The main dates of the life and work of I. P. Uborevich. 1896, December 24 (1897, January 5) - Born into a peasant family in the village of Antandria, Kovno province. 1912 - Graduated from the Dvina Real School. 1913 - Entered the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute. Introduction to Marxist

The son of the first tsar of the Romanov dynasty, Mikhail Fedorovich, from his marriage to Evdokia Streshneva, was born on March 29 (19, according to other sources, 10 according to the old style) March 1629.

He was brought up under the supervision of the "uncle" boyar Boris Morozov. At the age of 11-12, the prince had his own children's library, among its books was a lexicon (a kind of encyclopedic dictionary), grammar, cosmography. Alexey was distinguished by Orthodox piety: he strictly observed fasts and attended church services.

Alexei Mikhailovich began his reign at the age of 14, after being elected by the Zemsky Sobor.

In 1645, at the age of 16, having first lost his father, and soon his mother, Alexei Mikhailovich ascended the throne.

By nature, Alexey Mikhailovich was calm, reasonable, kind and compliant. In history, he retained the nickname “The Quietest.”

The first years of Alexei Mikhailovich's reign were marked by the convening of the Boyar Duma. The financial policy of the government of Alexei Mikhailovich was focused on increasing taxes and replenishing the treasury at their expense. The establishment of a high duty on salt in 1645 led to popular unrest - a salt riot in Moscow in 1648. The rebellious people demanded the “extradition” of boyar Boris Morozov. Alexei Mikhailovich managed to save his “uncle” and relative (Morozov was married to the queen’s sister) by sending him to the Kirillov Monastery. The duty on salt was abolished. Boyar Nikita Odoevsky was placed at the head of the government, who ordered an increase in the salaries of the army (streltsy) who suppressed the uprising.

Under the leadership of princes Odoevsky, Fyodor Volkonsky and Semyon Prozorovsky, Alexei Mikhailovich signed the text of the Council Code at the beginning of 1649 - the new foundations of Russian legislation. The document stated the principle centralized state with the authoritarian power of the king.

The abolition of “lesson years” for searching for runaway peasants, enshrined in the Council Code, strengthened the position of the nobles. The position of the lower classes of the townspeople also changed significantly: all urban settlements were now “turned into taxes,” that is, they had to bear the full tax burden.

The response to these changes in the taxation system was the uprisings of 1650 in Pskov and Novgorod. Their suppression was led by the Novgorod Metropolitan Nikon, who had previously earned the tsar’s trust. Back in 1646, being the abbot of the Kozheezersky monastery, having come to Moscow to collect alms, he amazed Alexei Mikhailovich with his spirituality and extensive knowledge. The young tsar appointed him first as archimandrite of the Novo Spassky Monastery in Moscow, where the Romanov family burial vault was located, and then as metropolitan of Novgorod. In 1652 Nikon was ordained patriarch. In the 1650s x 1660s it was carried out church reform, which at first was headed by Patriarch Nikon, which led to the split of the Russian Orthodox Church and excommunication of Old Believers. In 1658, as a result of a conflict with the Tsar, Nikon left the patriarchate. In 1666, on the initiative of Alexei Mikhailovich, a church council was convened, at which Nikon was deposed and sent into exile.

By order of Alexei Mikhailovich, state reform was carried out - new central orders (central government bodies) were established: Secret Affairs (1648), Monastyrsky (1648), Little Russian (1649), Reitarsky (1651), Accounting (1657), Lithuanian (1656) and Bread (1663). Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the first reform of the Russian army in the 17th century began - the introduction of hired “regiments of the new system.”

Alexey Mikhailovich paid special attention to the foreign policy of the state. A major achievement of Russian diplomacy during his reign was the reunification of Ukraine with Russia. On January 8, 1654, the Pereyaslav Rada approved.

In 1667, the 13-year war with Poland ended victoriously, and Smolensk, Kyiv and the entire left-bank Ukraine were returned to Russia. At the same time, Alexey Mikhailovich personally participated in many of the military campaigns, led diplomatic negotiations, and supervised the activities of Russian ambassadors.

In the east of the country, through the efforts of Russian pioneers Semyon Dezhnev and Vasily Poyarkov, the lands of Siberia were annexed to Russia. The cities of Nerchinsk (1656), Irkutsk (1659), Selenginsk (1666) were founded. Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the struggle for the security of the southern borders of Russia with the Turks and Tatars was successfully waged.

IN economic policy The government of Alexei Mikhailovich encouraged industrial activity and patronized domestic trade, protecting it from competition from foreign goods. These goals were served by the Customs (1663) and New Trade (1667) charters, which promoted the growth of foreign trade.

Miscalculations in financial policy - the issuance of copper money equal to silver, which devalued the ruble - caused discontent among the population, which grew into the Copper Riot in 1662. The revolt was suppressed by the Streltsy, and copper money was abolished. Soon after the Copper Riot, an uprising of those dissatisfied with church reforms broke out in the Solovetsky Monastery (1666). In the south of Russia, popular unrest arose under the leadership of the Don Cossack Stepan Razin (1670-1671).

Until her death, the tsar was an exemplary family man; they had 13 children, including the future tsars Fyodor and Ivan, as well as the princess ruler Sophia. After the death of Maria Miloslavskaya, Alexey Mikhailovich in 1671 married Natalya Naryshkina, a relative of the nobleman Artamon Matveev, who began to exert great influence on the monarch. The young wife bore the Tsar three children and, in particular, the future Emperor Peter I.

Alexei Mikhailovich died on February 8 (January 29, old style) 1676 at the age of 46 and was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. According to testamentary documents of 1674, his eldest son from his marriage to Maria Miloslavskaya, Fyodor, was appointed heir to the throne.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources V

On the pages of historical works the era “the quietest king” Alexei Mikhailovich and his very personality appears full of contradictions. On the one hand, it was during this period that the real overcoming of the humiliation in which he found himself began Russian state V Time of Troubles. On the other hand, many opportunities were not fully exploited, and Moscow achieved much less than it could have achieved with a more reasonable and firm course. .

Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov, first years on the throne, Morozov's regency

Alexey Mikhailovich was born in 1629 and was brought up completely in the spirit of Old Russian traditions. Until he was five years old, he was nurtured by his “mothers,” and then by his “uncle,” boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov. Morozov managed to bind his pupil to himself with the strongest ties, becoming necessary for him after the death of his parents (Alexey Mikhailovich was orphaned at the age of 16), and later “orchestrating” his marriage to Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya - in order to marry her sister himself.

Taking advantage significant influence on the young tsar, Morozov did not always use it for the good of the country. He tried to keep Alexei Mikhailovich at a distance from serious government affairs, allowing him to participate in the palace and church ceremonies so beloved by him and to have fun with falconry. But the results achieved by Morozov in governing the state were very bad. In 1648, the Salt Riot broke out. The mob demanded that the tsar hand over Morozov to her, but he sent his favorite away from harm's way. After a few months, however, he returned, but during this time Alexei Mikhailovich got used to doing without him, and Morozov did not regain his former influence (although the tsar’s love for him did not waver).

Alexey Mikhailovich - a true autocrat and Patriarch Nikon

Gradually, Alexey Mikhailovich began to imagine himself as a true autocrat, a formidable sole ruler. “My word became fearful in the palace,” he wrote in 1651. And he wrote to Metropolitan Nikon of Novgorod, his new advisor and “my brother’s friend.” So the tsar was not left without a guardian, and in 1652 he elevated the bishop even more, facilitating his installation to the Patriarchate.

The relationship between Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon is a separate (and painful) topic. Nikon took more and more power until he finally came across the limit that the “quiet king” did not allow him to cross. As usual, he did not make hasty decisions and did not cut from the shoulder. I simply stopped attending Patriarchal services and hosting Nikon. And he, without considering the limits of his influence on Alexei Mikhailovich, instead of reconciling himself and being content with the position of “just” the Primate of the Church, made the wrong move - he retired to his “patrimony”, expecting complete and unconditional reconciliation with the tsar (on the latter’s initiative) and triumphant return not only to Moscow, but also to his heart.

But what was hoped for did not happen. Until the Council of 1666, which removed him from the Patriarchate, Nikon lived in New Jerusalem as a voluntary recluse, not being honored by the royal attention. At the Council, the Patriarch accepted the insult from the Tsar as a personal one and deeply grieved, it seems, not so much about the exile to a distant place as about the loss of former friendship.

The “quiet tsar” Alexei Mikhailovich himself also deeply felt what had happened and tried to soften the heart of his “brother’s friend” with affectionate, but non-binding gestures - he sent him fur coats into exile, church utensils etc. At the same time, of course, there was no talk of returning not only to Moscow, but even to New Jerusalem. And Nikon understood this, although not immediately. I understood and submitted. In 1667, he sent the Tsar a “pacifying letter”, the only note of protest of which was the signature: “Humble Nikon, Patriarch by the grace of God.” The king turned a blind eye to this “humble protest.”

War of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden

In the meantime, in the 1650s, Alexei Mikhailovich was busy mainly with the war, and Nikon replaced him in Moscow, enjoying great freedom of orders.

Another war with Poland had been brewing for a long time. Russia's external position after the Time of Troubles remained shaky; it still has not returned those lost at the beginning XVII century lands (not to mention earlier losses).

V. O. Klyuchevsky writes about this time:

“The new dynasty had to strain the people’s forces even more than the previous one in order to return what was lost: this was its national duty and the condition for its strength on the throne. Since her first reign, she has been waging a series of wars with the goal of defending what she owned or regaining what was lost. Popular tension was further intensified by the fact that these wars, defensive in origin, spontaneously, imperceptibly, against the will of Moscow politicians, turned into offensive ones, into a direct continuation of the unification policy of the previous dynasty, into a struggle for such parts of the Russian land that the Moscow state had not yet owned until then. International relations in Eastern Europe then they developed in such a way that they did not allow Moscow to take a breath after the first unsuccessful efforts and prepare for further ones. In 1654, Little Russia, which rebelled against Poland, surrendered to the protection of the Moscow sovereign. This involved the state in a new struggle with Poland. This is how it arose new question- Little Russian, further complicating the old complicated Smolensk and Seversk scores of Moscow with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth...”

Although Moscow delayed for a long time in accepting Bogdan Khmelnytsky “and the Zaporozhian Army with their cities and lands” under its authority, it was impossible to endlessly postpone the resolution of this issue, and in the fall of 1653 the Zemsky Sobor drew up a corresponding “resolution”, tantamount to a declaration of war on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The formal announcement followed less than a month later. The king got ready to go on a campaign.

At first our military efforts were met with extraordinary success. We returned Dorogobuzh, Roslavl, Smolensk, Nevel;

“all Lithuania submitted to the king; Alexei Mikhailovich was titled Grand Duke of Lithuania; an uninvited ally, the Swedish king Carl Gustav, conquered all crown Polish lands. The centuries-old dispute between Rus' and Poland was then resolved.”

But then Russia went to war with Sweden, which forced it to conclude a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1658-1659 there was a jam in the Zaporozhye Army, the new hetman of which Ivan Vygovsky went over to the side of Poland. And in 1660, the latter made peace with Sweden, and from that moment on, events in the theater of military operations developed extremely unsuccessfully for us.

The return of the original Russian lands and the last years of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, the “Silent Tsar” of Russia

In 1667, in the village of Andrusovo near Smolensk, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth signed a truce, according to which Smolensk and other Russian lands that had gone to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were returned to Russia, Left Bank Little Russia was assigned to it, and the Zaporozhye Sich remained under the joint control of Moscow and Poland. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abandoned the protectorate over the Sich only in 1686.

Thus, certain positive results have been achieved. But the final solution to the Polish-Lithuanian-Little Russian question was postponed, although with some persistence Russia could, already under Alexei Mikhailovich, consolidate its influence in White and Little Rus' and firmly stand on the shore Baltic Sea. But the manifestation of this persistence was hampered by internal troubles: church reform was not taking root well in the country, and in 1662 Moscow was shocked by the Copper Riot.

In 1676, Alexey Mikhailovich died. His heir, Tsarevich Fyodor, was fifteen years old. And the one who will later go down in history as the first Russian Emperor Peter the Great is four years old.

The “quiet” Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was married twice, which gave rise to considerable unrest at the end of the 17th century (rivalry between the Miloslavskys and Naryshkins at court, the “plot” of the regent, Streltsy riots, etc.).

By the time of his death in early 1676, he had two living sons (the elder Fyodor and the younger Ivan) from his first wife, Maria Miloslavskaya, and one (Peter) from his second, Natalya Naryshkina. The throne was taken, of course, by the eldest, officially declared successor back in 1674 - he was fifteen years old at that time, and his health left much to be desired. The latter gave the Naryshkins reason to harbor hopes for revenge, that is, for Peter’s quick accession to the throne, since the other brother, Ivan Alekseevich, did not shine with mental abilities from a young age.

1. The reign of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov covers the period of 1613–1645 This is one of the difficult periods in history Russian state, associated with restorative processes. Russian society turned out to be not only politically shaken, but also engulfed in social diseases - in different forms social crime due to the paralysis of state power in the previous period.

This period of government itself is characterized as dual power: state power represented by Mikhail Fedorovich and church authority in the person of Patriarch Filaret (his father). This is the only case in the history of the Russian state when two power institutions organically complemented each other without entering into contradictions.

The tasks at this stage of government were as follows:

1. Restoration of central control - vertical political power- the tsar relied on the revived Zemsky Councils and the estate-representative monarchy, subject to the regular convening of Zemsky Councils (with the suppression of administrative abuses and the stabilization of the state treasury);

2. Restoration (widespread) of the work of local government bodies through the introduction of the institution of provincial elders, a body that carried out law enforcement practice (aimed at combating theft);

3. The foreign policy line developed in line with the stabilization of relations with Sweden (the Stolbovo Peace Treaty with which was signed in 1617 - Sweden retained the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, i.e. those territories that were returned to Moscow by Boris Godunov in 1595) and with Poland (the Polish nobility, in their own interests, delayed the resolution of the conflict until 1618, when a truce was signed).

Domestic policy was aimed at extinguishing pockets of popular unrest under the leadership of Ataman I. Zarutsky, who established his camp in Astrakhan and tried to raise the Cossacks along the Volga, Don, and Terek to revolt (executed in 1614).

The highly conflictual situation in foreign policy, the continued escalation of tensions within the country - all this led to state power take tough measures to create a combat-ready army.

These tasks were aimed at the main idea of ​​government - raising the general well-being of the state.

Thus, the reign of M. F. Romanov was, in general, restorative, stabilizing in nature, as evidenced by attempts to return to the model government system the reign of Ivan IV and " The chosen one is pleased"(pre-Oprichny period), which was based on the principles of rationality and constructiveness.

2. The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov - 1645 - 1676. – in general, it is characterized as internally unstable, conflicting, and the destructive principle was introduced by both the king himself and his entourage. Alexey Mikhailovich received a nickname that says “The Quietest”: while provoking a conflict situation, he did not interfere in the further course of events, further escalating the situation, extrapolating negative processes in society.

His reign was marked by the creation of a major document in 1648/1649 – « Cathedral Code" – a new set of laws of the Russian state, reflecting changes in social organization Russian society that occurred after the Great Troubles. The “Conciliar Code” testified to the final attachment of the peasants to the landowners and the strengthening of absolutism.

In addition, if at the beginning of his reign Alexei Mikhailovich adhered to the practice of convening Zemsky Sobors, then after the annexation Left Bank Ukraine in 1654 Zemsky Sobors ceased to exist, which also confirmed the key idea of ​​government - the absolutization of power.

The features of the reign of the era of Alexei Mikhailovich were numerous riots, in particular:

arose in 1648 salt a riot provoked by the activities of boyar B.I. Morozov to increase the tax on salt;

occurred in 1662 copper riot. In order to replenish the state treasury, boyar Rtishchev developed a project for metal banknotes - minting copper coin, which was the equivalent of a silver ruble. However, due to the lack of proper control over this financial transaction, counterfeit coins have become widespread;

1667 – 1670s marked peasant unrest under the leadership of Stepan Razin, the apogee of which was 1669 - 1671, geographically covering the Volga and Don;

in 1652 – 1660s. happened church schism(1652 – 1653) and the subsequent Old Believer riots (1660s), caused by the activities of Patriarch Nikon to make changes to church rites, rituals, and texts. From the position of true believers, free interpretation of sacred texts and amendments to church canons. The printed word in the spiritual religious understanding should not be subject to changes of time due to the fact that it carries an ethical load and is addressed to Christian values ​​- faith, love, goodness. As a sign of protest against the policies of the official church, followers of the traditions of the Orthodox Christian faith and the Russian Orthodox Church doomed themselves to self-immolation. This is how the Old Believers arose (a movement of spiritual protest), the ideologists of which were representatives of various strata of society - Abbot Dosifei, the prophet Avvakum, noblewoman Sofya Morozova and her sister Evdokia Urusova, the head of the Streltsy army Andrei Khovansky and his son Ivan, etc.;

and finally, according to the “ladder order” of succession to the throne, the Moscow throne passed from Alexei Mikhailovich to his son Fedor (1676 - 1682), and then to Sophia (1682 - 1689), which intensified the struggle between the Miloslavskys (entourage from the first marriage of Alexei Mikhailovich) and the Naryshkins (entourage from the tsar’s second marriage, into which Peter was born) for possession of the throne, and also provoked Streltsy riots.

Constructive measures under Alexei Mikhailovich’s rule included building trade relations in the context of a policy of protectionism - supporting domestic producers. For this purpose, relevant documents were adopted - the “Trade Charter” of 1653, which fixed a single trade duty; “New Trade Charter” of 1667, prohibiting foreigners retail trade, establishing a duty on gold and silver of up to 22% of the value of the goods. Trade and market relations were gradually resumed, connections between small local markets were strengthened, the number of urban and rural trades increased, and fairs developed - Svenskaya Fair (near Bryansk), Lebedyanskaya Fair (in the Lipetsk region), Irbitskaya fair (in the Sverdlovsk region). All this contributed to the formation all-Russian market.

In addition, it received further development manufacturing - large enterprises based on the division of labor and handcraft technology (in the leather, rope-spinning industries, as well as in the production of salt making, distilling, metalworking, etc.).

Thus, the entire seventeenth century. entered the history of the Russian state as a “rebellious age”, the riots of which intensified and became more violent in the second half of the century.

Methodological guidelines in revealing the topic: features of the reign of Mikhail Romanov; strengthening of absolutism under Alexei Mikhailovich: Council Code of 1649; legal registration serfdom; copper and salt riots; peasant uprising led by Stepan Razin; Church reform of Patriarch Nikon.

Literature:

1. Klyuchevsky V. O. Selected lectures of the “Course of Russian History” / V. O. Klyuchevsky. – Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2002. – 672 p.

2. Soloviev S. M. Works: In 18 books. / S. M. Soloviev. – M.: Golos, 1993. – Book. 3. – T. 5, 6.

3. Platonov S.F. Complete course of lectures on Russian history / S.F. Platonov. – St. Petersburg. : Crystal, 2000. – 839 p.

4. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century: Textbook. manual for universities /M. M. Gorinov, A. A. Gorsky, A. A. Danilov and others - M.: Bustard, 2000. - 655 p.

5. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861: Textbook / N. I. Pavlenko, I. L. Andreeva, V. B. Kobrin, V. A. Fedorov. – 2nd ed., rev. – M.: Higher. school, 2000. – 559 p.

6. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century: Textbook. manual for universities / A. P. Novoseltsev, A. N. Sakharov, V. I. Buganov, V. D. Nazarov. – M.: AST, 2000. – 575 p.

7. Skrynnikov R. T. Cross and Crown. Church and state in Rus'. XI-XVII centuries / R. T. Skrynnikov. – St. Petersburg. : Art, 2002. – 462 p.

8. Tercentenary of the House of Romanov 1613 – 1913. – Reprint. ed. – 1913. – M., 1991.

9. History of Russia. Textbook / ed. A. S. Orlova, N. A. Georgieva. – M.: Prospekt, 2002. – 544 p.

Questions for discussion at the seminar session:

1. Features of the recovery period in the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov;

2. The reasons for the riots during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.