died at the end, his persistent spirit always lives on. In many Chinese ancient books, the corresponding fairy tales “Kua Fu chases the sun” were written down. In some places in China, people call the mountains “Kua Fu Mountains”, in memory of Kua Fu.
Fight Huangdi with Chiyu
Several thousand years ago, many clans and tribes lived in the basins of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, among which the most numerous was the tribe, the head of which was Huangdi (Yellow Emperor). There was also another no less numerous tribe, the head of which was called Yandi. Huangdi and Yandi were brothers. And in the Yangtze River basin lived the Jiuli tribe, whose head was called Chiyu. Chiyu was a dashing man. He had 81 brothers. Each of them had a human head, an animal body and iron hands. All 81 brothers, together with Chiyu, were engaged in the manufacture of knives, bows and arrows, and other weapons. Under the leadership of Chiyu, his formidable brothers often raided the lands of foreign tribes.
At that time it happened that Chiyu and his brothers attacked the Yandi tribe and seized their land. Yandi was forced to seek help from Huangdi, who lived in Zhuolu. Huangdi had long wanted to put an end to Chiyu and his brothers, who had already become the source of many disasters. Having united with other tribes, Huangdi fought a decisive battle with Chiyu on the plain near Zhuolu. This battle went down in history as the “Battle of Zhuolu”. At the beginning of the battle, Chiyu had the upper hand due to his sharp blades and brave and strong army. Then Huangdi called for help from the dragon and other predatory animals to join the battle. Despite the valor and strength of Chiyu's troops, they were far inferior to Huangdi's forces. In the face of danger, Chiyu's army fled. At this time the sky suddenly darkened, a terrible downpour began, strong wind. It was Chiyu who called the spirits of Wind and Rain to help. But Huangdi showed no weakness. He turned to the spirit of Drought. Instantly the wind stopped blowing and raining, and the scorching sun came out into the sky. Worried about his defeat, Chiyu began to cast a spell to cause heavy fog. In the fog, Huangdi's soldiers became disorientated. Knowing that the constellation Ursa Major always points to the North, Huangdi immediately made an amazing chariot called “Jinanche”, which always rode strictly to the South. It was “Jinanche” that led the Huangdi army out of the fog. And Huangdi's troops eventually won. They killed Chiyu's 81 brothers and captured Chiyu. Chiyu was executed. In order for Chiyu's soul to find peace after death, the victors decided to bury Chiyu's head and body separately. In the place on the ground where Chiyu’s blood passed, a forest of thorny thickets grew. And drops of Chiyu’s blood turned into crimson leaves on the thorns.
After his death, Chiya was still considered a hero. Huangdi ordered that Chiyu be depicted on the flags of his troops to inspire the army and intimidate enemies. After defeating Chiyu, Huangdi received the support of many tribes and became their leader.
Huangdi had many talents. He invented a method for building a palace, a cart, and a boat. He also came up with a method for dyeing fabrics. Huangdi's wife named Leizu taught people to raise silkworms, produce silk thread and weave. It was from that time that silk appeared in China. After a gazebo was built especially for Huangdi, Leizu invented a “singing”, movable gazebo in the form of an umbrella.
All ancient legends are filled with the spirit of respect for Huangdi. Huangdi is considered the founder of the Chinese nation. Due to the fact that Huangdi and Yandi were close relatives, and the unification of their tribes, the Chinese call themselves "descendants of Yandi and Huangdi." In honor of Huangdi, a tombstone and grave for Huangdi were built on Mount Qiaoshan in Huangling County, Shaanxi Province. Every spring the Chinese from different corners of the world gather to perform the kneeling ceremony.
The Tale of Howe and
The Legend of Chang E on the Moon
Mid-Autumn Festival, Spring Festival and Duangwu Festival are old traditional Chinese national holidays.
On the eve of the Mid-Autumn Festival in China, according to tradition, the whole family gets together to admire the full moon in the night sky and taste festive foods: mooncakes “yuebin”, fresh fruits, various sweets and seeds. And now we will tell you in more detail about the origin of the Mid-Autumn Festival.
The beautiful Chang E in Chinese mythology is the goddess of the Moon. Her husband, Hou Yi, the brave God of War, was an exceptionally accurate shooter. At that time, there were many predatory animals in the Celestial Empire, which brought great harm and ruin to people. Therefore, the main lord, the Heavenly Emperor, sent Hou Yi to earth to destroy these malicious predators.
And so, by order of the emperor, Hou Yi, taking with him his lovely wife Chang E, descended into the human world. Being unusually brave, he killed many disgusting monsters. When the Heavenly Lord's order was almost completed, disaster struck - 10 suns suddenly appeared in the sky. These 10 suns were the sons of the Heavenly Emperor himself. For fun, they decided to all appear in the sky together at once. But under their hot rays, all life on earth suffered from unbearable heat: rivers dried up, forests and harvests in the fields began to burn, human corpses incinerated by the heat lay everywhere.
Hou Yi could no longer endure all this suffering and torment of the people. At first, he tried to persuade the emperor’s sons to appear in the sky one by one. However, the arrogant princes did not pay any attention to him. On the contrary, to spite him, they began to approach the Earth, which caused a huge fire. Seeing that the sun brothers did not give in to persuasion and were still destroying people, Hou Yi, in a fit of anger, pulled out his magic bow and arrows and began to shoot at the suns. One by one, he “extinguished” 9 suns with his well-aimed arrows. The last sun began to ask Hou Yi for mercy, and he, having forgiven him, lowered his bow.
For the sake of all life on Earth, Hou Yi destroyed 9 suns, which, of course, greatly angered the Heavenly Emperor. Having lost 9 of his sons, the Emperor angrily forbade Hou Yi and his wife to return to the heavenly abode where they lived.
And Hou Yi and his wife had to stay on earth. Hou Yi decided to do as much good as possible to people. However, his wife, the beautiful Chang E, suffered greatly from the complete hardships of life on Earth. Because of this, she never stopped complaining to Hou Yi for killing the sons of the Heavenly Emperor.
One day Hou Yi heard that on Mount Kunlun there lived a holy woman, the Goddess of the Western Region, Sivanmu, who had a magic potion. Anyone who drinks this medicine can go to heaven. Hou Yi decided to get that medicine at all costs. He overcame mountains and rivers, he experienced a lot of torment and anxiety on the road and finally reached the Kunlun Mountains, where Sivanmu lived. He asked Saint Sivanmu for a magic potion, but unfortunately, the magic elixir Sivanmu only had enough for one. Hou Yi could not ascend to the heavenly palace alone, leaving his beloved wife to live in melancholy among people. He also did not want his wife to take to the skies alone, leaving him to live alone on Earth. Therefore, having taken the drug, he hid it well upon returning home.
A little time passed and one day Chang E finally discovered a magic elixir and, despite the fact that she loved her husband very much, she could not overcome the temptation to return to heaven. 15th of the 8th month Lunar calendar it was a full moon, and Chang E, seizing the moment when her husband was not at home, drank the magic elixir of Sivanmu. After drinking it, she felt extraordinary lightness throughout her body, and she, weightless, began to float, rising higher and higher towards the sky. Finally she reached the Moon, where she began to live in the great Guanghan Palace. Meanwhile, Hou Yi returned home and did not find his wife. He was greatly saddened, but the thought of injuring his beloved wife with his magic arrow did not even occur to him. He had to say goodbye to her forever.
Lonely Hou Yi remained to live on Earth, still doing good to people. He had many followers who learned archery from him. Among them was a man named Feng Meng, who mastered the art of archery so much that he was soon equal to his teacher. And an insidious thought crept into Feng Meng’s soul: while Hou Yi was alive, he would not be the first shooter in the Celestial Empire. And he killed Hou Yi when he was hungover.
And from the time when the beautiful Chang E flew to the moon, she lived in complete solitude. Only a small bunny, who was pounding cinnamon grains in a mortar, and one lumberjack kept her company. Chang E sat sadly in the lunar palace all day long. Especially on the day of the full moon - the 15th of the 8th month, when the Moon is especially beautiful, she recalled her happy past days on Earth.
There are many legends in Chinese folklore about the origin of the Mid-Autumn Festival. Over the centuries, many Chinese poets and writers have also composed many beautiful lines dedicated to this holiday. The great poet Su Shi in the 10th century wrote his subsequently famous immortal stanzas:
“And in ancient times this was the custom - after all, it was rare that the joy of the earth
And the shine of the renewed moon coincided over the years.
I want one thing - for people to be separated for a thousand miles
We preserved the beauty of souls and preserved the loyalty of hearts!”
Gun and Yu's fight against floods
In China, the legend of Yu's fight against the flood is very popular. Gun and Yu, father and son, were heroes who acted for the good of the people.
In ancient times, China experienced rapid river flooding for 22 years. The whole earth turned into huge rivers and lakes. The population lost their homes and was attacked by wild animals. Many people died due to natural disasters. The head of the Huaxia tribe, Yao, was very worried. He gathered the heads of all the tribes for a council to find a way to overcome the flood. In the end, they decided that Gun would shoulder this task on his own shoulders.
Upon learning of Yao's order, Gun racked his brains for a long time and finally decided that building dams would help control the floods. He developed a detailed plan. But Gunya did not have enough stones and earth to build dams. One day an old turtle crawled out of the water. She told Gunyu that there is an amazing gem in the sky called “Sizhan”. In the place where this Sizhan is thrown to the ground, it will sprout and instantly become a dam or a mountain. Hearing the words of the turtle, Gun, inspired by hope, went to the western region, where the heavenly paradise is located. He decided to turn to the Heavenly Emperor for help. Having reached the Kunlun Mountains, Gun saw the Heavenly Emperor and asked him for the magical “Sizhan”. But the emperor refused to give him the stone. Seizing the moment when the heavenly guards were not so vigilant, Gun grabbed the stone and returned with it to the East.
Gun threw Sizhan into the water and saw him grow. Soon a dam appeared from underground, stopping the flood. So the flood was tamed. The people returned to normal life.
Meanwhile, the Heavenly Emperor learned that Gun had stolen the magical “Sizhan” and immediately sent his heavenly soldiers to descend to earth to return the jewel. They took “Sizhan” from Gunya, and again the people began to live in poverty. The flood destroyed all the dams of Gunya and destroyed the rice fields. Many people died. Yao was furious. He said that Gun only knows how to stop the disaster, and the destruction of the dam led to even more tragic consequences. Yao believed that Gun fought against the flood for nine years, but could not achieve complete victory over it, so he should be executed. Then Gun was imprisoned in a cave in Mount Yushan. And three years later he was executed. Even when he was dying, Gun still thought about fighting the flood.
Twenty years later, Yao gave up his throne to Shun. Shun ordered Gong's son Yu to continue his father's work. This time, the Heavenly Emperor gave "Sizhan" to Yu. At first, Yu used his father's methods. But the results were disastrous. Learning from his father's actions, Yu realized that fencing is not the only way to deal with flooding. We need to drain the water. Yu invited the turtle to give him wise advice. On the back of a turtle, Yu traveled all over the Celestial Empire. He raised the low-lying areas with the help of the magical "Sizhan". At the same time, he called for the help of a dragon to show the way among the endless flood. Thus, Yu diverted the river beds, directing the water to the sea.
According to legend, Yu cut Mount Longmen (“Dragon Gate”) in two, through which the course of the Yellow River began to pass. This is how the Dragon Gate gorge was formed. And in the lower reaches of the river, Yu cut the mountain into several parts, resulting in the formation of the Sanmen (Three Gates) gorge. For thousands of years, the beauty of Longmen and Sanmen has attracted numerous tourists.
There are many legends among the people about Yuya's fight against floods. One of them is this: four days after the wedding, Yu left home to take office. During 13 years of fighting floods, he passed his house three times, but never entered it, he was so busy with work. Yu gave all his strength and wisdom to this long and intense struggle. Finally, his efforts were crowned with success, and he won victory over the water of the elements. To thank Yu, the people elected him as their ruler. Shun also willingly gave up the throne in favor of Yu for his merits.
In a primitive society, which is characterized by an extremely low level of development of productive forces, people composed many legends that reflect the struggle between man and the elements. Gun and Yu are heroes created by the people themselves. In the process of fighting floods, the Chinese have accumulated a wealth of experience in the field of irrigation, that is, controlling floods through diversion and diversion. These legends also contain folk wisdom.
Hou Di and the Five Cereals
Ancient Chinese civilization is an agrarian civilization. Therefore, in China there are many legends that talk about agriculture.
After the appearance of man, he spent his days and nights worrying about his daily bread. Hunting, fishing and collecting wild fruits were the main activities of the early people.
Once upon a time in Yutai (name of the place) there lived a young girl whose name was Jiang Yuan. One day, when she was walking, on the way home she came across some large footprints on the road. These traces interested her very much. And she put her foot on one of the prints. After this, Jiang Yuan felt a trembling all over her body. A little time passed and she became pregnant. After the due date, Jiang Yuan gave birth to a child. Because the newborn boy did not have a father, people thought that he would be very unhappy. They took him away from his mother and threw him alone into the field. Everyone thought that the child would die of hunger. However, wild animals came to the aid of the baby and protected the boy with all their might. The females fed him with their milk, and the child survived. After he survived, evil people decided to leave the boy alone in the forest. But at that time, fortunately, there was a woodcutter in the forest who saved the child. So the evil people again failed to destroy the baby. Finally, people decided to leave it in the ice. And again a miracle happened. Out of nowhere, a darkness of birds flew in, they opened their wings, covering the boy with them from the cold wind. After this, people realized that this was an unusual boy. They returned him to his mother Jiang Yuan. Due to the fact that the child was always abandoned somewhere, he was nicknamed Chi (Thrown Away).
Growing up, little Chi had a great dream. Seeing that people’s lives are fraught with suffering, that every day they have to hunt wild animals and collect wild fruits, he thought: if people always had food, then life would become better. Then he began collecting seeds of wild wheat, rice, soybeans, kaoliang and various fruit trees. Having collected them, Chi sowed the seeds in the field, which he himself cultivated. He constantly irrigated and weeded, and in the fall a harvest appeared on the field. These fruits were tastier than wild ones. To make working in the field as good and convenient as possible, Chi made simple tools from wood and stone. And when Chi grew up, he had already accumulated a wealth of experience in agriculture and passed on his knowledge to people. After this, people changed their previous way of life and began to call Chi “Hou Di”. "Hou" means "ruler" and "Di" means "bread."
To honor Hou Di's achievements, after his death he was buried in a place called "Wide Field". This particular place had a beautiful landscape and fertile soil. Legend has it that the celestial staircase connecting Heaven and Earth is located very close to this field. According to legend, every autumn birds flocked to this place, led by the sacred phoenix.