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Countries of Tropical Africa
Negro-African civilization. The existence of this civilization is often questioned. The diversity of African peoples, languages and cultures south of the Sahara gives reason to assert that here, they say, there is no single civilization, but only “dissimilarities.” This is an extreme judgment. Traditional black African culture is an established, fairly clearly defined system of spiritual and material values, i.e. civilization. According to L. Senghor ( former president Senegalese, philosopher, one of the authors of African ideology "negritude"), the main factors that determined the development of African civilization are “emotionality, intuition, close connection with nature.” Similar historical and natural-economic conditions determined much in common in the social structures, art, and mentality of Negroid peoples Bantu, Mande etc.
Already in the Neolithic era, famous rock paintings were created in the Sahara. In the IV-VI centuries. reached its peak Aksumite state on the Abyssinian Highlands (the culture of which was closely related to the South Arab one). In the territory of modern Nigeria and Chad in VIII-XIX centuries The states of the Hausa peoples (in particular, the Kano Sultanate) successfully developed. In the XIV-XVII centuries. a number of large states emerged in the river basin. Kongo, of which the kingdom of Kongo is the most famous. In the Middle Ages, an outstanding culture flourished in the Zambezi-Limpopo interfluve Zimbabwe, characterized by monumental stone structures and advanced metallurgy. Its creators - farmers and pastoralists of the Bantu peoples - formed a powerful early class power - Monomotapu, which had a huge influence on the development of the culture of the peoples of modern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, etc. A noticeable mark in the history of Negro-African civilization was left by the art of the peoples of Ashanti, Yoruba and other ethnic groups and
States formed in the late Middle Ages on the Guinean coast of Africa.
Of course, the development of the culture of sub-Saharan countries was significantly influenced by colonization, the slave trade, racist ideas (especially those deliberately implanted in the south of the continent), mass Islamization and Christianization of the local population. The beginning of the active mixing of two civilizational types, one of which was represented by the traditional community (a centuries-old form of organizing peasant life), the other by Western European missionaries who instilled Euro-Christian norms, was laid around turn of XIX-XX centuries At the same time, it turned out that the old norms and rules of life are being destroyed faster than new, market ones are being formed. Difficulties were discovered in the cultural adaptation of Africans to Western values.
Of course, most of the Negroid peoples of Africa before the 20th century. did not know writing (it was replaced by oral and musical creativity). “High” religions (like Christianity, Buddhism or Islam) did not develop independently here, technical creativity and science did not appear, market relations- all this came to Africans from other regions. However, it would be a mistake to underestimate African culture and its “connecting threads”. There is no people without culture, and it is not synonymous with European standards.
Thus, the basis of African civilization is the harmonious coexistence of people with nature. African civilization is not at all like Western culture, where individuality, competition and material success are clearly expressed. The ideology of African civilization is, as noted above, Negrshpyud, absolutizing the characteristics of the Negroid race.
The connections between nature and society in Africa led to the creation of conditions for the sustainable dominance of such extensive forms of adaptation of the population to the natural environment, such as gathering (together with hunting) and slash-and-burn agriculture. These types of activities fit into the surrounding world, almost without changing it, and at the same time prevented the territorial concentration of the population and the formation of complex civilizational structures. At the same time, Africans have always been able to quickly adapt to a dynamic natural situation and change their lifestyle depending on the state of natural conditions.
Rivers had a great influence on the content and appearance of African civilizations. Their role in the development of the region is constantly becoming more complex. During the colonization of Africa by European powers, rivers became the routes for colonialists to penetrate deep into the continent. It is no coincidence that the territories of many modern African states
countries are stretched along rivers and often bear their names (Sene-2 Gambia Ghana, Zambia, Congo, etc.). Rivers in Africa also played a large role in the economic life of the countries of the region. I mean the use of water in irrigation, which is becoming increasingly developed, especially in the conditions of the advance of the desert into the savanna and the savanna into the forest. Agriculture in many countries of the region is entirely or largely associated with artificial irrigation. At the same time, the utilization of water and rivers for irrigation is increasingly combined with their energy use. Complex guide construction has become quite epic for many African countries. The use of rivers for shipping and fishing has been declining in recent decades.
The rivers of Africa, as before, play a very important role in the processes of consolidation and expansion of various racial types of ethnic groups and confessions. As the economy develops, the attraction of the population to the river banks increases noticeably. Often these areas become the main centers of population explosion. These same territories are turning into urbanized spaces where foreign and local capital are consolidated.
The deep connection of man with nature determined the typological features of African civilization. Its basis remains ojoana and the multiplication of natural sources of livelihood (T e natural environment). Africans, in the course of civilization, developed the structure and methods of conducting traditional farming that best suited the natural characteristics of the region. Environmental conditions directly affected humans. Stand out specific features African character - sociability, good nature, natural rhythm, but also impulsiveness. This also explains phlegmatism, indifference and a weakly expressed desire for innovation. Meanwhile, the undoubted value of African civilization is the community of people. Man in African conditions is given an equal place along with traditional realities and other images of civilization*.
* Towards the end of the original African civilization, primary social partnership gradually gave way to a special type of community - secret title community. Secret ritual corporations were and remain an important part of the social structure of African society. They are a kind of counterbalance to all other types of power. With their help, “traditional justice” is carried out, and also strict observance of customs is ensured. Classic examples in this sense are Sierra Leone. Kameoun Nigeria, riddled with numerous and diverse secret societies. Modern African secret organizations also include the Kree -minimal branch In the conditions of intensive settlement of Africans in the countries of Western Europe (and in Russia), there is no guarantee that sprouts or even eagle owls of these secret ritual communities will not penetrate there.
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When characterizing African civilization, it should be noted that
the northern part of the continent and its eastern coast belongs to
towards the Islamic world. Ethiopia represents a special culture
In the south of the continent formed European culture know
highly fragmented by regional tribal composition
nentom. It is important to note that Europeans introduced Christianity
also in other parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is still
this part of Africa is dominated by various tribal identities
ties, paganism. Based on tribalism* there are many happening
ongoing intra- and interstate armed conflicts
The famous Kenyan scientist A. Mazrui characterizes the
temporary condition on the African continent south of Sakha
ry: “A significant part modern Africa is in pro
process of extinction and decay. Even the relative level of dependent
modernization achieved under colonial rule
the feather is lost. The subsequent collapse of statehood in
one after another African country in the early 90s. prompting
There is a hitherto incredible solution: recolonization. For more and more
THE KYANPKL OF THE FRICANS THIS ° s T becomes the g ° hard truth. If African
free^ ? Ma USP 6 ShN 0 united in the fight for national
freedom, then obviously we failed to unite in the name of eco
nomic development and political stability War of Go
Lod and devastation have become a post-colonial reality for too many
many Africans. As a result, the question arises about recolondi
from outside, this time under the banner of humanism" ionization
NATURAL CONDITIONS "R e s UR sy - The African continent is a classic platform region of tropical land, the only one of its kind on the globe (Fig. 8.1). It is distinguished by weak orographic contrast and the antiquity of the modern peneplanated relief. The specificity of Africa, as the most massive block of tropical land, is reflected in the climatic uniqueness of this sector of the tropics: aridity, extreme unevenness of the territorial distribution of hydro resources and lower average water availability compared to other areas of tropical land and so-^TGG 5 ^ 3 "™ XERO F I -th plant types over
Rice. 8.1. Countries of Tropical Africa:
/ - Gambia, 2 - Guinea-Bissau, 3 - Sierra Leone, 4 - Liberia, 5 - Togo, 6 - Equatorial Guinea, 7 - Eritrea, I? - Djibouti, 9 - Rwanda, 10 - Burundi, // - Malawi, 12 - Swaziland, 13 - Lesotho
makes African shores inconvenient for modern seaports.
Africa is one of the most elevated continents. The average surface height above sea level is 750 m. According to this indicator, Africa is second only to Antarctica (2,040 m, counting the thickness of the ice sheet) and Asia (950 m). At the same time, Africa is characterized by weak vertical dissection, which significantly distinguishes it from Europe, Asia and America, where vast lowlands stretch next to powerful mountain ranges.
Nosti. The relief of Africa is dominated by monotonous elevated plains, above which in some places isolated massifs and single mountains rise. Lowlands in Africa, compared to other regions, occupy a small area, located in narrow strips along the sea coast.
Sub-Saharan Africa almost completely “fits” within the hot zone of the Earth and the adjacent subtropics. This has an important consequence: high temperatures for most of the year. In the equatorial and constantly humid subequatorial regions of the region, multi-tiered rain forests grow, dark and difficult to traverse. In such forests, the crowns of trees, reaching several tens of meters, are intertwined so densely that the sky is completely invisible. The forests are stuffy, gloomy, there is no grass, no clearings, only a layer of fallen, wet, rotten leaves, sometimes forming a viscous mess. The forests are extremely diverse in the composition of tree species (the region accounts for 17% of the world's forest land with valuable tree species).
On both sides of the equatorial strip there are areas of tropical open forest, or savanna forests, and tropical forest-steppe - savanna. Its most humidified areas are characterized by very high (up to 2-3 m) grass cover. Scattered among the grass and herbaceous plants are isolated trees. Savannah areas abound in pastures, cultivated lands, and there are quite large rural settlements.
In the north of the region, between the savannah and the Sahara, there is a vast and steadily expanding Sahel zone(sahel means coast, in in this case meaning the edge, the coast of the desert). The process of desertification here has become catastrophic. In the south are the Namib Desert and the Kalahari Semi-Desert. There are no permanent surface waters in them, but in some areas there is a significant network of temporary watercourses that fill for a short period of time (they are called “omu-rambo”).
The abundance of rivers and lakes makes sub-Saharan Africa rich in water resources. The equatorial regions are best provided with water. With distance from the equator, the provision of moisture and surface water resources decreases, reaching minimum levels in deserts. Water resources in Africa are a source of artificial irrigation in arid regions, a source of energy resources, and transport arteries. Inland fish stocks are important.
In Africa, as nowhere else, latitudinal landscape zoning is clearly manifested, which is “corrected” only in the south (the influence of the Indian Ocean and orography) and in the east (a consequence of tectonic activation). In general, within the continent there are
four large physiographic parts: North Africa, Central, Eastern and Southern. Included Central (orEquatorial) Africa includes two physical-geographical areas:
1) Guinea coast, which means broadly
which coastal strip of the Gulf of Guinea, as well as North Guinea
the Ney upland and the Cameroon massif. Most of the territory
ria of this area is influenced by the southwestern equator
torial monsoon, bringing heavy rainfall. Natural
the specifics of the area are largely due to its transitional nature
from the savannas of Sudan to the equatorial forests of the river basin. Congo;
2) Congo Basin and outlying mountains- territory, extends-
located on both sides of the equator from the Atlantic to East Africa
Kansk highlands, characterized by an equatorial climate and
covered with dense humid forests. Typical equatorial
The precipitation regime is typical for the flat part of the river basin. Con
go, however, this particular area is the least favorable for
life activities of people.
East Africa form two physical-geographical regions:
1) Abyssinian Highlands And Somalia(Absomals), shared
the vast Afar depression. Due to the nature of the relief and climate, this
the area is more complex than its neighbors. If the Abyssinian Highlands
and the Harar plateau are an area with fairly humid
ny and cool climate, then it is surrounded by dry and hot
plateaus, which are reflected in the Somali peninsula and the
Red Sea region;
2) East African Highlands, located approximately
the same latitudes as the physiographic region of the basin
Congo and outlying mountains. However, local natural features
are quite specific, which is associated with mountainous terrain (Chris
The tallic base of the highlands is broken by huge faults -
grabens, the bottoms of which are occupied by large lakes). If for
internal territories are characterized by a typical equatorial
precipitation regime, then the eastern part of the region adjacent to In
Indian Ocean, located in the zone of trade winds.
South Africa characterized by a predominance of plateaus in the relief, a relatively dry climate, as well as a predominant change in zonal landscapes in the direction from east to west. The following physiographic regions are distinguished here:
1) South African plateau, occupying 3/4 of the entire territory of the region and characterized by a generally hot climate and relatively scanty precipitation. Only closer to the waters of the World Ocean does humid tropical air make “corrections” to the climate regime;
2) Cape Mountains, representing the most “tiny”
physical-geographical region of the African continent. Her
the allocation is due to the position on the shore, washed by the ho
the low Benguela Current, and the specific subtropical
kim climate with dry summers;
3) Madagascar Island, distinguished known apart
ity and characterized by a tropical climate, hot on
lowlands and moderate on high plateaus. Southeast
trade winds bring heavy rainfall to the island. Gentle tempera
Island tours set Madagascar apart from the sweltering heat
east coast of the continent.
African subsoil contains large number minerals(Table 8.1). The region is especially rich in ores of non-ferrous (bauxite, copper, manganese), rare and precious metals. There are significant reserves of resources for ferrous metallurgy. From energy resources there are large reserves oil, natural gas, uranium ores and coal deposits.
Mineral Resources distributed unevenly throughout the region. The southeast of Congo (Kinshasa) and adjacent areas of Zambia, and the eastern half of South Africa are very rich in mineral resources. There are large reserves of mineral raw materials in South, West and Central Africa. The east of the region is less rich, but as geological exploration expands, proven mineral reserves there are also increasing.
The region's land fund is significant. However, the quality of African soils varies widely. Many of their types, when natural vegetation is cleared and used in agriculture, quickly lose their natural fertility and are subject to erosion. With artificial irrigation they are at risk of secondary salinization.
The total area of Tropical Africa is more than 20 million km 2, the population is 600 million people. It is also called Black Africa, since the population of the subregion overwhelmingly belongs to the equatorial (Negroid) race. But in terms of ethnic composition, individual parts of Tropical Africa differ quite greatly. It is most complex in Western and Eastern Africa, where at the junction of different races and linguistic families the greatest “strip” of ethnic and political borders arose. The people of Central and Southern Africa speak numerous (with up to 600 dialects) but closely related languages of the Bantu family (the word means “people”). The Swahili language is especially widespread. And the population of Madagascar speaks languages of the Austronesian family. .
There is also much in common in the economy and settlement of the population of the countries of Tropical Africa. Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the developing world, within its boundaries there are 29 least developed countries. Nowadays this is the only large region a world where agriculture remains the main sphere of material production.
About half of rural residents live subsistence agriculture, the rest are low-commercial. Hoe tillage predominates with the almost complete absence of a plow; It is no coincidence that the hoe, as a symbol of agricultural labor, is included in the image of the state emblems of a number of African countries. All main agricultural work is performed by women and children. They cultivate root and tuber crops (cassava or cassava, yams, sweet potatoes), from which they make flour, cereals, cereals, flatbreads, as well as soy, sorgo, rice, corn, bananas, and vegetables. Livestock farming is much less developed, including due to the tsetse fly, and if it plays a significant role (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia), it is carried out extremely extensively. In the equatorial forests there are tribes and even nationalities that still live by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the savannah and tropical rainforest zones, the basis of consumer agriculture is the fallow-type slash-and-burn system.
Areas of commercial crop production with a predominance of perennial plantings - cocoa, coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, spices - stand out sharply against the general background. Some of these crops are grown on plantations, and some on peasant farms. They primarily determine the monocultural specialization of a number of countries.
According to their main occupation, the majority of the population of Tropical Africa lives in rural areas. Savannahs are dominated by large villages near rivers, while tropical forests are dominated by small villages.
The life of the villagers is closely connected with the subsistence farming they lead. Among them, local traditional beliefs are widespread: cult of ancestors, fetishism, belief in nature spirits, magic, witchcraft, various talismans. Africans believe. that the spirits of the dead remain on earth, that the spirits of ancestors strictly monitor the actions of the living and can harm them if any traditional commandment is violated. Christianity and Islam, introduced from Europe and Asia, also became quite widespread in Tropical Africa. .
Tropical Africa is the least industrialized region of the world (not counting Oceania). There was only one quite large area mining industry Copper Belt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. This industry also forms several smaller areas that you already know.
Tropical Africa is the least urbanized region in the world(see Figure 18). Only eight of its countries have millionaire cities, which usually tower over numerous provincial towns like lonely giants. Examples of this kind are Dakar in Senegal, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nairobi in Kenya, Luanda in Angola.
Tropical Africa also lags behind in the development of its transport network. Its pattern is determined by “penetration lines” isolated from each other, leading from the ports to the hinterland. In many countries railways are completely absent. It is customary to carry small loads on the head, and over a distance of up to 30-40 km.
Finally, in T quality is rapidly deteriorating in tropical Africa environment . Desertification, deforestation, and depletion of flora and fauna have assumed the most alarming proportions here.
Example. The main area of drought and desertification is the Sahel zone, which stretches along the southern borders of the Sahara from Mauritania to Ethiopia across ten countries. In 1968-1974. Not a single rain fell here, and the Sahel turned into a scorched earth zone. In the first half and mid-80s. catastrophic droughts recurred. They took away millions human lives. The number of livestock has decreased significantly.
What happened in this area came to be called the “Sahel tragedy.” But it is not only nature that is to blame. The onset of the Sahara is facilitated by overgrazing of livestock and destruction of forests, primarily for firewood. .
In some countries of Tropical Africa, measures are being taken to protect flora and fauna, creating national parks. This primarily applies to Kenya, where international tourism income is second only to coffee exports. . ( Creative task 8.)
1. Using the map of nations, determine ethnic composition population of Tropical Africa.
In terms of ethnic diversity, the African region in question is second only to Asia. There are several hundred peoples here belonging to the large Negroid race. The largest of them are the Yoruba, Hausa, Fulbe, Ibo in West Africa, Amhara in Ethiopia, etc. Closely related Bantu peoples live in Central Africa.
2. What is the past of the countries of Tropical Africa?
In the recent past, all countries in this subregion were possessions of European powers (France, Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Italy). The process of decolonization of Africa began after the Second World War. Only since the 60s. XX century the formation of their state sovereignty began. 1960 was declared the Year of Africa - the year the largest number of colonies were liberated.
3. What are the features of the nature of the countries in the region?
The natural conditions of the region are so diverse that they cannot be assessed unambiguously. Thus, the relief is generally favorable for the economic development of the territory, but in most of it climatic conditions and uneven distribution of water resources negatively affect the lives of people and their economic activity. Large areas are occupied by arid regions, and vast areas are subject to periodic droughts (the Sahel zone south of the Sahara, some areas in Southern and Eastern Africa). In the equatorial belt, the amount of precipitation is so high that excessive moisture complicates the economic development of the territory. The nature of Africa is characterized by increased environmental vulnerability. Unlike the Asian and American tropics, where intensive agricultural systems developed, ultimately leading to the formation of stable cultural landscapes, in tropical Africa the centuries-old practice of fallow farming and pastoralism led to extremely negative anthropogenic changes in local landscapes.
4. What demographic problems are facing the countries of Tropical Africa?
In terms of the rate of natural population growth, Tropical Africa is ahead of all other regions of the world. The population dynamics of Tropical Africa is characterized by an exceptionally high birth rate - sometimes more than 30%. Only in the second half of the 20th century. Africa's population has more than tripled, leading to a sharp worsening of food and other social problems.
Many countries in Tropical Africa inherited from colonial times a discrepancy between state and ethnic borders; many closely related peoples found themselves “cut off” by state borders. The region ranks first in the world for illiteracy, has the highest infant mortality rate and the shortest life expectancy.
5. What are the specific features of the economies of the countries in the region?
In terms of economic structure, most countries are agricultural, some have developed mining industries, and only a few are developing manufacturing industries. When talking about the geography of the economy, one should keep in mind a few relatively developed territories - metropolitan regions, places of extraction and export of mineral raw materials.
The leading branch of agriculture is farming, which in many countries is monocultural in nature, associated with specialization primarily in one crop. Livestock farming, occupying one of the first places in the world in terms of livestock numbers, is characterized by extensiveness, low productivity and low marketability.
One of the reasons for the backwardness of agriculture is archaic agrarian relations. Communal land tenure and subsistence farming are preserved here, which are slowly transforming into small-scale peasant farming.
6. Why is agriculture in the countries of Tropical Africa monocultural?
The monocultural nature of agriculture in the countries of Tropical Africa is a direct consequence of their colonial past, in which it satisfied the specific food needs of the metropolises.
7. What explains the diversified nature of the South African economy?
The development of a diversified industry was facilitated by the exceptional wealth of mineral resources (gold, diamonds, uranium ore, platinum, etc.). Only 15% of South Africa's area is suitable for agriculture. However, it can be said that, unlike most other countries in Africa, where soil erosion occurs, this 15% is used wisely - in order to protect soils and efficiently conduct agriculture, advanced agricultural technologies from South Africa and leading countries of the world are used. Compared to other African countries, South Africa has a developed transport network. External transportation is carried out through major seaports - Durban, Port Elizabeth, Cape Town, which are connected by railways.
8. National composition countries of Tropical Africa are different:
a) relative homogeneity; b) extreme diversity.
9. Determine which statements apply to the countries of Tropical Africa:
1) The region includes most of the world's least developed countries.
2) The leading industry is the automotive industry.
3) Large areas are occupied by arid regions.
4) The region is rich in mineral resources.
5) Rail transport is developed in the region.
b) The food problem is pressing for the countries of the region.
All except 2 and 5.
11. Give the economic and geographical characteristics of South Africa. To do this, use the text of the textbook, atlas maps, and periodical materials.
The Republic of South Africa is a state in the southern part of the African continent. In the north it borders with Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, in the northeast - with Mozambique and Swaziland. Inside the territory of South Africa there is the enclave state of Lesotho.
South Africa is the most developed on the African continent and at the same time the only country that is not classified as a Third World country. GDP in 2009 amounted to $505 billion (26th place in the world). GDP growth was at 5%, in 2008 - 3%. The country is still not among the developed countries of the world, despite the fact that its market is actively expanding. In terms of purchasing power parity, it ranks 78th in the world according to the IMF (Russia 53rd), according to the World Bank 65th, according to the CIA 85th. It has a huge reserve of natural resources. Telecommunications, electricity, and the financial sector are widely developed.
Main import items: oil, food, chemical goods; exports: diamonds, gold, platinum, machinery, vehicles, equipment. Imports ($91 billion in 2008) exceed exports ($86 billion in 2008).
Member of the international organization of ACP countries.
PECULIARITIES. Specifics African history– extreme unevenness of development. If in some territories during the end of the 1st – first half of the 2nd millennium, fully formed states, often very extensive, emerged, then in other lands they continued to live in conditions of tribal relations. Statehood, with the exception of the northern Mediterranean lands (where it existed since ancient times), in the Middle Ages extended only to the territory north and partially south of the equator, primarily in the so-called Sudan (the zone between the equator and the Tropic of the North).
A characteristic feature of the African economy was that throughout the continent land was not alienated from its owner, even under communal organization. Therefore, the conquered tribes were almost never enslaved, but were exploited by collecting taxes or tribute. Perhaps this was due to the peculiarities of land cultivation in a hot climate and the predominance of arid or waterlogged lands, which required careful and lengthy cultivation of each plot suitable for agriculture. In general, it should be noted that very harsh conditions for humans have developed south of the Sahara: a mass of wild animals, poisonous insects and reptiles, lush vegetation ready to strangle every cultural sprout, stupefying heat and droughts, excessive rainfall and floods in other places. Due to the heat, many pathogenic microbes have grown here. All this predetermined the routine nature of African economic development, which led to a slowdown in social progress.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. Agriculture predominated among the population's occupations. Nomadic cattle breeding as the basis of existence was characteristic of only a few tribes in the region. The fact is that tropical Africa was infected with the tsetse fly, a carrier of sleeping sickness that is fatal to cattle. Less vulnerable were goats, sheep, pigs and camels.
Agriculture was mainly shifting and shifting, which was facilitated by low population density and, consequently, the availability of free land. Periodic downpours (1–2 times a year) followed by a dry season (except in the equatorial zone) required irrigation. The soils of Sahel 1 and savannas are poor in organic matter, are easily depleted (stormy rainfalls wash away mineral salts), and in the dry season the vegetation burns out and does not accumulate humus. Fertile alluvial soils are located only in islands in river valleys. The lack of domestic animals limited the ability to fertilize the soil with organic matter. The small number of cattle made it impossible to use draft power. All this made it possible to cultivate the soil only manually - with hoes with iron tips and fertilize the soil only with ash from burning vegetation. They didn't know the plow and the wheel.
Based on modern knowledge, we can conclude that the predominance of hoe farming and the non-use of draft power when cultivating the soil was a forced adaptation to natural conditions and did not necessarily indicate the backwardness of agriculture in Tropical Africa. But, nevertheless, this also slowed down the overall development of the population.
The craft developed in communities in which artisans occupied a privileged position and fully provided their communities with the necessary products. First of all, blacksmiths, potters, and weavers stood out. Gradually, with the development of cities, trade and the formation of urban centers, urban crafts appeared, serving the court, the army, and city residents. In the 15th-15th centuries. in the most developed areas (Western Sudan), associations of artisans of the same or related professions arose - similar to European guilds. But as in the East, they were not independent and were subordinate to the authorities.
In some states of Western Sudan in the XV-XVI centuries. elements of manufacturing production began to take shape. But the original development of African crafts and its organizational forms was delayed and in many places interrupted by European colonization and the slave trade.
SOCIO-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. The population of the Sahel was characterized by an ancient tradition of exchange with the northern nomads - the Berbers. They traded agricultural and livestock products, salt and gold. Trade was "silent". The traders did not see each other. The exchange took place in forest clearings, where one party brought their goods and then hid in the forest. Then the other party came, inspected what was brought, left their goods of the appropriate value and left. Then the first ones returned and if they were satisfied with the offer, they took it and the deal was considered completed. Deception rarely happened (on the part of northern merchants).
The most developed trans-Saharan trade was in gold and salt. Placers of gold were discovered in the forests of Western Sudan, Upper Senegal, Ghana, and the Upper Volta basin. There was almost no salt in the Sahel and further south. It was mined in Mauritania, the oases of the Sahara, the salt lakes of modern Zambia and the upper reaches of the Niger. There, even houses were built from salt blocks covered with camel skins. Southern tribes of Western Sudan - Hausa Those who bought Saharan salt knew 50 types of its varieties.
It was here, in the north of Western Sudan in the 7th–8th centuries. Large shopping centers were formed, around which political associations were then formed.
The oldest state here was Ghana or Aukar, the first information about which dates back to the 8th century. Ethnic basis - nationality Soninka. In the 9th century The rulers of Ghana stubbornly fought with their northern neighbors, the Berbers, for control of trade routes to the Maghreb. By the beginning of the 10th century. Ghana achieved its greatest power, which relied on monopoly control over the trade of all of Western Sudan with the north, which contributed to economic prosperity. However, in the second half of the 11th century. Sultan of the Almoravid (Moroccan) state Abu Bekr ibn Omar subjugated Ghana, imposed tribute on it and took control of the country's gold mines. The king of Ghana converted to Islam. 20 years later, during the uprising, Abu Bekr was killed and the Moroccans were expelled. But Ghana's importance was not restored. New monarchies arose on its greatly reduced borders.
In the 12th century. The kingdom showed the greatest activity Soso, which conquered Ghana in 1203 and soon subjugated all trade routes in the region. Mali, located in the center of Western Sudan, becomes a dangerous rival to the kingdom of Soso.
The emergence of the state Mali(Manding) dates back to the 8th century. It was originally located on the Upper Niger. The bulk of the population was made up of tribes raspberry. Active trade with Arab merchants contributed to the penetration of Islam among the ruling elite by the 11th century. The beginning of the economic and political prosperity of Mali dates back to the second half of the 12th century. By the middle of the 13th century. with a prominent commander and statesman Sundiata Almost the entire territory of Soso with gold mining areas and caravan routes was subordinated. Regular exchanges are established with the Maghreb and Egypt. But the expansion of state territory led to the growth of separatism on the ground. As a result, from the second half of the 14th century. Mali is weakening and beginning to lose certain territories.
Active foreign policy had little impact on rural communities. They were dominated by subsistence farming. The presence of basic specialties in artisan communities did not create a need to trade with neighbors. Therefore, local markets, although they existed, did not play a special role.
Foreign trade was conducted primarily in gold, salt, and slaves. Mali has achieved a monopoly in the gold trade with North Africa. Sovereigns, aristocracy, and service people participated in this trade. Gold was exchanged for Arab handicrafts and, especially, for salt, which was so necessary that it was exchanged for gold in a weight ratio of 1:2 (there was practically no salt in the Sahel and it was delivered from the Sahara). But a lot of gold was mined, up to 4.5–5 tons per year, which fully provided for the nobility and did not require special pressure on the peasants.
The main unit of society was the large patriarchal family. Several families made up the community. There was no equality in the communities. The ruling layer were the elders of patriarchal families, below were the heads of small families, then ordinary members of the community - free peasants and artisans, and even lower - slaves. But slavery did not last forever. In each subsequent generation, they acquired individual rights until they became freedmen, who even occupied important government posts. 5 days a week, ordinary community members, slaves and freedmen worked together to cultivate the land of the patriarchal family, and 2 days they worked on the individual plots allocated to them - vegetable gardens. The plots were distributed by the heads of large families - “lords of the land.” Part of the harvest, products from hunting, etc. went to their benefit. In essence, these “lords” were leaders with elements of feudal lords. That is, here we have a kind of feudal-patriarchal relationship. Communities were united into clans, the heads of which had their own military detachments of slaves and other dependent people.
The top of the ruling class consisted of the marked heads of patriarchal families who were part of ruling family. The lower group of the ruling layer were the leaders of the subordinate clans and tribes, who, however, retained internal autonomy. But a military-service stratum emerged from overseers, heads of slave guards, and freedmen in government positions. They often received land from the rulers, which allows them to be seen as a kind of nobility (at the stage of its inception). But this, as elsewhere, led to the growth of separatism and ultimately to the collapse of Mali.
Another reason for the collapse of the state was the noted gold trade. It covered the needs of the nobility and did not encourage increasing income through the development of other elements of the economy. As a result, the wealth from owning gold led to stagnation. Neighbors began to overtake Mali.
With the decline of Mali, a state grew on its eastern borders Songhai(or Gao - after the name of the capital). In the 15th century Songhai achieved independence and created its own state in the Middle Niger, all on the same trade routes. But numerous conquests caused uprisings, especially in the conquered lands of Mali and by the first half of the 16th century. Songhai fell into decline. In the position of the ruling class, in contrast to Mali, a significant role was played by large estates, on which slaves planted on the land worked. But the position of the descendants of slaves (prisoners of war) softened in each subsequent generation. The role of cities was significant in the state. Up to 75 thousand people lived in the capital, Gao, and more than 50 people worked in some weaving workshops in Timbuktu.
To the west, in the Upper Volta basin among the tribes Mosi in the 11th century Several state formations arose with a significant role of slavery in the estates, which is similar to the order in Songhai. Some of the noted states existed until the French arrived here in the 19th century.
In the extreme west of Africa, in the middle and lower reaches of Senegal in the 8th century. a state was formed Tekrur. Made from different ethnic groups, it is marked by constant clashes between different tribes, to which in the 9th century. Conflicts increased between supporters of local religions and emerging Muslims. This led to a constant change of dynasties.
A vast area west of Lake Chad inhabited by tribes Hausa , in the VIII-X centuries. covered by a network of individual city-states with a significant slave-owning system. Slaves were used in crafts and agriculture. Until the 16th century. Political fragmentation reigned in these lands.
In the 8th century a state arose east of Lake Chad Kanem, which in the XI-XII centuries. subjugates some tribes of the Hausa group.
Ancient center African culture was the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, inhabited by tribes Yoruba . Of the states in this territory, the largest was Oyo, founded in the 9th-10th centuries. At its head was a monarch, limited by a council of nobles. The latter was the highest administrative and judicial body and handed down death sentences, including to the ruler himself. We have before us a kind of constitutional monarchy with a highly developed bureaucracy. Oyo was connected by trade with the northern lands and had significant income from this. A highly developed craft has developed in the cities and associations such as guilds are known.
To the south of the considered states of Western and Central Sudan in the XIII-XIV centuries. appeared Cameroon And Congo.
Customs. Most of the peoples of Western Sudan did not create their own written language. Some used elements of Arabic writing. The religion that predominated was pagan. Islam truly began to spread from the 13th-14th centuries, and began to reach the rural population from the 16th century. But even in Muslim times, not to mention earlier, monarchs were treated as pagan priests. It was believed that the king, by virtue of his position, controlled nature. The reproduction of subjects, animals and plants in his state depended on his health and the magical rituals he performed. The king determined the timing of sowing and other work.
Arab travelers made interesting observations about the life of Africans. According to Ibn Battuta (XIV century), they, more than any other people, express devotion and respect to their sovereign. For example, as a sign of respect for him, they take off their outer clothing and remain in rags, crawl on their knees, sprinkle sand on their heads and backs, and it’s amazing how the sand doesn’t get into their eyes. He also noted the almost complete absence of thieves and robbers, which made the roads safe. If a white man died among them, then his property was kept by a special local trustee until the arrival of relatives or others from the deceased’s homeland, which was important for merchants. But, the traveler regretted, in the courtyard of the king, girls and women walk around with their faces open and naked. Many of them eat carrion - the corpses of dogs and donkeys. There are cases of cannibalism. Moreover, preference is given to blacks. White meat is considered unripe. In general, the food of the Malians, among whom Battuta visited, did not excite him. Even at the ceremonial dinner, he complained, only millet, honey and sour milk were served. Usually they preferred rice. He wrote in detail about the “friends” of married men and women, that is, about fairly free extramarital affairs, and discussed how this relates to the Muslim religiosity of the inhabitants.
ETHIOPIA. In Eastern Sudan, in the northern part of the Abyssinian plateau, there was a kingdom Aksum. Its roots go back to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when newcomers from South Arabia brought Semitic languages to the Nile Valley. This state at the beginning of its history was associated with the Greco-Roman world. Its heyday occurred in the 4th century AD, when the power of the Aksumite kings extended not only to most of the Ethiopian lands, but also to the southern Arabian coast (Yemen and southern Hijaz - in the 5th century). Active ties with Byzantium contributed to the spread of Christianity among the upper strata of society around 333. In 510, the Iranians, led by Khusrow, ousted Aksum from Arabia. In the 8th century the onset of Arab expansion caused the gradual decline of Aksum. The population was pushed away from the sea and gradually moved to barren interior lands Abyssinian plateau. In the XIII century. The Solomon dynasty, which existed until the 1974 revolution, comes to power.
The social system of medieval Ethiopia was characterized by the predominance of the feudal structure. The peasants who were part of the community were considered the holders of the land, the supreme owner of which was the king - negus. He, and during the period of fragmentation the rulers of the regions, had the right to the land together with the peasants sitting on it, on the terms of service. There was no serfdom, but landowners could require peasants to work for them every fifth day - a kind of corvee. Slavery also existed, but it was of an auxiliary nature.
CONCLUSIONS. In the considered part of Tropical Africa, except for Ethiopia, the formation of state formations began around the 8th century. Socio-economic relations were characterized by diversity. Depending on local conditions and stages of social development, slaveholding (earlier stage) or early feudal (later stage) relations prevailed. But the presence throughout the region of a significant layer of communal peasants contributed to the development of feudal elements as a leading trend. The considered type of social relations is generally closer to the medieval civilizations of the East. But, unlike them, clearly defined social groups- there were no classes here until the 19th century. There was a peculiar ingrowth of the tribal system into the state, which constituted the specificity of African civilization.
The originality of this civilization was probably (there are different opinions) caused by the fact that the ruling strata here began to stand out not due to the emergence of a surplus product in routinely developing agriculture, but in the process of struggle for income from transit trade, which was most active in Western Sudan. The agricultural population did not need the items of this trade and did not participate in it. Therefore, in the village, clan-community orders were preserved for a long time, on which the organized power of the clan aristocracy was superimposed from above.
The state here was formed without distinguishing social groups and private property. The ruling layer is not only at first, but also for a long time, before the arrival of the Europeans - large families- clans. Their heads became leaders. Their service people were relatives who, due to family ties, were not paid for their service in land. Therefore, private ownership of land did not arise. The lowest ruling stratum in communities are the heads of families, who at the same time became, as it were, administrators. In such conditions, naturally, the separation of the ruling stratum from the bulk of the population, its transformation into a special estate, and even more so into a class, happened very slowly and in many places has not been completed to this day. Stage by stage, this is a very protracted early stage in the formation of feudalism, which in Europe, for example, was overcome in 100-150 years.
It should be noted that feudalism in the considered part of Africa is not recognized by those researchers who understand by feudalism only the dominance of large feudal land ownership. The author of this manual, let me remind you, considers feudal society to be one that is characterized by the entire complex of socio-political and economic relationships of the Middle Ages (power based on personal domination, existing through various types of rent from peasant users sitting on the land). With this understanding, a society can be considered feudal, the life of which is determined by the subjective aspirations of the landowning nobility, who subordinated objectively existing economic and social laws to their will. The discrepancy between these two factors, the feudal class’s ignorance of these objectively existing laws, ultimately led to the disintegration of the feudal order.
Ethiopia is similar in origin and typologically to the Middle Eastern model.