Entry into Russian-Turkish war France, Sardinia and England on the side of Turkey after the famous Battle of Sinop determined the transfer of armed clashes to land, to Crimea. With the beginning of the campaign in Crimea, the war of 1853-1856. acquired a defensive character for Russia. The Allies deployed almost 90 warships (mostly steam-powered) in the Black Sea against Russia, while the Black Sea squadron consisted of about 20 sailing and 6 steam-powered ships. There was no point in a naval confrontation - the superiority of the coalition forces was obvious.

In September 1854 allied forces landed near Evpatoria. On September 8, 1854, the Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikova was defeated at the Alma River. It seemed that the path to Sevastopol was open. In connection with the increased threat of the capture of Sevastopol, the Russian command decided to scuttle part of the Black Sea fleet at the entrance to the city’s large bay in order to prevent enemy ships from entering there. The guns were first removed to strengthen the coastal artillery. The city itself did not give up. On September 13, 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began, lasting 349 days - until August 28 (September 8), 1855.

Admirals V.A. played a huge role in the defense of the city. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin, P.S. Nakhimov. Vice Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov became the commander of the defense of Sevastopol. Under his command there were about 18,000 people (later the number would be increased to 85,000), mainly from naval commands. Kornilov was well aware of the size of the Anglo-French-Turkish landing force, numbering 62,000 people (later the number would reach 148,000) with 134 field and 73 siege guns. By September 24, the French occupied the Fedyukhin Heights, and the British entered Balaklava.

In Sevastopol, under the supervision of engineer E.I. Totleben, engineering work was carried out - forts were erected, redoubts were strengthened, and trenches were created. The southern part of the city was more fortified. The Allies did not dare to storm the city and began engineering work, but successful forays from Sevastopol did not allow the construction of the siege fortifications to be completed quickly.

Sevastopol was subjected to the first major bombardment on October 5, 1854, after which its assault was planned. However, the well-aimed retaliatory fire of the Russian batteries thwarted these plans. But on this day Kornilov died.

The main forces of the Russian army under the command of Menshikov undertook a series of unsuccessful attack operations. The first was carried out on October 13 on the approaches to Balaklava. This attack did not have any strategic gain, but during the battle almost an entire brigade of British light cavalry was killed. On October 24, another battle took place in the area of ​​​​the Inkerman Heights, which was lost due to the indecisiveness of the Russian generals.

On October 17, 1854, the Allies began shelling Sevastopol from land and sea. The bastions also responded with fire. Only the British were able to achieve success, acting against the third bastion of Sevastopol. Russian losses amounted to 1,250 people. In general, the defenders continued the tactics of night raids and surprise raids. The famous Pyotr Koshka and Ignatius Shevchenko, with their courage and heroism, have repeatedly proven how high the price the enemy will have to pay for invading Russian spaces.

Sailor of the 1st article of the 30th Black Sea naval crew Pyotr Markovich Koshka (1828-1882) became one of the main heroes of the city’s defense. At the beginning of the Sevastopol defense, P. Koshka was assigned to one of the batteries of the Ship side. He was distinguished by extraordinary courage and resourcefulness. By the beginning of 1855, he made 18 forays into enemy positions, most often acting alone. Preserved it verbal portrait: “Average height, lean, but strong with an expressive high-cheekbone face... A little pockmarked, light brown hair, gray eyes, did not know how to read and write.” In January 1855, he already proudly wore “George” in his buttonhole. After leaving the southern part of the city, he was “dismissed due to injury on a long vacation.” They remembered Koshka in August 1863 and called him to serve in the Baltic, in the 8th naval crew. There, at the request of another hero of Sevastopol, General S.A. Khrulev he received another “George” of the second degree. On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the defense of Sevastopol, monuments to him were unveiled in Koshka’s homeland and in Sevastopol itself, and one of the city streets was named after him.

The heroism of the defenders of Sevastopol was massive. Sevastopol women, under enemy fire, bandaged the wounded, brought food and water, and repaired clothes. The chronicle of this defense includes the names of Dasha Sevastopol, Praskovya Grafova and many others. Dasha Sevastopolskaya was the first sister of mercy and became a legend. For a long time her real name was not known, and only in lately It turned out that Dasha was an orphan - the daughter of the sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov who died in the Battle of Sinop. In November 1854, “for exemplary diligence in caring for the sick and wounded,” she received Gold medal with the inscription “For zeal” on the Vladimir ribbon and 500 rubles in silver. It was also announced that when she got married, she would be “given another 1,000 rubles in silver for the establishment.” In July 1855, Daria married sailor Maxim Vasilyevich Khvorostov, with whom they fought side by side until the end of the Crimean War. Her further fate is unknown and is still awaiting research.

Surgeon N.I. provided invaluable assistance to the defenders. Pirogov, who saved the lives of thousands of wounded. The great Russian writer L.N. also took part in the defense of Sevastopol. Tolstoy, who described these events in the series “Sevastopol Stories”.

Despite the heroism and courage of the city’s defenders, the hardships and hunger of the Anglo-French army (the winter of 1854-1855 was very harsh, and the November storm scattered the allied fleet in the Balaklava roadstead, destroying several ships with supplies of weapons, winter uniforms and food) It was impossible to change the general situation - it was impossible to unblock the city or effectively help it.

On March 19, 1855, during the next bombing of the city, Istomin died, and on June 28, 1855, while detouring the advanced fortifications on the Malakhov kugran, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The circumstances of his death are truly tragic. The officers begged him to leave the mound, which was under heavy fire. “Not every bullet is in the forehead,” the admiral answered them, and these were his last words: the next second a stray bullet hit him in the forehead. An outstanding Russian naval commander, Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (1802-1855) actively participated in the defense of Sevastopol, commanding the defense of the strategically important southern side of the city. Shortly before his death, he was awarded the rank of admiral. Nakhimov was buried in the Vladimir Cathedral in Sevastopol. The ships of the Russian fleet bear his name, naval schools in Sevastopol and St. Petersburg. In 1944, in memory of the admiral, an order named after him in two degrees and a medal were established.

Attempts by the Russian ground army to distract the enemy ended in failure in battles, in particular on February 5, 1855 at Yevpatoria. The immediate result of this failure was the dismissal of Menshikov from the post of commander in chief and the appointment of M.D. Gorchakova. Note that this was the last order of the emperor, who died on February 19, 1855. Overcoming a severe flu, the sovereign “remained in service” to the end, visiting marching battalions in the bitter cold that were leaving for the theater of war. “If I were a simple soldier, would you pay attention to this ill health?” he remarked to the protest of his life doctors. “In all of Your Majesty’s army, there is not a doctor who would allow a soldier in such a situation to be discharged from the hospital,” replied Dr. Carrel. “You have fulfilled your duty,” the emperor replied, “let me fulfill my duty.”

On August 27, the last shelling of the city began. In less than a day, the defenders lost from 2.5 to 3 thousand killed. After a two-day massive bombardment, on August 28 (September 8), 1855, the French troops of General MacMahon, with the support of English and Sardinian units, began a decisive assault on the Malakhov Kurgan, which ended with the capture of the heights dominating the city. The fate of the Malakhov Kurgan was decided by the persistence of MacMahon, who, in response to the order of Commander-in-Chief Pelissier to retreat, replied: “I’m staying here.” Of the eighteen French generals who went on the assault, 5 were killed and 11 were wounded.

Realizing the gravity of the current situation, General Gorchakov gave the order to retreat from the city. And on the night of August 27-28, the last defenders of the city, having blown up the powder magazines and sank the ships there in the bay, left the city. The Allies thought that Sevastopol was mined and did not dare to enter it until August 30. During the 11-month siege, the Allies lost about 70,000 people. Russian losses - 83,500 people.

Important memories of the defense of Sevastopol were left by Theophyllus Klemm, whose ancestors in the 18th century. came to Russia from Germany. His story is strikingly different from the memoirs written by representatives of the aristocratic strata of Russia, since a significant part of his memories are devoted to the everyday life of a soldier and the difficulties of camp life.

“A lot has been written and spoken about this Sevastopol life, but my words will not be superfluous, as a living participant in this glorious combat life for the Russian soldier in this bloody feast, not in the position of a white-handed woman, like those writers and talkers who know everything from hearsay, but a real laborer-soldier, who was in the ranks and did, along with the other guys, everything that was humanly possible.

You used to sit in a trench and look into a small embrasure, what was happening in front of your nose, you couldn’t stick your head out, they’d take it away now, without such cover, it was impossible to shoot. Our soldiers had fun, they hung their hats on the ramrod and pulled them out from behind the trench rim, and the French riflemen shot it into the sieve. It used to happen that every now and then there would be a click somewhere, a soldier would fall down, hit in the forehead, his neighbor would turn his head, cross himself, spit, and continue his business - firing somewhere, as if nothing had happened. The corpse will be placed somewhere to the side so that it does not interfere with walking along the trench, and so, dear, it lies until the shift - at night the comrades will drag it into the redoubt, and from the redoubt into the brotherly pit, and when the pit is filled with the required number of bodies, they will fall asleep first, if there is, with lime, but if not, with earth - and the matter is settled.

After such a school you will become a real soldier in blood and bones, and I bow deeply to every such combat soldier. And what a charm he is in wartime, you can find whatever you want in him, when you need it, he is good-natured, warm-hearted, when you need it, he is a lion. With his own feeling for his endurance and good qualities I love the soldier with my soul and heart. Without pretensions, without special demands, patient, indifferent to death, efficient, despite obstacles and danger. I believe that only the Russian soldier is capable of anything, I speak from what I have seen and past.”

Despite the fact that English rifled guns hit almost three times further than Russian smooth-bore guns, the defenders of Sevastopol repeatedly proved that technical equipment is far from the most important thing in comparison with combat courage and bravery. But in general, the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol demonstrated the technical backwardness of the army Russian Empire and the need for change.

IN mid-19th century century, between Russia on the one hand and the Ottoman Empire, as well as a number of European states on the other, some disagreements arose regarding the division of spheres of influence in the Black Sea and the East. This conflict eventually led to an armed confrontation called the Crimean War, the reasons, course of military operations and results of which will be discussed briefly in this article.

Increasing anti-Russian sentiments in Western European countries

IN early XIX century the Ottoman Empire experienced hard times. It lost some of its territories and was on the verge of complete collapse. Taking advantage of this situation, Russia tried to increase its influence on some countries of the Balkan Peninsula that were under Ottoman control. Fearing that this could lead to the emergence of a number of independent states loyal to Russia, as well as the appearance of its ships in the Mediterranean Sea, England and France launched anti-Russian propaganda in their countries. Articles constantly appeared in newspapers that gave examples of the aggressive military policy of Tsarist Russia and its possibility of conquering Constantinople.

Causes of the Crimean War, briefly about the events of the early 50s of the 19th century

The reason for the start of the military confrontation was disagreements regarding the ownership of Christian churches in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church, supported by the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and the Catholics, under the patronage of France, on the other, have been fighting for a long time for ownership of the so-called keys to the temple. As a result, the Ottoman Empire supported France, giving it the right to own holy places. Nicholas I could not come to terms with this and in the spring of 1853 he sent A. S. Menshikov to Istanbul, who was supposed to agree on the provision of temples under the management Orthodox Church. But as a result, he received a refusal from the Sultan, Russia moved to more decisive actions, as a result of which the Crimean War broke out. We will briefly consider its main stages below.

Start of hostilities

This conflict was one of the largest and most significant confrontations between the strongest states of that time. The main events of the Crimean War took place in the Transcaucasus, the Balkans, in the Black Sea basin and partly in the White and Barents Seas. It all started in June 1853, when several Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The Sultan did not like this, and after several months of negotiations, he declared war on Russia.

From this moment, a three-year military confrontation began, called the Crimean War, the course of which we will briefly try to understand. The entire period of this conflict can be divided into two stages:

1. October 1853 - April 1854 - Russian-Turkish confrontation.
2. April 1854 - February 1856 - entry into the war of England, France and the Sardinian kingdom on the side Ottoman Empire.

Initially, everything turned out favorably for the Russian troops, who won victories both at sea and on land. The most significant event was the battle in Sinop Bay, as a result of which the Turks lost a significant part of their fleet.

Second stage of the war

In the early spring of 1854, England and France joined the Ottoman Empire and also declared war on Russia. New opponents Russian troops inferior both in the training of soldiers and in the quality of weapons, as a result of which they had to retreat when coalition ships entered the waters of the Black Sea. The main task for the Anglo-French formations there was the capture of Sevastopol, where the main forces of the Black Sea Fleet were concentrated.

To this end, in September 1854, Allied ground formations landed in the western part of Crimea, and a battle ensued near the Alma River, which ended in defeat for the Russian army. Anglo-French troops captured Sevastopol, and after 11 months of resistance the city was surrendered.

Despite defeats in naval battles and in the Crimea, the Russian army performed well in Transcaucasia, where it was opposed by Ottoman troops. Having successfully repulsed the attacks of the Turks, she launched a rapid offensive and managed to push the enemy back to the Kars fortress.

Treaty of Paris

After three years of fierce fighting, both sides of the conflict did not want to continue the military confrontation and agreed to sit down at the negotiating table. As a result, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were enshrined in the Paris Peace Treaty, which the parties signed on March 18, 1856. According to it, the Russian Empire was deprived of part of Bessarabia. But a much more serious damage was that the waters of the Black Sea were now considered neutral for the duration of the treaty. This meant that Russia and the Ottoman Empire were prohibited from having their own Black Sea fleets, as well as from building fortresses on its shores. This greatly undermined the country's defensive capabilities, as well as its economy.

Consequences of the Crimean War

As a result of the three-year confrontation between European states and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, the latter was among the losers, which undermined its influence on the world stage and led to economic isolation. This forced the country's government to launch a whole series reforms aimed at modernizing the army, as well as improving the lives of the entire population of the country. Thanks to military reform Recruitment was abolished and conscription was introduced instead. New models were adopted into service with the army military equipment. After the uprisings broke out, serfdom was abolished. Changes also affected the education system, finance and courts.

Despite all the efforts made by the Russian Empire, the Crimean War ended in defeat for it; after briefly analyzing the course of its actions, one can judge that the cause of all the failures was poor training of troops and outdated weapons. After its completion, many reforms were introduced aimed at improving the fundamentals of life for the country's citizens. Results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Although they were unsatisfactory for Russia, they still gave the tsar the opportunity to realize past mistakes and prevent similar things in the future.

The Crimean War is an armed conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire, supported by England, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Each country in this war had its own motives and goals, and it expected different results. Unfortunately, Russia’s hopes in this war were not fortunate enough to come true for a number of reasons. These reasons will be given later. Now let's figure out where this confrontation arose and what the warring parties wanted to achieve.
When considering the issue, it is important to consider chronological framework war. It lasted from 1853 to 1856. The causes of the conflict were Russia’s desire, due to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, to take away part of its territories, in particular the Crimea and the Caucasus.
The interests of England and France in this matter are extremely clear - they simply did not want to strengthen Russia’s position, and therefore these countries provided support to Turkey in this confrontation.
The interests of the Sardinian kingdom were very unclear, because the state did not receive any benefits from the war. Most likely, this newly created state simply sought to earn international authority in this way.
Results.
Before moving directly to the consequences, you need to understand how this three-year war turned out for Russia. In this conflict, the Russian Empire was defeated.
What are the reasons for this result? First of all, they lie in the fact that Russia, technically and militarily, at that time was very far behind the Western world, and especially from the advanced countries of Europe, such as England and France, which opposed Tsarist Russia in the Crimean War. In addition, the forces of Western countries were united, and this made the coalition against Russia stronger.
Also, among the main factors that led to the defeat in the Crimean War, researchers cite the lack of a wide network on the territory of Russia railways, which could help provide the army with everything necessary in as soon as possible. And so, it often happened that soldiers on foreign soil were starving, there was not enough food, ammunition, equipment, and medicine. It also greatly complicated the transport of the wounded and medical personnel, as well as the delivery of reinforcements, which very often could resolve the issue in favor of Russia, but due to the fact that reinforcements were delayed, many battles were lost.
The main result was the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty, under its terms Turkey received back part of its territories, and the Russian Empire lost a significant share of influence in the Black Sea. The Black Sea itself was recognized as a neutral zone. The important thing was that in the war Russia lost a large share their material and human resources.
Consequences of the Crimean War.
But, nevertheless, in this rare case, the positive consequences of the defeat outweighed the negative ones. Of course, any war brings ruin and human casualties to the state, but in the case of the Crimean War, the loss gave the country an impetus for further development in various areas.
First of all, the transformation affected the army. Recruitment into the army for 25 years was abolished, and in return general military service was introduced for men over 21 years of age. The length of service in the army was reduced from 25 years to 6, and in the navy - to 7 years of service. Such transformations contributed to the fact that the empire’s army became more mobile and capable, which, of course, could not but affect the country’s defense capability. It has become easier for Russia to repel enemy attacks and fight with a renewed army.
The officer training system also underwent reorganization. New ones were created educational institutions, where senior and junior officers were trained. This reform improved military organization in the army.
The economic sphere, namely heavy industry, could not be affected by the transformation. This area has taken the path of active development. It is important to note that the construction of new railways was an important part of government policy in this area.
Even in political sphere The Crimean War had important consequences. For example, this clearly accelerated the already brewing crisis of autocracy. In order to somehow weaken this process, Emperor Alexander set about reorganizing the local government system - Zemstvos and Zemstvo institutions were created in cities. These were unique pro-bodies of local self-government, although their functions were greatly limited by state power.
Also, in order to defuse the tense situation after the Crimean War, the authorities carried out an educational reform, gave universities the right to autonomy, and began creating schools and gymnasiums.
But no matter how much tsarism tried to stop the crisis of absolutism in the country, the Crimean War gave it a strong impetus, and it was impossible to stop the process. Discontent spread to the peasant strata, who no longer had the strength to endure slave labor, and to the intelligentsia, who did not support the feudal-serf system in the Russian Empire, which had reached its zenith.
Plus, the loss greatly affected Russia’s foreign policy position, and most importantly, international level showed the empire's lag behind the countries of the Western world. Since this period, an era of reforms and changes has begun in the country.

Crimean War (briefly)

Brief description of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The main reason for the Crimean War was the clash of interests in the Balkans and the Middle East of such powers as Austria, France, England and Russia. Presenters European states sought to open up Turkish possessions to increase the sales market. At the same time, Türkiye wanted in every possible way to take revenge after defeats in the wars with Russia.

The trigger for the war was the problem of revising the legal regime for ship navigation Russian fleet the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits, which was recorded in 1840 at the London Convention.

And the reason for the outbreak of hostilities was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy about the correct ownership of the shrines (the Holy Sepulcher and the Church of Bethlehem), which were at that moment on the territory of the Ottoman Empire. In 1851, Türkiye, instigated by France, handed over the keys to the shrines to the Catholics. In 1853, Emperor Nicholas I put forward an ultimatum excluding a peaceful resolution of the issue. At the same time, Russia occupies the Danube principalities, which leads to war. Here are its main points:

· In November 1853, the Black Sea squadron of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the bay of Sinop, and a Russian ground operation was able to push back the enemy troops by crossing the Danube.

· Fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, France and England declared war on Russia in the spring of 1854, attacking the Russian ports of Odessa, the Addan Islands, etc. in August 1854. These blockade attempts were unsuccessful.

· Autumn 1854 - landing of sixty thousand troops in the Crimea to capture Sevastopol. The heroic defense of Sevastopol for 11 months.

· On August twenty-seventh, after a series of unsuccessful battles, they were forced to leave the city.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was formalized and signed between Sardinia, Prussia, Austria, England, France, Turkey and Russia. The latter lost part of its fleet and some bases, and the Black Sea was recognized as neutral territory. In addition, Russia lost power in the Balkans, which significantly undermined its military power.

According to historians, the basis for the defeat during the Crimean War was the strategic miscalculation of Nicholas the First, who pushed feudal-serfdom and economically backward Russia into a military conflict with powerful European states.

This defeat prompted Alexander II to carry out radical political reforms.

The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced further development Russia and became the immediate reason for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed Russia's significant lag behind Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of government.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. Progress of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The cause of the Crimean War was an aggravation in the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. Western powers showed increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, and plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control of the Black Sea straits, which was economically necessary. A stronger Russia would allow it to expand its influence in the region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of maintaining a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle between the Russian and French clergy for the possession of holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the Turkish government the recognition of the right Russian Emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for support and promises from the Western powers, Türkiye rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that war could no longer be avoided.

Progress of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia sent troops into the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response to this in the fall, Türkiye declares war on Russia.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military actions are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, and the Russian squadron blocks Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are causing concern in the West. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After this, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and Far East. The blockades were of a demonstrative nature; landing attempts ended in failure.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal Russian army and she herself occupied the Danube principalities. A real threat has emerged to create a pan-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I is forced to concentrate his main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea becomes the main arena of the war. The Allies are blocking the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then a landing occurs and the Russian army is defeated on the river. Alma. In the fall of 1854, the heroic defense of Sevastopol began.
• The Russian army is still winning victories in Transcaucasia, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol managed to capture the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. Huge number casualties forces the allies to abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually stops.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea Fleet and all bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in Russian hands in exchange for the Turkish fortress of Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses, Russia was dealt a serious moral blow. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the list of great powers for a long time and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, revealing all its shortcomings. There was an understanding in society of the need for significant changes. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of the defeat.