India is a country of extremes like no other country in the world. The country has different religions, languages, beliefs and traditions. The historical sites in India reflect a variety of ancient architectural styles and cultures. This photo strip contains 10 amazing historical monuments India that is worth visiting at least once in your life.
Hawa Mahal
Hawa Mahal, also known as the Palace of the Winds, is one of the most beautiful attractions of the city of Jaipur. This beautiful palace was built by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh in 1799. The pink sandstone palace is believed to have been built in the shape of Lord Krishna's crown. Hawa Mahal is a perfect realization of Rajputana architecture. Pyramid shape and 953 beautiful windows make this place so unique that the palace is unconditionally recognized as the main attraction of the city. The interior of Hawa Mahal is dominated by long passages and many windows. There are no stairs in this palace, and the different floors are connected by special slopes. The palace's 953 windows were reserved for royal women, who never appeared in public. These windows allowed them to observe people's lives, offering an excellent view of the city.
Cellular prison
Cellular Jail, also known as kala pani, is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This complex has been preserved as a mute testimony to the torture faced by Indian independence supporters. Today the Cellular Prison is one of the main historical monuments of the country. Every piece of land here tells the story of resistance, sacrifice and suffering of Indian activists. Famous freedom fighters like Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Upendranath Banerjee, Ullaskar Dutta and many others were imprisoned in Cellular Jail. The prison has a total of 696 solitary cells, which is why it is called a cell cell.
Arch
India Gate is Mumbai's most famous landmark. Construction of the India Gate ended in 1924, 13 years after it began. The arch was built in the style of Indo-Saracenic architecture. The main purpose of building this colossal structure was to commemorate the arrival of King George V and Queen Mary in Mumbai, which took place in 1911. India Gate is a symbol of British India and the British Emperor. Visitors will also find here a statue of Maharaja Kathrapati Sivaiya, a 17th-century Indian warrior king. The country's most popular palace, the Taj Mahal, is located very close to the India Gate, as are many hotels where you can stay overnight. You can learn about this, as well as other attractions in India, in a separate article on LifeGlobe.
Charminar
Charminar is to the city of Hyderabad what the Taj Mahal is to Agra. This structure was built in 1591 by Sultan Muhammad Quli Qatb Shah to celebrate the retreat of the plague from his region. The Charminar is built in the Indo-Islamic architectural style using granite and covered with marble. Four 56-meter minarets of graceful shape are lined up at the corners of the building with a double balcony. A staircase of 149 winding steps leads to the top floor of the complex, created specifically for prayer. There is also a wonderful underground tunnel that connects Charminar to Golconda.
Ajanta Caves
Ajanta Caves is the most popular Buddhist monument in India, located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. 30 mountain caves have been carved into the rock since the 2nd century BC. Among them there are both halls with monuments and monastic cells. Ajanta is included in the list of monuments world heritage UNESCO due to its historical significance and ancient paintings and sculptures. The Ajanta Caves are one of the most popular attractions in India. Unique in its essence rock painting depicts various events from the life of Buddha and is a rare example of its kind.
Sanchi Stupa
Sanchi Stupa is the oldest stone structure in India and also one of the popular Buddhist monuments in the country. Built in the 3rd century BC. Emperor Ashoka Stupa is located in Raisan, Madhya Pradesh. The original structure was built of brick in the shape of a hemisphere, but in subsequent years it was repeatedly completed and eventually acquired the appearance that has survived to this day. Many sculptures and images of the stupa are dedicated to the life of the Buddha, symbolizing certain moments in his life. The stonework of the Sanchi Stupa contains the remains of Buddha, which is why the place is considered one of the most sacred in India. Initially, the fence around the stupa was made of wood, but was later replaced by stone. Gates were built in the direction of the 4 cardinal directions.
Mysore Palace
The Mysore Palace is located in the city of Mysore in the state of Karnataka. This structure was built by various emperors in different periods time is main reason the mixture of architectural styles of the Mysore Palace, combining Indo-Saracenic style along with a combination of Hindu, Muslim, Rajput and gothic styles. During construction, beautiful gray granite and pink marble were used, harmoniously combined into a single whole. The darbar and royal wedding hall in the palace is a major attraction for visitors. The armory room, containing 14th-century weapons, is used by the royal family, and the palace itself remains the residence of the Wodeyars to this day.
Qutub Minar
Qutub Minar is the second tallest minaret in the country, located in Delhi. This UNESCO World Heritage Site was founded by Singh Bahadur in 1192, and the process of building the graceful tower took over 75 years, spanning several generations. Qutub Minar is also surrounded by many other ancient sites. The 70-meter-tall ancient Islamic monument is made of red brick and marble. The minaret consists of 5 tiers, each of which is separated by beautifully decorated balconies. On the lower levels, the interior is decorated with beautiful Islamic carvings depicting important periods in the history of the Qutub Minar.
Red Fort
The Red Fort is one of the most iconic symbols of India, located in Delhi and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The fort was home to the Mughal emperors for over 200 years. The Red Fort was built by Emperor Shah Jahan from 1648, taking its name from the large red sandstones. The majestic building unites architectural styles Mughal, Hindu, Islamic, Persian and Timurid cultures. The complex covers an area of 254 acres and has an octagonal shape. Persian, European and Indian artists were employed to decorate its interiors. Beauty artwork emphasized by inlay from precious stones. On every Indian Independence Day since 1947, the country's Prime Minister has hoisted the national flag at the main gate of the fort. The Prime Minister also delivers all important speeches from the Red Fort. The outstanding fortress attracts visitors from various parts world traveling along
Each of the monuments we examined has, as we sought to show, a special, unique specificity. The mythological and ideological ideas that underlay the Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain canons, respectively, are different, the principles of their composition are dissimilar, and the stylistic accents are placed differently. However, at the same time, one cannot help but notice that they all share some common characteristics, which, in accordance with chronological criteria, definitely indicate that they belong to one, namely early period development of ancient Indian literature.
First of all, as evidenced comparative history literatures of Antiquity, the formation of these literatures usually begins with the appearance of religious codes and epics. The first works of Chinese literature are considered to be “Shujing”, “Shijing” and “Iijing”, included in the Confucian “Pentateuch”; the history of Iranian literature opens with the Avesta, Jewish - the Bible, Greek - “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. Among the most ancient monuments of Mesopotamian, Ugaritic, Hittite and Egyptian literature, fragments of mythological epics and ritual texts predominate. From this point of view, it seems logical that the beginning of the development of Indian literature was marked by the creation of precisely those four literary complexes (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and epic) that were discussed.
Further, the Vedas, the Tipitaka, and the epic developed as a whole over many centuries, and they developed in line with the oral rather than written tradition. We know that the letter was already known to the population of the Indus Valley in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., then his skills were lost, and writing in India was revived only around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. However, initially it was apparently used mainly only for administrative and economic purposes. Although the Rig Veda already existed by 1000 BC. e., Vedic literature in general - by 500 BC. e., and the early versions of the epic and the first Buddhist and Jain texts - by 400-200 BC. Don. e., they were not recorded immediately and, at least until the turn of our era, functioned as oral monuments. This led to several important consequences for the entire Indian literature of the Antiquity period.
Since her works were not fixed, we often deal with not one, but several texts (editions) of the same monument, and in this case it is useless to find its original or archetype. Oral existence also explains such features of the style of the Vedas, epics, Tipitaka, as the abundance in them of clichéd phraseological units (so-called “formulas”), repetitions, refrains, etc. Formulas and repetitions are often seen as a heritage inherent, for example, in hymns Vedas of magical functions, but first of all they were a necessary condition for the creation of any kind of text in oral form and its subsequent reproduction “from memory” by new performers. Oral origin finally determines some of the basic methods of constructing the most ancient Indian monuments (in the form of a sermon, dialogue, address, panegyric, etc.), as well as a number of their names that have come down to us by tradition (shruti, upanishads, etc.).
Partly related to the oral nature of the works we have considered is the fact that we have already noted that they are not distinguished as strictly literary works. It would, of course, be wrong to say that every ancient Indian text pursued only practical - religious or didactic - goals, but in general aesthetic goals have not yet come to the fore. And although we are dealing with works whose artistic merits are unique in their own way, it is no coincidence that most of them were part of religious codes, and the Sanskrit epic, and above all the Mahabharata, is highly characterized by ethical and philosophical coloring.
Lack of artistic self-awareness in Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. It also reveals itself in the fact that the idea of the creator of the work has not yet crystallized into the concept of the poet. The hymns of the Rigveda were composed, as legend says, by the legendary prophets-rishis, the Brahman prose and dialogues of the Upanishads - by holy sages, Buddhist and Jain texts - by religious teachers Buddha and Mahavira and their associates.
At the same time, literature remained mostly anonymous; the name of the author did not so much indicate the real creator of this or that monument, but rather asserted its significance, and literary work belonged, in fact, to the entire society or at least one of its social or religious stratum as a whole.
And therefore - perhaps with the only exception of the Ramayana, which is already on the threshold of a new stage in the development of literature - it would be futile to look for signs of individual style, themes, and means of expression in ancient Indian literature.
Naturally, when literature is not yet aware of its autonomy, literary theory cannot take shape, although the unlimited possibilities of the word as such were more than once praised by the creators of Vedic chants. And since there was no literary theory, one cannot speak in connection with ancient Indian literature and about a clear differentiation of genres in it. When in the Vedic Samhitas we distinguish epic, dramatic and even lyrical hymns, in the Brahmanas we separate theological instructions from narrative episodes, in the Upanishads we isolate philosophical dialogues, and in the Tipitaka - fables, parables, biographies, etc., we are in some kind of to the extent that we bring them into monuments that are syncretic in their essence genre classification later literature. In Indian literature of the Ancient period, a work existed as an indivisible whole, subject to special laws, and this literature must be assessed, first of all, in accordance with the norms and principles put forward by it.
However, this does not mean that already in the literature of the 1st millennium BC. e. new genres and forms were not maturing, albeit still in a diffuse, mixed state. These genres and forms were adopted, having developed and refined them in stable outlines, by subsequent literary tradition. Together with them, she inherited everything that turned out to be viable in ideological concepts, themes and visual media Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain texts. And these monuments, although they remain valuable and unique in their appearance and artistic achievements, at the same time can be considered as a prologue to everything further development Indian literature.
History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.
7. Medicine and pharmacy in Ancient India. Written medical monuments of Ancient India. Advances in surgery and hygiene.
The source for studying the history of medicine and pharmacy of Ancient India is the Vedas (monuments of Indian culture), as well as the collection of laws of Manu. From them we learn that in the 2nd century BC. In India, there was medical education: universities in Taxila and Benares, as well as medical schools at provincial monasteries. The Ayur-Veda (Book of Life) said that disease occurs after an imbalance of air (ether), mucus and bile, which ensure health. The doctor had to restore the balance that existed before the disease with the help of drugs (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics and oils), surgery or physical methods. In 2Ayur-Veda, a kind of Indian pharmacopoeia, a list of 760 is given medicines. In empirical medicine of Ancient India, cereals, wood, bark, roots, flowers, and fruits were used. Wine, vinegar, milk, oil, fats, blood, glands and other organs of many animals, fish and birds were also consumed. Minerals: arsenic, iron, copper. The composition of ointments often included lead, sulfur, antimony, zinc, and ammonium salts. Especially MERCURY! The most powerful strengthening agent is gold. Silver, copper, iron, and tin were also used. Surgical methods were used to treat diseases, hygienic measures were used, vaccinations against smallpox were carried out, and patients were isolated during the treatment of leprosy. Indian doctors performed amputations of limbs, removal of cataracts, and performed plastic surgery.
15. Asclepiad, his system for preventing and treating diseases.
Asclepiades was a prominent Roman physician from Bithynia (128-56 BC). Health, according to Asclepiades, is preserved with the normal movement of body particles and the normal state of empty spaces between particles - pores and channels. When they become clogged and clogged, when there is stagnation or disruption of the movement of particles, diseases occur. Asklepiades paid special attention to the “invisible breath” of the skin. Health must be maintained first of all by general cleanliness, frequent ablutions, and then by stronger stimulants, such as rubbing, sweating, and physical exercise. If the patient could not move independently, he advised carrying him and rocking him. Along with physiotherapy and balneotherapy, climate therapy occupied a large place in the Asclepiad system. He treated medications with caution and in some cases, under the guise of drugs, he gave clean water. The “pleasant” treatment according to the Asclepiadian system, opposed to the rude methods of the “bloodthirsty torturers,” made it extremely popular in Rome. Asclepiades treated with a diet that had been excellently developed for a long time. He introduced only one new principle into dietetics: food should be tasty.
26. The emergence of medical schools and universities in Western Europe. Teaching methods in them.
The centers of Medieval medicine were universities. In the universities of Western Europe, scholasticism dominated, which involved the construction of hypotheses, theories and the conduct of various disputes only within the strict limits of the dogmas established by the Christian Church.
The medical school in Salerno played a major role in the history of medicine and pharmacy. In 1140, Rector Nicholas compiled the Antidotarium of Nicholas. At first it contained 60 prescriptions, later 150. The highest level of prosperity of the medical school in Salerno was reached towards the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. Salerno creates his own literature, the school was already close to teaching experimental medicine. For this purpose, autopsies of the corpses of criminals and animals were periodically carried out. The training there lasted 5 years. The Salerno school was given the right to confer the title of doctor and issue licenses.
The University of Padua, which differed from most medieval universities in the possessions of Venice, began to play a role later, towards the end of the Middle Ages, during the Renaissance. It was founded in the 13th century by scientists who fled from the papal regions and from Spain from the persecution of the Catholic Church reaction. In the 16th century it became a center of advanced medicine.
The University of Bologna is one of the oldest continuously operating degree-granting universities in the world, and the second largest university in Italy. It was the first university founded in the Western world (in 1088 AD). The University of Bologna is historically known for its ecclesiastical and civil law courses.
The Sorbonne is historically the University of Paris. It first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was reorganized in 1970 into 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I-XIII).
University of Vienna, a public university located in Vienna, Austria. Opened in 1365, it is one of the oldest universities in Europe.
Universities had 3 faculties: theological, medical, and law. There were also preparatory faculties. Levels of knowledge: 1) from the Bible + works of the church fathers; 2) from the works of other scientists reviewed by the church. Students are rich people with high position in society, age did not matter. They learned from books by memorizing. The book was fastened with a chain. Universities were separated from the state (their own police, courts). The lecture was given by the professor sitting in the form of debates (throwing around quotes).
27. The spread of infectious diseases in the Middle Ages and measures to combat them.
Infectious diseases became especially widespread in the Middle Ages, when frequent wars of conquest and crusades were fought, and the growth of cities contributed to overcrowding and deterioration of sanitary and hygienic living conditions.
Such diseases often took on the character of epidemics - a massive outbreak of a disease in a certain territory, and sometimes even pandemics, when the disease covered entire continents. The most terrible infectious disease in ancient times and the Middle Ages was the plague. It covered vast territories of Europe and Asia. Pandemic plagues were known in the 6th and 14th centuries. It wiped out entire cities and provinces. In the 14th century, an even more dangerous variety appeared - the bubonic plague. In addition to the plague, other infectious diseases are known that often acquired the character of epidemics: typhoid, cholera, smallpox, anthrax, etc. Even in ancient times, medicine knew anti-epidemic measures: removal sick people from the cities, burning the property of the sick or dead, involving people who had recovered from the disease in caring for the sick. One of the most ancient diseases that humanity encountered at the dawn of its existence was smallpox. In the 14th century. In Europe, quarantine began to be introduced - a system of measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases from the source of the epidemic with the subsequent elimination of the source of infection itself. In 1423, one of the first quarantine stations (“lazaretto”) was established on the island in Venice. In Europe, smallpox appeared only with the invention of the sail in the 5th-6th centuries. n. e. During smallpox epidemics in some countries, up to half the population died. Back in Ancient China and India, doctors developed a method of protecting people from smallpox through so-called variolation. To do this, they collected smallpox crusts from the patient, dried them and ground them into a fine powder. This powder was rubbed into the skin with a special spatula or needle, which was used to cut the surface of the skin, and sometimes blown into the nose of a healthy person. The purpose of these procedures was to induce a mild form of the disease in him. Variolation did protect many people. But, since the smallpox virus was used to carry it out, variolation often caused severe illness and even death. The patient could subsequently infect people who came into contact with him and even cause a new epidemic. At the beginning of the 18th century, when smallpox spread widely throughout Europe, the search began to protect the population from this infection. Members of the Royal Society of Medicine of London decided to discuss the pros and cons of the variolation method, which was reported by many travelers. British reports on travel to Asian countries were collected. Despite the dangers of the method, they decided to recommend it for use, since the damage caused to society by epidemics was much heavier. At this time, Lady Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador in Constantinople, observed how elderly Turkish women inoculated healthy local residents with material taken from a smallpox patient . In Turkey, she performed variolation on her own son, and upon returning to England, she began to promote the Turkish method of variolation. At first, variolation was met with hostility. The clergy saw in her something contrary to the will of Divine Providence. It took the support of King George I to conduct experiments that proved the enormous effectiveness of the variolation method. Inmates of Newgate Prison, who were promised amnesty, were chosen for testing. Six people - three men and three women - gave their consent to variolation. They all remained healthy. After this, variolation began to be widely used in Great Britain itself, as well as in its American colonies.
TOPIC 1. LEGAL MONUMENTS OF THE ANCIENT INTERFLIVE REGION
TOPICS AND PLANS OF SEMINAR LESSONS
(Laws of Hammurabi)
Plan:
1. Sources of law of the countries of Ancient Mesopotamia. General characteristics Laws of Hammurabi.
2. Social structure and the legal status of the basis of the population groups of Ancient Babylon.
3. Property and obligations under the Laws of Hammurabi.
4. Marriage and family in Ancient Babylon.
5. Legal proceedings. Crimes and punishments.
Purpose of the lesson: to study during the seminar the monuments of the history of law of the ancient Eastern civilizations of Mesopotamia - the laws of Hammurabi (Old Babylonian Kingdom, XVIII century BC) and allows you to get acquainted with the legal status of individual groups of the population, consider the features political system countries of Ancient Mesopotamia, sources and basic institutions of law of these states.
Security questions:
1. Are all aspects of the life of Babylonia considered in the 3rd century with equal completeness? What issues does ZH not touch upon at all and why?
2. Why is there relatively little evidence of the existence of a community in AZ?
3. What social groups known to us from ZH?
4. How are the public sector of the economy and the people employed in it protected?
5. Could Babylonian slaves own property?
6. What was the difference between the slaves Mushkenum and Mar-Avelim?
7. What were the terms and working conditions of those caught in debt bondage?
8. Give a general description of the Babylonian family: was it monogamous?
9. What remnants of tribal law are preserved in ZH?
10. To what extent have the goals and promises proclaimed in the introduction and conclusion been realized in the Landscape?
Sources:
Anthology of world legal thought. In 5 volumes. T. 1. M., 1999.
Dyakonov I.M. Laws of Babylonia, Assyria and the Hittite Kingdom // VDI. 1952. No. 3-4.
Reader on the history of state and law foreign countries/ Rep. ed. N.A. Krasheninnikova. In 2 volumes. T. 1. M., 2003.
Literature:
History of the Ancient East. The origins of ancient class societies and the first steps of slave civilization. Part 1. Mesopotamia. M., 1983.
Story ancient world. Early antiquity // Ed. THEM. Dyakonov et al. M., 1989.
Yakobson V.A. The emergence of written law in ancient Mesopotamia// VDI. 1981. No. 4.
Jacobsen T. Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion. M., 1995.
Dandamaev M.A. Slavery in Babylonia VII-IV centuries. BC (626-331). M., 1974.
Klengel-Brandt E. Travel to ancient Babylon. M., 1979.
(Laws of Manu and Arthashastra of Kautilya)
Plan:
1. The origin and evolution of the sources of law of the countries of Ancient India, their originality. General characteristics of the Laws of Manu and Arthashastra.
2. Social structure and legal status of the basis of population groups of Ancient India. Features of the Varna-caste division of ancient Indian society.
3. Property and obligations under the Laws of Manu.
4. Marriage and family in Ancient India.
5. Litigation. Crimes and punishments.
Purpose of the lesson: study of monuments of the history of law of ancient Indian civilization - the Laws of Manu (India, 2nd century BC - 2nd century AD) and the political and legal treatise of Kautilya, familiarization with the legal status of certain population groups of Ancient India, consideration features of the political system, sources and basic institutions of law.
Security questions:
1. How does the literary and religious tradition explain the origin of varnas?
2. Does the varna-caste division coincide with the class-class division?
3. How was the inequality of varnas expressed?
4. How was the status of children born in intervarn marriages determined?
5. Is it possible to trace changes in the position of individual varnas?
6. What caused the development of the system of lower castes (“untouchables”, chandala, dvipada, panchala)?
7. What are the similarities and differences between the class structure of Indian and other ancient Eastern societies?
8. What are the features of the position of women in Indian society according to ZM (in comparison with ZH)?
9. What types of obligations appear in the LM and CA?
10. Do ZM and CA distinguish such concepts as intent, guilt, presumption of innocence?
Sources:
Arthashastra, or the Science of Politics. M.-L., 1959; M., 1993.
Laws of Manu. M., 1960; M., 1992.
Literature:
Bongard-Levin G.M., Ilyin G.F. India in ancient times. M. 1985.
Vigasin A.A. “The Statute of Slaves” in Kautilya’s Arthashastra // VDI. 1976. No. 4.
World history. T. 1. M., 1956.
Ilyin G.F. The main problems of slavery in Ancient India // History and culture of Ancient India. M., 1963.
History of the East. T. 1. The East in antiquity // Rep. ed. V.A. Jacobson. M., 1997.
History of state and law of foreign countries: Educational and methodological manual/ Rep. ed. N.A. Krasheninnikova. M., 2006.
History of the ancient world. Early antiquity // Ed. THEM. Dyakonov. M., 1989.
Krasheninnikova N.A. Hindu law: history and modernity. M., 1982.
Samozvantsev A.M. Legal text of the Dharmashastra. M., 1991.
Samozvantsev A.M. The theory of property in Ancient India. M., 1978.
TOPIC 3. LAWS OF XII TABLES
Plan:
1. History of the compilation and sources of the Laws of HP tables.
2. Legal status main population groups in Ancient Rome.
3. Property rights according to the Laws of the HP tables.
4. Obligations arising from contracts and torts.
5. Court and process.
The purpose of the lesson: to study the laws of the XII tables - the oldest monument of Roman law, which reflected the processes of social differentiation in ancient Rome and the formation of its main institutions. When starting to study Roman law, one must understand its periodization. Roman law only in the process of long development turned into the most perfect form of law, “resting on private property.” It survived the fall of Rome, being adopted in feudal Europe, and formed the basis of civil codifications of the capitalist period. When studying the history of Roman law and, in particular, one of its oldest sources - the Laws of the XII Tables, it is necessary to take into account the changing nature of the institutions of this law, depending on specific historical conditions development of Roman society. This note applies not only to the topic of this seminar, but also to the next topic on the Guy Institutions.
Laws of the XII tables as a reflection initial stage in the evolution of Roman law, they regulated the legal relations of Roman citizens during the formation and development of the Roman slave-owning republic.
Security questions:
1. In what historical situation were the Laws of the XII Tables adopted?
2. What remnants of tribal law do the Laws of the XII Tables contain?
3. What are the fundamental differences in the legal status of Latins and Peregrines compared to the position of Roman citizens?
4. What are the main approaches to classifying things according to the Laws of the XII Tables?
5. What is the difference between obligations arising from a contract and those arising from a tort?
6. Did private ownership of land exist in Rome during the era of the Laws of the XII Tables?
7. What are characteristic features Legislation process?
8. What evidence did the court operate under the Laws of the XII Tables?
9. Can the Laws of the XII Tables be called a code?
10. List the main features of Roman law according to the Laws of the XII Tables?
Sources:
Laws of the XII Tables / Trans. L. Kofanova. M., 1996.
Laws of the XII Tables // Monuments of Roman Law. M., 1997.
Laws of the XII tables // Ruzina E.G., Bessilin N.A. Fundamentals of Roman private law. Ufa, 2000.
Literature:
Bartoszek M. Roman law (concepts, terms, branches). M., 1989.
Dozhdev D.V. Roman private law: Textbook for universities. M., 1999.
History of state and law of foreign countries: Educational and methodological manual / Responsible. ed. N.A. Krasheninnikova. M., 2006.
Story ancient Rome. M., 1997.
Kofanov L.L. Law of obligations in archaic Rome (VI-IV centuries BC), M., 1994.
Puhan I., Polenak-Akimovskaya M. Roman law. M., 1999.
Chernilovsky Z.M. Roman private law: Elementary course. M., 1997.
From: Ionina"Veda"
The oldest literary monuments of India are the Vedas. They are a collection of prayer chants - hymns and magic spells, addressed to gods, sages, heavenly bodies, divine drink, time, sleep, illness, etc. There are four Vedic collections - samhita: “Rig Veda” (Veda of hymns), “Sama Veda” (Veda of songs, chants), “ Yajurveda" (Veda of sacrificial formulas; and "Atharvaveda" (Veda of spells and incantations). Each of the four collections has its own commentary literature: ritual - Brahmanas and philosophical - Aranyakas and Upanishads. The Samhitas and commentaries on them are called Vedic literature.
Vedic works were created in the northwestern part of Hindustan. Their birthplace is considered to be the territory between the Kabul and Indus rivers and part of Punjab. The dating of Vedic collections and their components, like most monuments of ancient Indian literature, is largely arbitrary. There is a lot of controversy surrounding the dating of the Vedas. As a rule, European scientists attribute them to a later time, Indian scientists to an earlier time. However, most scholars agree that the earliest Vedic hymns can be dated to approximately the 2nd millennium BC. e. The discrepancies in this dating are explained by the multi-layered nature of the Vedic collections. This multi-layered nature is the result of the fact that Vedic hymns were born as works of oral literature and then were kept in tradition for a long time, passed down from generation to generation orally. The recording of Vedic monuments presumably dates back to the first centuries of our era. Only very late manuscripts have reached us, separated in turn by several centuries from the original recording.
The hymns of the Vedas were formed during the period of disintegration of the primitive communal system. Tribes, divided into many clans, were engaged in hunting, cattle breeding and agriculture at that time. They waged endless wars among themselves for livestock, people and land. The beliefs and cults of the ancient Indians were primitive. The functions of the priest in the tribe were performed by the tribal leader, in the clan - by the head of the clan, and in the family - by the head of the family. Gradually, property and social inequality appears, and class division arises. Priests become the highest classes - brahmins and the military aristocracy - kshatriyas. These phenomena, representing the evolution of the life of the ancient Indians, are reflected in the Vedic collections.
Hindu tradition considers the Samhitas of the Vedas to be a revelation of the supreme god Brahma, who allegedly conveyed his word to the ancient sages, among whom was the poet Vyasa. But the very etymology of the word “vyasa” (literally: “one who decomposed, distributed [into cycles] texts”, “collector”) is a serious refutation of this tradition. However, in the legend one can find a “rational grain” of truth. Vedic collections and commentaries on them constitute "sruti", which literally means "that which is heard", i.e. here, apparently, it is indicated on oral origin and the oral existence of Vedic hymns.
Vedic hymns appear in the Samhitas under the names of ancient sages. The creation of the first part of the Rig Veda is attributed to fifteen legendary authors. In fact, the authors of the hymns, both the first part of the Rig Veda and other Vedic collections, were many generations of rishis, singers and poets of the tribe. They were inspired hymn-makers. Sometimes the noeti-singers say that they “found hymns”, sometimes they attribute the birth of a hymn to a state of ecstasy caused by a divine drink, sometimes they compare the composition of hymns to the work of a carpenter, weaver or rower.
Rishis composed hymns on every solemn or generally important occasion (before the start of a military campaign, at the end of this campaign, etc.) addressed to the deity for help or support. It can be assumed that the rishis were the most gifted people of the tribe and at that distant time they expressed the hopes, aspirations, joys and sorrows of all members of the tribe. Thus, in in a broad sense words, the creator of the hymns was the entire tribe (or all the tribes of the northwestern part of Hindustan), and the Vedas contain the poetry of the collective. The main content of Vedic poetry is, therefore, collective feelings and ideas, and not the feelings and ideas of an individual. In all likelihood, the best of the hymns, which settled in people's memory as examples of artistic creativity.
Each new singer, in an act of improvisation, added something to the creations of his predecessors and discarded something. This process can be conditionally called “natural” or “spontaneous” selection. However, class selection played an equally important role (and perhaps a greater one!) in the preservation of some hymns and the disappearance of others over time. The hymns were processed by the Brahman priests. Various layers that are found in the Vedas show that the era of the creation of hymns must have spanned several centuries. Hymns talk about “old” songs that have existed since time immemorial. A certain part of the samhita consists of repetitions. This means that poets of relatively later times borrowed lines from their predecessors, that there were “wandering lines” or “common passages” that the new poet included in the creation. Many generations of rishis probably passed before the verses included in the Vedic collections were cast into a definite form.
Between the appearance of hymns and the compilation of collections of these hymns there passed long time. The era of creating hymns and compiling them into collections is called the “Samhita era,” which is divided into two parts. In the first, hymns were created, in the second, they were collected, combined, systematized and arranged in the sequence in which they are currently known. In other words, the arrangement of hymns in the Samhitas does not reflect chronological sequence their compilation. The systematizers and editors were again priests - brahmans.