Spheres of society. Political sphere, its categories and institutions

29.09.2019

Society? This is a certain category of stable relationships between the most diverse and comprehensive social associations, groups and subjects. Each such sphere is an extensive, relatively independent, stable subsystem of human activity. Every subsystem (or sphere) includes activity in all its types, social institutions, relationships between communities or individuals.

Political scientists and philosophers identify four main areas of life:

Social, consisting of different groups and their relationships (nations, age groups, classes, etc.).

Economic, including industrial relations.

Spiritual - groups of people and their relationships that make it possible to create cultural objects, spiritual monuments, values, etc.

The political sphere is the unity of political movements, parties, and the state as such.

The original meaning of the word “politics” is the art of management.

Political originated along with the division of labor, the emergence, emergence and development of private (individual) property. It covers the entire spectrum of relationships between any social groups or communities (for example, classes, denominations). The center of this interaction is the attitude towards state power, and the goal is the conquest, preservation and use of this power in one’s own interests. The political sphere is also institutions of power, systems of organizations designed to regulate so that they correspond to the interests of society or the ruling class. This is the state itself, its governing bodies, all kinds of political parties, various movements (political and social), formal and informal organizations.

Some modern philosophers and political scientists believe that, in addition to all of the above, the political sphere includes this kind of relationship and action.

Why did the political sphere of society arise?

Because collective activity production of material goods could not develop spontaneously. At some point, it required coordination of the efforts of all participants in the labor process and the development of management principles. There was also a need to regulate relations between multiple social associations (communities) in order to protect their interests, protect integrity, establish contacts with other groups and create the necessary institutions.

From all of the above it follows that the political sphere is responsible for the integration of all components of society, as well as directly for the existence, movement, and functioning of a single society as an indivisible organism.

What is typical for the political sphere?

First of all, the presence of the state as the first, only organization, acting in different forms, but taking place in different historical periods.

Secondly, the political sphere requires the mandatory presence of parties as cells that reflect the interests and worldviews of certain groups of the population (classes). They are designed to regulate communication with other classes and communities.

Thirdly, any political sphere has political institutions, movements, and organizations. They, just like political parties, reflect the views of a specific part of society, but, unlike politicians, they do not seek to penetrate into power. However, it is precisely such associations (movements) that raise the most pressing issues and also help control government decisions. According to some political scientists, it is social groups and movements that serve not just as an important part of political life, but as the main mechanism for the development of the state.

The political sphere is inextricably linked with the others and largely depends on them, in turn influencing changes in the spiritual, social, and economic areas.

Social science

Lesson 46 (10th grade)

Subject: "Political sphere and political institutions."

Lesson type : lesson of learning new material.

Target: introduce the forms of manifestation of influence: strength, power and authority. The formation of power as a political institution of society. Separation of powers. Power relations and social hierarchy. The struggle for power.

Know, what forms of manifestation of influence exist in society.

Be able to: explain what power is and its types; analyze specific life situations related to the struggle for power

Epigraph: “Politics is not an exact science».

Otto von Bismarck.

Lesson plan:

I. Org. moment.

Checking D/z.

*- What does the concept of “politics” mean?

*- List what political subjects you know? (people, state, individuals, social groups, political organizations, political elites).

*- Name three degrees of individuals’ involvement in political activity. (“by chance”; “part-time”; professional politicians who live “for politics” or “at the expense” of politics).

Individual tasks are checked during the lesson.

D/s: 1) Write down the definition of the concept of “state”, the characteristics of the state and the functions of the state.

***Prepare a report on forms of government

2) Write down the definition of the concept “party”, “political party”.

*** Prepare a report on the types of party systems.

Working on new material.

1. Political sphere.

POLITICAL SPHERE - This is one of the four spheres of social life that you know. It includes various forms of political activity; relationships between people that arise in the process of this activity; organizations and institutions that are created to implement political goals and objectives; the political consciousness of people, which guides their activities in the field of politics.

2. Political institutions.

POLITICAL INSTITUTE - this is a stable species social interaction regulating certain relationships political power in society.

The reproduction of political relations is ensured thanks to:

Standards governing the nature of interaction;

Sanctions that prevent deviations from normative patterns of behavior;

Perception of the existing institutional order as familiar.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS IN MODERN SOCIETY:

Name

Functions

Institute of Parliamentarism

Regulates relations related to the creation of basic legal norms and representation of the interests of various social groups in the state.

Executive institutions

Carry out executive and administrative activities to manage all socially significant aspects of the life of the state.

Institute civil service

Regulates professional activity people belonging to a special status group.

Institute of the head of state

Regulates relations in society that allow the head of state to speak on behalf of all citizens, to be the supreme arbiter in disputes, to guarantee the integrity of the country and respect for the constitutional rights of citizens.

Institute of Judicial Procedure

They regulate the relationships that develop when resolving conflicts in society.

Citizenship Institute

Defines the mutual obligations of the state and citizen.

Institute of Electoral Law

Regulates the procedure for holding elections to legislative bodies at various levels, as well as elections of the head of state.

Institute of Political Parties

It streamlines the relationships that develop during the creation of political organizations and their further interaction.

Political institutions:

- state (the state includes the institution of the president, the institutions of legislative, executive and judicial power, the institution of elections, etc.);

- political parties (usually a party expresses and protects the interests of a certain social community);

The main goals of a political party are:

Formation of public opinion;

Political education and upbringing of citizens;

Expressing citizens' opinions on any issue public life;

Nomination of candidates for elections to legislative bodies of state power and representative bodies of local self-government.

Political relations- these are the relationships and interactions that arise between people in the process of political activity. These are the relationships between social communities and individuals in the sphere of power, politics, and management.

Political relations are associated with the distribution of power, rights and powers in society, with the delimitation of the jurisdiction of the center and localities.

3. State.

STATE - the main political institution of society, managing it and protecting its socio-economic structure.

Main features of the state:

- power (control bodies and suppression bodies); - law (right);

- territory (with population); - sovereignty (external – independence, internal – supremacy of power).

Main functions (tasks) of the state:

External:

Defense;

Diplomacy.

Internal:

Law enforcement;

Organization of the economy.

FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE - these are the main, socially significant areas of its activity, which express the essence of the state and correspond to the main tasks of a certain historical stage in the development of society.

By object of influence differentiate internal And external functions of the state. Internal functions of the state are divided into functions according to areas of activity and functions according to areas of life.

INTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE

BY AREAS OF ACTIVITY:

Name

Content

Redistribution function

The state collects taxes and fees, forms the state budget, directs cash for social needs and economic programs.

Maintaining social peace in society

Only the state is endowed with the legal right to judge people, punish offenders, reconcile opponents, and act as an arbiter.

Rule-making function

The state forms a single normative space, regulates people's behavior, limiting the types of actions that can cause harm to society.

Organizational-normalizing function

The state unites and coordinates the efforts of citizens to solve problems facing society.

Internal functions of the state by spheres of life :

The basis of law and order, respect for the rights and freedoms of citizens;

Legalized implementation of coercion in relation to various social groups and individuals;

Ensuring democracy and state sovereignty;

Development of economic and pricing policy, formation of the state budget and control over its expenditure, establishment of a taxation system, management of state-owned enterprises;

System creation social protection citizens, healthcare systems, education, pensions, etc.;

Protection, restoration and improvement natural conditions;

Propaganda of certain ideas and values using public funds mass media, education of the younger generation in the spirit of official ideology.

EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE - these are the main directions of activity of a given state, which are manifested in its relations with other states and international organizations.

The external functions of the state include :

Protection from external threat– building the armed forces, waging defensive wars, creating counterintelligence, border troops, etc.;

Economic cooperation with other states and international organizations, participation in the work of various international organizations, military-political blocs and alliances.

By the nature of the impact on social relations functions of the state are divided into protective And regulatory .

Security functions - this is the activity of the state aimed at ensuring the protection of all existing rights and freedoms of citizens, protection from external threats and protection of the environment.

Regulatory functions - this is the activity of the state aimed at developing existing social relations in the economic sphere, at developing relations of a given state with other states and international organizations.

The state carries out its functions using legal And organizational forms .

Legal forms include :

law-making form- development and adoption of legal norms, publication of normative legal acts;

enforcement form- taking measures to implement legal norms, issuing individual acts of application of these norms;

law enforcement uniform- control over compliance and execution of legal norms, application of forced pestilence to their violators.

TO organizational forms include :

organizational and regulatory form- current activities to ensure the functioning of public authorities, related to the preparation of draft documents, organization of elections, etc.;

organizational and economic form- operational and technical economic work related to accounting, statistics, supply, etc.;

organizational and ideological form- everyday ideological work related to the explanation of newly issued regulations and the formation of public opinion.

Main bodies of state power:

parliaments. Their main function is to pass laws;

executive authorities. Perform executive and administrative functions;

judiciary. Administer justice;

prosecutor's office. Supervise the implementation of laws: by executive authorities and judicial authorities, officials and citizens.

SIGNS OF THE STATE:

The presence of a special public authority, separated from society and not coinciding with it;

State power is exercised by a special layer of people professionally engaged in management, who are specially organized for this purpose and have the material means for the systematic, professional implementation of their functions;

Collection of mandatory payments.

Signs that distinguish the state from other political subjects:

- Sovereignty – the sovereignty of the state within the country and its independence in the international arena.

Sovereignty is characterized supremacy And independence .

Supremacy means the ability of the state to independently resolve the most important issues in the life of society, to establish and ensure a unified legal order.

Independence characterizes the independence of a given state in relations with other states.

Monopoly on lawmaking is the exclusive right of the state to issue laws and other regulations that are binding on all citizens.

FORM OF THE STATE - these are ways of organizing, structure and methods of exercising state power that express its essence.

The form of the state includes: form of government, form of territorial government And political regime.

FORM OF GOVERNMENT - This is a way of organizing the highest bodies of state power and their interaction with each other, as well as with the population.

FORM OF GOVERNMENT - this is the organization of the highest bodies of the state and the procedure for their formation.

FORM OF TERRITORIAL-STATE STRUCTURE - This is a method of national and administrative-territorial structure of the state, reflecting the nature of the relationship between its component parts, as well as between central and local authorities.

POLITICAL REGIME - These are political and legal means and methods of exercising state power that express its content and character.

By form of government all states are divided intomonarchy And republics .

MONARCHY - a form of government in which power is fully or partially concentrated in the hands of the monarch - the sole head of state.

Limited (constitutional)

Unlimited (absolute)

Theocratic (secular and spiritual power in one person)

Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, UAE

Dualistic or dualistic (monarch and parliament rule)

Vatican, Saudi Arabia, Brunei

Parliamentary (the monarch reigns but does not rule)

Elective

Jordan, Morocco

Malaysia, UAE

Sweden, Denmark, UK, Belgium, Japan, Norway, Spain

TYPES OF MONARCHY AND THEIR SIGNS

Comparison lines

Absolute

Dualistic

Parliamentary

1. Belonging to the legislative branch

To the monarch

Divided between monarch and parliament

Parliament

2. Exercises executive power

Monarch

Formally - the monarch, in fact - the government

3. Appointment of the head of government

Monarch

Formally - a monarch, but taking into account parliamentary elections

4. Government responsibility

Before the monarch

Before Parliament

5. Right to dissolve parliament

(parliament)

Monarch's (unlimited)

From the monarch (on the recommendation of the government)

6. Law veto of the monarch on decisions of parliament

Absolute veto

7. Extraordinary decree legislation of the monarch

Unlimited (the decree of the monarch has the force of law)

Only during the period between parliamentary sessions

Provided but not used

8. Modern countries

Saudi Arabia, Oman

Jordan, Kuwait

UK, Japan, Spain

MONARCHY - a form of government in which power is fully or partially concentrated in the hands of the monarch - the sole head of state.

Signs of a monarchy:

Indefinite lifelong power of the monarch;

Legal independence and irresponsibility of the monarch;

Hereditary order of transfer of power. Forms of monarchy:

Early feudal;

Absolute;

Dualistic;

Parliamentary.

EARLY FEUDAL MONARCHY - This is a form of monarchy common during the Middle Ages, which is characterized by the fragmentation of the territory, the weakness of the central authority and the power of the monarch, and the fragility of state formations.

ABSOLUTE MONARCHY - This is a form of monarchy in which the power of the monarch is legally and actually unlimited by anyone or anything.

Dualistic Monarchy - this is a form of monarchy, which is a transitional form from an absolute monarchy to a parliamentary one, state power is dual in nature, the power of the monarch is limited by the constitution, but the monarch formally and actually has extensive powers of power. Dualism lies in the fact that the monarch primarily expresses the interests of the feudal lords, and the parliament represents the interests of the bourgeoisie and other segments of the population.

The main types of absolute monarchy are : despotism, theocracy, class monarchy, absolutism, enlightened absolutism.

THEOCRACY - a form of monarchy in which the highest political and spiritual power in the state is concentrated in the hands of the clergy, and the head of the Church is at the same time the secular head of state (Vatican).

PARLIAMENTARY MONARCHY - a form of monarchy in which the monarch's power is limited in the legislative sphere by parliament and in the executive sphere by the government. Most modern monarchies are parliamentary.

REPUBLIC - a form of government in which power is exercised by elected bodies elected by the population for a specified period.

Presidential

Mixed

USA, Poland, Brazil, Finland, Portugal, Argentina

France, Greece, Russia, Austria

Parliamentary

Germany, Italy, India, Hungary

TYPES OF REPUBLICS AND THEIR SIGNS

Comparison lines

Presidential

Semi-presidential (mixed)

Parliamentary

1. Procedure for electing the president

Elected at a meeting of parliament

2. Procedure for forming a government

The President forms the government under some parliamentary control

The government is formed by the president from the leaders of the party that wins the parliamentary elections and must receive a vote of confidence from parliament

The government is formed by parliament from the leaders of the party that wins the elections

3. Government responsibility

Before the President. Parliament cannot express a vote of no confidence in the government

Double responsibility to parliament. The President is not responsible for the actions of the government. A parliamentary vote of no confidence in the government is impossible

In front of parliament. Parliament can introduce a vote of no confidence in the government as a whole or in one of its members, which entails the resignation of the government

4. The president has the right to dissolve parliament

Absent

The President has the right to dissolve parliament

5. Having the post of Prime Minister

Absent

There is a post of prime minister

6. Scope of powers of the president

Powers of the President: he is not only the head of state, but also the head of the executive branch

The President is the head of state. Powers to exercise executive power are divided between the president and the government

Presidential powers are nominal, he performs any actions on the recommendation of the government, which is responsible for them

7. Modern states

USA, Latin American countries

France, Russia, Austria

Italy, India, Germany, Switzerland

REPUBLIC - a form of government in which power is exercised by elected bodies elected by the population for a certain period of time.

Signs of a republic:

The people are recognized as the source of power;

Collegial (collective) principle of decision-making;

All higher authorities government authorities are elected by citizens or formed by parliament (the principle of election);

State authorities are elected for a certain period, after which they resign their powers (the principle of removability);

Supreme power is based on the principle of separation of powers, a clear delineation of their powers;

Officials and government bodies are responsible for their actions (principle of responsibility).

Basic forms of a modern republic:

Presidential;

Parliamentary;

Mixed.

PRESIDENTIAL REPUBLIC - a form of republic in which the state is headed by a president who is elected by popular vote and has the powers of head of state, head of government and chief executive (for example, the United States).

Signs of a presidential republic:

The president forms the government with some control from parliament;

The government is responsible only to the president;

Parliament has no right to express no confidence in the government;

The President does not have the right to dissolve parliament.

PARLIAMENTARY REPUBLIC - a form of republic in which the government is headed by an elected official; the government is formed by parliament and reports for its activities to it, and not to the head of state (for example, Italy, Germany, India).

Signs of a parliamentary republic:

The head of state is elected at a meeting of parliament;

The head of state can dissolve parliament on the recommendation of the government;

The government is formed from the leaders of the party that wins the elections;

The prime minister of the government heads the executive branch of the country;

The government is responsible to parliament;

Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in both the entire government and its individual members;

The head of state takes any political action only on the recommendation of the government.

MIXED REPUBLIC - a form of republic that combines the features of parliamentary and presidential republics (for example, France, Russia).

Signs of a mixed republic:

The government is formed by the president based on the results of parliamentary elections;

The government must receive a vote of confidence from the highest representative body;

The government is headed by the prime minister;

The government is responsible to parliament and to the president;

The president's powers to exercise executive power are limited by the government.

Differences between parliamentary and presidential republics

Presidential

Parliamentary

Mixed

The president (head of state) is elected and controlled by the people

The president (head of state) is elected by the population

Head of government - president

The head of government is the prime minister (key role in governance)

Head of government - prime minister

The government is formed by parliament

The government is appointed by the president

The government is responsible to the president

The government is responsible to parliament

4. Political parties and associations.

PARTY – the most active and organized part of a class or layer, expressing and protecting its interests.

POLITICAL PARTY - an organization of a group of people seeking political power or participation in the exercise of government power.

PARTY STRUCTURE:

Leader

Party apparatus

Ordinary members (party masses)

Party supporters

POLITICAL PARTY - it is a stable organization that strives to participate in the exercise of government power and unites people with common ideological and political views.

Functions of political parties:

Participation in election campaigns;

Development of ideological concepts and introduction of political values into mass consciousness;

Protecting the interests of various social groups;

Participation in the formation of the political elite and political leaders;

Organization of people to solve certain problems. Political parties are classified according to the following criteria:

According to the internal structure;

In relation to the ruling regime;

By the nature of the ideological doctrine;

By place in the political system;

By the nature of political actions.

Depending on the nature of the ideological doctrine expressed in program documents and statements, The following political parties are distinguished::

Liberal;

Conservative;

Social Democratic;

Communist;

Christian Democratic;

Nationally oriented.

Depending on the internal structure differentiate :

- career political parties . There is no system of mass membership in the party, party activities are limited to election campaigns, and all work is carried out by professional activists. Such parties exist mainly through donations and voluntary contributions;

- mass (ideological) political parties . A system of mass party membership is used, all party members work on a permanent basis;

- centralized political parties . The system of mass party membership is combined with strict discipline, requiring each party member to perform certain functions.

PARTY SYSTEMS is a set of relations between political parties operating in the country.

One-party

Bipartisan (binary)

Two and a half ("two plus")

Multi-party (multi-party)

Power is exercised by one party

One of the two big parties is in power

Next to the two traditional parties, a third is in power

Several influential parties are vying for power and collecting significant numbers of votes

USSR, Cuba, India, Japan, China, North Korea

USA (Democrats and Republicans), UK (Labour and Conservatives)

Germany: CDU/CSU + FDP,

SPD + FDP

France, Italy, Spain, Israel, Sweden

Political party(from Lat. ragz - part) - one of the most important institutions of the political system of society. There are several approaches to defining the concept of a party.

IN XIX - early XX centuries a party, as a rule, was understood as an association, a group of supporters of an ideology who achieve the realization of their goals through politics.

Marxism understands a party as the most active part of a class or social stratum, expressing its political interests.

In political science of the 20th century. a party is defined as an institution of the political system of society.

Political party - This is a specialized, organizationally ordered group that unites active adherents of certain goals, ideas, leaders, and serves to fight for political power.

Signs of a party: the presence of a program in which the goals and strategies of the party are formulated; the presence of a charter containing the most important norms of internal party life; presence of governing bodies and party functionaries;

the presence of an organizational structure in the center and an extensive network of primary local organizations; participation in the struggle for political power; fixed membership (although this is not a mandatory feature).

The history of political parties in the modern sense of the word begins in the 18th - 19th centuries, when, in the conditions of the formation of bourgeois democracy, the need arose to attract broad sections of society to participate in government.

Initially, political parties were created by combining parliamentary factions with committees to support local candidates. Now parties also arise as a result of the transformation of non-party structures (trade unions, religious, industrial societies, clubs). Quite often they are created by popular and influential politicians for their own candidacies. Mass parties formed “from below” as a result of the formation of spontaneous social movements. Among the functions of political parties are:

1) political - mastery of state power in order to implement one’s program;

2) the function of social representation - the expression in political life of the interests of some social stratum or the desire to create a strong support for oneself in society;

3) the function of social integration - reconciling the interests of various social groups, achieving consensus in society;

4) the function of political recruitment - training and promotion of personnel for various political institutions;

5) ideological - development of party ideology and program;

6) electoral - organization and participation in election campaigns;

7) recruitment of new members to the party and their political education.

Party- one of the most important institutions of civil society, providing its connection with the state.

There are several classifications of political parties according to different criteria:

1) depending on the method of communication with voters and the organization of internal life, parties are divided into cadre and mass. Personnel parties are small, amorphous organizations consisting of authoritative political figures, in which there is no institution of fixed membership, membership fees, or a proven admission mechanism. The organizational structure of such parties is extremely simple, their center is in parliamentary factions. Mass parties have a complex organizational structure, are numerous, and their main source of financing is membership fees. Such parties are governed by central bodies that do not coincide with parliamentary factions;

2) depending on the degree of participation in the exercise of political power, parties are divided into ruling and opposition. The latter can be both legal (their activities are permitted by the state, they are officially registered) and illegal (prohibited by the state, operating underground);

3) according to the sustainability of their existence, political parties are divided into stable and unstable;

4) by the nature of membership, political parties can be open (with free membership of representatives of various social strata) and closed (with a large number of formal requirements for candidates for party membership and a complex admission mechanism);

5) according to the nature of their goals and in relation to the existing socio-political system, parties are divided into revolutionary (they advocate a radical and violent transformation of the existing social order), reformist (advocate gradual changes in existing orders), conservative (advocate preserving the foundations of the previous system or such transformations that adapt it to changing realities without any major shocks) and reactionary (advocate the restoration of old, outdated social structures);

6) according to their place in the political spectrum of society, parties can be divided into left (advocate for the interests of workers, socialization of production, creation of the foundations of a socialist society), right (defend the inviolability of private property, the foundations of the bourgeois order, strong state power) and centrist (try to reconcile extreme interests in politics).

The totality of all parties existing and operating in the country is called the party system.

One of the signs of a democratic regime is multipartyism, which means the existence and legal activity of two or more parties in the state. At the same time, only two parties can actually take part in the exercise of power (the Republican and Democratic parties in the USA and the Conservative and Labor parties in the UK). Such systems are called two-party, which, however, does not exclude the free functioning and participation in political life of other parties (for example, communist ones).

The Constitution of the Russian Federation recognizes political diversity and multi-party system (Article 13). All public associations have equal rights. Currently, there are dozens of political parties operating in our country, but it is not yet possible to talk about the stability of the party system. Many parties lack a real social base, do not have an extensive network of primary organizations, and have extremely small numbers. On the other hand, the interests of not all social groups are represented by the relevant parties.

In 2001, after many years of discussions, it was adopted Federal law"About political parties." In this legal act, a political party is considered as a public association created for the purpose of participation of citizens of the Russian Federation in the political life of society through the formation and expression of their political will, participation in public and political actions, in elections and referendums, as well as for the purpose of representing the interests of citizens in state authorities and local governments. The minimum number of members of a political party is 50 thousand people (the party must have regional branches in more than half of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation). The creation and activities of political parties whose goals or actions are aimed at violently changing the foundations of the constitutional order and violating the integrity of the Russian Federation, undermining the security of the state, creating armed and paramilitary formations, inciting social, racial, national or religious hatred is prohibited. The creation of political parties based on professional, racial, national or religious affiliation is not allowed. Structural divisions of political parties are formed and operate only on a territorial basis (their formation and activity in government bodies, the Armed Forces, in state and non-state organizations, in educational institutions is not allowed).

Political parties are created freely, without permission from government bodies, but in full can carry out their activities (including how legal entities) only from the moment of state registration.

Citizens of the Russian Federation who have reached the age of 18 can be members of a political party. Foreign citizens and stateless persons have no right to be members of a political party.

The most important factor development of the party system of the Russian Federation is the election of half of the deputies of the State Duma and at least half of the members of the legislative bodies of power of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation according to the proportional system (based on party lists). At the end of 2004, the President of the Russian Federation introduced a bill to the State Duma providing for the elimination of single-mandate constituencies and the election of all State Duma deputies using a proportional system. This should help intensify party building, strengthen the party system, increase the role of parties in the life of the state and society, and increase the effectiveness of parties’ work with the population.

5. Work on the documentI. A. Ilyin “Essentials of legal consciousness.”

**- Read the document pp. 227 – 228 and answer the questions about it.

IV. Consolidation of the studied material.

*- What can you say about the political sphere?

*- What are the main political institutions?

*- Task 3 p. 229.

*- What is political power?

*- How does political power differ from other types of power?

Summing up the lesson.

D/z§20, task 4 (written)

Section "Political sphere"

With the social division of labor, the formation of private property, and the formation of classes, a special sphere of public life appears - the sphere of politics. Word "policy" of Greek origin and means the art of government. This sphere covers the relationships between classes, nations, other social groups and communities, the central point of which is the problem of conquering, retaining and using state power, that is, the attitude towards state power. Since these relations are built through certain institutions and organizations, a system of institutions (institutions) regulating relations between social communities in order to preserve social structure in the interests of the ruling class and society as a whole, constitutes the political sphere (political system). It includes the state and its bodies, political parties, public organizations and movements, political organizations.

In modern literature, there is a broader understanding of this area, which includes political consciousness, political relations, political institutions and organizations and political action.

The emergence of the political sphere, its development and functioning are determined by certain reasons. The deepest roots of the emergence of various organizations are associated with material and production activities people. It was collective material and object activity, social labor that required the coordination of joint efforts and the development of the principles of management.

Another objective factor in the emergence of political organizations in society is the need regulation of relations between social communities and within them, since these communities need certain social institutions to realize their interests, protect their own integrity, and establish relationships with other communities.

Consequently, the political sphere is one of the subsystems of society, ensuring the integration of all elements of society, its existence as an integral organism.

Historically, the first and most important political institution, the core of the political system, is the state. As a political organization, it is not only the first in time of its emergence, but also the only one that is characteristic of all stages of history, appearing in different forms and changing its content, functions, etc.

In the history of philosophical thought, there have been various theories, explaining the origin of the state. The very first were theocratic theories, according to which the state arises by virtue of divine institution. These theories received special development in the era of feudalism. But already in antiquity, concepts of the state appeared, trying to find its natural basis. Thus, the Greek philosopher Plato, identifying “society” and “state”, considered the emergence of the latter as an expression of the natural needs inherent in people. By the appearance of these needs, he explained the emergence of classes: workers, warrior-guards and rulers-philosophers, whose highest virtue is wisdom. His follower Aristotle, to a greater extent distinguishing between the concepts of state and society, considered the state as higher form communication between people, the true goal of which is universal order.

Particularly popular was the theory of “social contract”, proposed by the English philosopher T. Hobbes and developed by the French educator J.-J. Rousseau. According to T. Hobbes, the initial natural state of society - “a war of all against all” - is replaced sooner or later by virtue of a social contract with civil society. Fear for their lives in conditions where “man is a wolf to man” forces people to create state power and submit to it. J.-J. Rousseau put forward the idea that the emergence of the state was caused by the emergence of private ownership of the means of production, as well as property and social inequality. The state was an invention of the rich to keep the poor under control, while, according to Rousseau, it should serve order. If a state abuses power, using it to the detriment of the people, it must be replaced by another state that regularly fulfills its duties. Hegel held views close to these, seeing the beginning of the state in violence.

According to modern ideas, the state is a historical phenomenon. The prerequisites for its occurrence can be found already in primitive society in the form of power from the top of the tribal nobility, which performed administrative functions. This power was based on traditions, the moral authority of elders representing general interests. But the division of society into classes and the associated complication of social life required the creation of a special body regulating various functions society.

On the one hand, the ruling classes needed special strength to keep the exploited classes in obedience; Such a force was the state, which arose as an organization of political power of the economically dominant class. On the other hand, the state is a body that manages the affairs of the entire society; it arises from the objective need to regulate social relations in the interests of all social groups.

Hence, emergence of the state due to two main reasons:

1) intra-societal contradictions associated with the division of society into opposing classes;

2) social needs in carrying out common affairs, maintaining order, and management.

Therefore, the modern political system must become a guarantee rule of law . His distinctive signs: the supremacy of law in all spheres of public life, the reality and inviolability of individual rights, freedoms and interests, the organization and functioning of sovereign state power based on the principle of separation of powers - legislative, executive, judicial. Legal regulation of people's activities in such a state should be carried out according to the principle: everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted, with the implementation of effective forms of popular control over the implementation of laws and other legal acts. All this requires increasing the level of political culture of citizens, which is an indicator of the political state of society, the degree of its development and democracy.

The political sphere is a set of state and political organizations, institutions and institutions that regulate political relations in society.

The main subsystems of the political sphere are:

state, political parties, public organizations (trade unions, etc.), political relations, including international ones, political consciousness (political programs, political decisions of parties), etc.

Politics as the art of managing people did not have a social group or class orientation; there was a need to organize joint actions, to regulate relations between people and tribes. It was satisfied with the nomination of leaders, elders (or council of elders) who had the appropriate powers. However, over time, such power took the form of a state: a managerial link emerged (public power and its apparatus), a need arose for an army, police, prisons, and various kinds of compulsory institutions; there was a division of power into legislative, executive and judicial. The structure of the state also included, especially in the Middle Ages, church organizations; The interests of the church often merged with the interests of the feudal class and the state, which pursued the policies of this small social group.

The characteristic features of a state, in addition to the noted structures (authority, army, police or militia, judicial system, etc.), also include the presence of a territory over which the jurisdiction of a given state extends, the presence of a certain population, the presence of a law establishing a system of norms sanctioned by the state, the presence of a tax collection service necessary for the maintenance of the government body, its divisions, the army, judicial institutions, etc.

The structural division of power into three subsystems is based on a corresponding division of functions: legislative bodies carry out the function of legislation, development and adoption of laws (parliament, local legislative bodies); executive power in the center and locally has the goal of implementing adopted laws (government institutions and executive bodies in the regions); The judiciary carries out the function of legal proceedings.

In addition to the three functions noted, which (like others) have the task of ensuring the normal functioning state system, the state also has a number of others (regulation of economic and social relations, representation of the country’s interests in the system of international relations). If a number of functions of the state quite succinctly express the interests of the dominant social stratum (or social group), then when performing other functions, especially when organizing the fight against the consequences of natural disasters, when launching the fight against crime, when organizing the armed defense of the country, etc., it can and must demonstrate its supra-class, universal character in accordance with the original understanding of this central body of the political sphere.

There are a number of forms of state, and the basis for their differentiation is the form of government (legal status and the relationship of the highest bodies of state power), another is the form of government. In the same state, one form of government is combined with one form of government.

In the history of society, two main forms of organization of supreme state power have emerged - monarchy and republic.

Monarchical form rule is characterized by the hereditary principle of replacing the head of state. Depending on the scope of the monarch's powers, there are such varieties of this form of government as absolute and constitutional monarchy. Moreover, if the hallmark of absolutism is the practically illegitimate power of the head of state (often leading to the complete arbitrariness of the monarch), then a constitutional monarchy is characterized by a limitation of his powers. Currently, about forty countries in the world are monarchies, with most of them being parliamentary monarchies (Great Britain, Japan, Sweden, Norway, etc.).

Republic represents a form of government in which the highest bodies of state power are either elected or formed by a national representative institution. There are three main types of republican form of government - strong presidential power, election of the head of state independently of parliament by universal suffrage, combination in the hands of the president of the powers of the head of state and head of government, appointment of the government by the president, responsibility of the government to the president (for example, the USA); parliamentary republic - election of the president by parliamentary means, a decisive role in the management of the head of government, prime minister, formation of the government by parliamentary means, responsibility of the government to parliament (Italy, Germany, Switzerland, etc.), semi-parliamentary republic - election of a president or head of state independently of parliament by universal suffrage, strong presidential power, government responsibility to parliament (France, Portugal, Finland, etc.).

Form of government- is the territorial and political organization of the state. The following forms of government are possible: unitary, federal and confederal. Unitary the state is a single state. It most often turns out to be divided into administrative-territorial units depending on geographical, economic and other factors; These parts of the state do not have political independence. Federal is a state that has parts (regions) with its own constitution, mainly focused on the national constitution; relations between parts of the federation and the center are regulated on the basis of agreements concluded between official representatives of their

legislative, executive and judicial bodies (India, Russia, etc.). Confederation there is a union of states acting to achieve specific joint goals; this union has contractual relations with all parts (or between all states) included in the confederation; each of such states remains independent.

States are also characterized political regimes , which can be different not only for different states, but also for the same state in different periods his existence. In the history of mankind, mainly two types have emerged political regime: democratic and dictatorial (totalitarian and authoritarian).

The word "democracy" means "rule of the people." It took place before the formation of the first states and exists in the activities of many different associations of people. With the emergence of the first class societies, with the formation of city-states of this kind, direct or direct democracy existed in those places where, according to researchers, it was possible to gather together a population of no more than 5-6 thousand: it was with such (or less) number that it was possible it is enough to accurately take into account the majority and minority, double-check (if necessary) the results of the vote count and make a conflict-free decision as a general one. Such democracy also exists today, also as industrial democracy. The activities of public organizations are often subject to the principle of direct democratic management. Democracy of the state-political system has been associated for many centuries not with the direct participation of the population, but with its participation in the affairs of the state indirectly, for example, through electors (this is the so-called representative democracy). State, having democratic character, characterized by the following signs: recognition of the will of the majority as a source of power, establishment and observance of the rights and freedoms of citizens, their equality, the ability to manage the processes of public life, election of the main government bodies, the rule of law. To these features recognized by many social scientists, others are often added: the functioning of a multi-party system, a high standard of living of the population, etc. It should also be borne in mind that the manifestation of the will of a democratic majority is not yet a guarantee of a fair state. From democracy to ochlocracy (mob rule) is one step. The essence of democracy is not so much in the expression of the will of the majority (it can be formal), but in the right of the people to establish reasonable legislation through their elected representatives, to which the people themselves must obey, while the minority must at the same time have the right to vote and the right to be heard by the majority.

Characteristic signs totalitarian political regime are: control and management of all spheres of state and public life and brutal suppression of all attempts to express an independent opinion on the part of both individuals and social groups; intensive functioning of an ideology that claims universality and infallibility, a radical transformation of society and man, the whole world, the forced implementation of various utopias (nationalist, social, religious); constant and continuous politicization of all members of society with the aim of unifying them in the name of achieving set goals; mobilization of all members of society to achieve unconditional loyalty and active participation in a given political process; constant struggle with internal and external enemies; the widespread use of terror and the secret police as the most important tool for introducing ideology into the daily life of every person; the liquidation of independent political and public organizations, the formation, as a rule, of one state political party, which leads mass organizations (trade unions, youth, etc.); prohibition of fundamental rights, especially the rights of assembly, demonstration, freedom of the press, free development of science, art and literature; system of centralized bureaucracy, the creation of a totalitarian elite, before which even members of the state party are helpless; dualism and inconsistency in the activities of party and state bodies, the lack of a clear division of competencies, leading in practice to arbitrariness. Totalitarian rule, as a rule, has a pronounced charismatic character; people obey one political figure not only with faith in his infallibility and prophetic revelations, but also with love.

A totalitarian state is a comprehensive state in which the initiative of citizens is unnecessary and harmful, and the freedom of citizens is dangerous. A single center of power is called upon to know everything, to foresee everything, to plan everything, to prescribe everything, legal consciousness comes from the premise: everything not prescribed is prohibited, there is only state interest, build your own inner life by decree. In other words: here management is comprehensive; man is completely enslaved; freedom becomes criminal and punishable. However, such comprehensive control is feasible only under the most consistent dictatorship, based on the unity of power, on a single exclusive party, on the monopoly of employers, on all-pervasive investigation, on mutual denunciation and on merciless terror.

The political sphere plays a very important role in the life of society. If we consider it in comparison with the material, production and social spheres, then it reveals new, important facets of society. Concentrating the economy of society, the interests of various communities, the political sphere appears as the sphere of social management. Whatever stage society finds itself at, its life and development are not carried out without a certain consciously controlling principle. Society always and everywhere has certain forms of management. These forms themselves have different degrees of development in different periods of social history. At a certain stage, these forms of management form a system of public management institutions, which includes a variety of bodies. The totality of these institutions of public administration is reflected in the category of the political sphere of society.

Political sphere of society is an integral system of institutions of public administration and self-government, subject to its own specific laws. Social philosophy studies the laws of folding forms, types, types, etc. political management, their connection with each other, the formation of an integral system of political management, the laws of its development, functioning, the place of political management in society and some other issues.

Since the most important activity in society is material and production activity, it was this activity that first required the development of certain principles of management and coordination of joint efforts. In addition, in society at a certain stage, various communities take shape, and diverse relationships are formed between them. Moreover, these communities have their own needs, interests that they strive to implement, and often these interests are opposite and even antagonistic. Society is faced with the task of managing not only labor processes, but also relationships between groups of people. A need arose for organizations that would coordinate and direct the entire complex system of social relations. And these organizations (institutions), which were specific forms of managing people, appeared and served as the basis for the formation of the political sphere of society.

So, the production, labor activity of society - and, accordingly, the need to manage the social processes of production, and the social life of society - and, accordingly, the need to manage people, their relationships - these are two factors that explain the origin and essence of political institutions in society.

Political institutions are the main elements of the political sphere of society. The most important political institutions include: the state, political parties, public associations, unions, as well as pressure groups (lobby groups), the media, the church and other public institutions that express the interests of various groups of people and have an increasing influence on the development and functioning of modern society. Political institutions and their relationships form the political system of society.

State. The most ancient and developed political institution is the state. State is the main institution of the political system of society, which manages society; it has power functions and powers that extend to the entire society. The main levers of influence on society (economic, political, military and others) are concentrated in the hands of the state; it has full power in a certain territory.

It is possible to identify the main features of the state, which reveal in more detail its essence and central place in the political system of society.

1. Public power, i.e. special apparatus of political administration. This is an association of people professionally engaged in political and administrative activities. This is a system of bodies and institutions (legislative, executive, judicial) performing the functions of state power.

2. The territory delineating the borders of the state and the territorial division of society, providing ease of administration.

3. Sovereignty, i.e. supreme power in a certain territory. In any society there are many authorities: family, industrial, party, etc. But the highest power, the decisions of which are binding on everyone, belongs to the state.

4. Legal system. The state has the exclusive right to issue laws and other regulations that are binding on all citizens and other entities on its territory, which no other political institution in society can afford.

5. Monopoly on the legal use of force and physical coercion. To perform the function of coercion, the state has special means (weapons, prisons, etc.), as well as bodies - the army, police, security services, courts, prosecutors.

6. The right to collect taxes and fees from the population. Taxes are necessary to support employees and to provide material support for state policy: defense, economic, social, etc.

7. Mandatory membership in the state. Unlike, for example, a political organization such as a party, membership in which is voluntary and not obligatory for the population, a person receives state citizenship from the moment of birth.

In the history of society, two main forms of government in the state have emerged: monarchy and republic. Form of government- this is a way of organizing the highest state power, the legal status and relationship of the highest bodies of state power.

Monarchy- a form of government characterized by the hereditary principle of transfer of power. Monarchy can be absolute (power is completely concentrated in the hands of the monarch) and constitutional (limited, or even just nominal power of the monarch).

Republic- a form of government in which the highest bodies of government are either elected or formed by a national representative institution. There are three main types of republican form of government:

- presidential Republic, in which the supreme power belongs to the president, he is the head of state and executive power; independently forms a government that is responsible to him;

- parliamentary republic in which real power belongs to parliament, the government is formed from representatives of the party (parties) that received the majority of seats in parliament, the decisive role in governance belongs to the head of government (prime minister);

- semi-parliamentary republic in which the president (head of state) is elected independently of parliament by universal suffrage, the government is responsible to parliament.

In addition to forms of government, there are different forms of government. Form of government– this is the intra-territorial organization (structure) of the state. Currently, there are three main forms of government: unitary state, federation and confederation.

Unitary state- a single state entity, divided into administrative-territorial units that have the same legal status and do not have political independence.

Federation– a union state, which includes constituent units (republics, lands, states, cantons, etc.) endowed with certain rights comparable to the rights of the center; a subject of a federation, as a rule, is deprived of political sovereignty, that is, the right to independently secede from the federation.

Confederation– a state legal association (union) of legally independent states.

States are also characterized by political regimes. Political regime is a system of methods and means of exercising political power used by the state, which determines the degree of freedom and legal status of an individual in a given society. There are three types of regimes: totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic.

Totalitarian regime(totalitarianism) is characterized by complete (total) state control over all spheres of social life, their strict regulation (usually based on some ideology) and predominantly repressive methods of management and coercion.

Authoritarian regime(authoritarianism) can be defined as the unlimited power of one person or group of persons, not allowing political opposition, but preserving the autonomy of the individual and society in non-political spheres. The regime may not resort to mass repression, but it has enough power to use force at its discretion if necessary and force citizens to obey. According to their own characteristic features it occupies a kind of intermediate position between totalitarianism and democracy.

Democratic regime(democracy) is characterized by liberal methods of governance (reliance on persuasion rather than coercion), respect for human rights and freedoms, and political pluralism. The most important features of a democratic regime include the election of government bodies and their regular turnover, the desire to create a civil society and a rule-of-law state.

Civil society- the sphere of realization of the individual’s everyday interests; a set of interpersonal relationships that develop without government intervention and outside its framework. Civil society is formed primarily from below, spontaneously, as a result of the emancipation of individuals, their transformation from subjects of the state into free citizen-owners with a sense of personal dignity and ready to take on economic and political responsibility.

Rule of law- a state limited in its actions by law (constitution) and designed to ensure the implementation of individual rights and freedoms. The English philosopher of modern times, J. Locke, is considered the founder of the theory of the rule of law. Signs of the rule of law: 1) the rule of law in all spheres of society; 2) equality of all before the law, 3) guarantees of individual rights and freedoms, protection of a person from any arbitrariness of power, 3) mutual responsibility of the state and the individual; 4) the principle of division of power into legislative, executive, judicial, 5) the presence of civil society, developed legal consciousness of citizens and officials, their respect for the law. The process of forming a rule of law state is long and painful, it is necessary to early childhood to form among citizens respect for the law, an understanding of the need to comply with the law as a guarantor and the basis for the well-being of members of society.

We examined the state as the most important political institution of society. The political sphere of society is based on the state, as well as other political institutions that are part of the political system of society. But the political sphere of society is a multi-quality phenomenon and can be structured in different ways. Thus, in the political sphere they often distinguish: subjects of politics, political relations, political activity, political consciousness, political culture. And this is correct, it allows us to understand that the political sphere as a whole is not just a collection political structures, but the form of existence of a social subject, his conscious activity, his relationships. Research of political institutions (parties, social movements, unions, etc.), other elements of the political sphere, as well as politics in general as a complex social phenomenon is the main task of the science of political science.

Social philosophy, without replacing political science, considers political reality from a certain angle - as a special sphere of society, which has its own specifics in comparison with other spheres. The political sphere is the sphere of management of society, this is its qualitative certainty, unlike the material, production and social spheres. If in the material and production sphere a person’s labor activity is revealed, his appearance as a creator, a worker is revealed, and in the social sphere the life activity of society is revealed from the side of communities and a person is considered in the aspect of his inclusion in various communities as a social, collectivist being, then in the political sphere society appears as a system of organizations (institutions) that carry out public administration, and the person is revealed from the side of his managerial functions.

With the social division of labor, the formation of private property, and the formation of classes, a special sphere of public life appears - the sphere of politics.

Word " policy" is of Greek origin and means the art of government. This sphere covers the relationships between classes, nations, other social groups and communities, the central point of which is the problem of conquest, retention and use of state power, i.e. attitude towards state power. Since these relations are built through certain institutions and organizations, the system of institutions (institutions) that regulate relations between social communities in order to preserve the social structure in the interests of the ruling class and society as a whole constitutes the political sphere (political system). This includes the state and its bodies, political parties, public organizations and movements, and political organizations.

In modern literature, there is a broader understanding of this area, which includes political consciousness, political relations, political institutions and organizations and political action.

The emergence of the political sphere, its development and functioning are determined by certain reasons. The deepest roots of the emergence of various organizations are associated with the material and production activities of people. It was collective material and object activity, social labor that required the coordination of joint efforts and the development of the principles of management.

Another objective factor in the emergence of political organizations in society is the need to regulate relations between social communities and within them, since these communities need certain social institutions to realize their interests, protect their own integrity, and establish relationships with other communities.

Hence, political sphere- one of the subsystems of society, ensuring the integration of all elements of society, its existence as an integral organism.

Let us dwell on the characteristics of some elements of this sphere.

In the history of philosophical thought, there have been various theories explaining the origin of the state. The very first were theocratic theories, according to which the state arises by virtue of divine institution. These theories received special development in the era of feudalism.

But already in antiquity, concepts of the state appeared, trying to find its natural basis. Thus, the Greek philosopher Plato, identifying “society” and “state”, considered the emergence of the latter as an expression of the natural needs inherent in people. By the emergence of these needs, he explained the emergence of classes: workers, warrior-guards and rulers-philosophers, whose highest virtue is wisdom.

His follower Aristotle, distinguishing to a greater extent between the concepts of state and society, considered the state as the highest form of communication between people, the true goal of which is universal order.

Particularly popular was the theory of “social contract”, proposed by the English philosopher T. Hobbes and developed by the French educator J.J. Rousseau. According to T. Hobbes, the initial natural state of society - “a war of all against all” - is replaced sooner or later by virtue of a social contract with civil society. Fear for their lives in conditions where “man is a wolf to man” forces people to create state power and submit to it.

J.J. Rousseau put forward the idea that the emergence of the state was caused by the emergence of private ownership of the means of production, as well as property and social inequality. The state was an invention of the rich to keep the poor under control, while, according to Rousseau, it should serve order. If a state abuses power, using it to the detriment of the people, it must be replaced by another state that regularly fulfills its duties. Hegel held similar views to these views, seeing the beginning of the state in violence.

According to modern ideas, the state is a historical phenomenon. The prerequisites for its emergence can be found already in primitive society in the form of the power of the top of the tribal nobility, which performed administrative functions. This power was based on traditions, the moral authority of elders representing general interests. But the division of society into classes and the associated complication of social life necessarily required the creation of a special body regulating the various functions of society.

1) intra-societal contradictions associated with the division of society into opposing classes;

2) social needs in carrying out common affairs, maintaining order, and management.

In other words, the state has a dual nature, which is manifested in the two approaches discussed earlier (formational and civilizational), and it would be wrong to reduce the essence of the state exclusively to violence and suppression of the exploited, which was especially evident in Marxism.

In order to more fully reveal the specifics of the state as a formational and civilizational institution, it is necessary to analyze its features and functions.

The following main features of the state can be distinguished:

The presence of a special layer of people involved in management, i.e., an apparatus of officials, collecting taxes, issuing laws;

Public power, i.e. bodies of political coercion (army, police, court, prisons, intelligence, etc.);

The territorial division of society into separate cells of government, with the help of which state power covers the entire population of the country with its influence.

These characteristics, taken together, make it possible to determine whether a given public entity is a state.

In addition to the state, an important place in the political sphere of society belongs to parties. Their social basis is classes. Parties reflect in their activities the position of a class in society, its fundamental interests, the entire system of its relations with other classes and organizations.

Parties may express the interests not of the entire class as a whole, but of some part of it, but for these parties the definition of their essence remains the same.

When comparing parties with the state, it should be borne in mind that in the state the expression of class interests is carried out to some extent disguised, in the party the expression of class interests is more direct. Therefore, under certain conditions, the party can express class interests more deeply and act as the most important political institution of the class.

However, at present, class lines between parties are blurred; different social strata may be represented in them. Given these changes, a party can be defined as an organization that unites citizens on the basis of common political interests and goals. Parties differ from other associations in that their goal is to gain power and they clearly express a certain ideology.

Political system It also includes public organizations and movements that unite representatives of social groups and strata based on their interests, which, unlike parties, do not aim to participate in the activities of government bodies, but to protect individuals, small groups, and minorities from the central government. At the same time, they raise important issues (environmental, health problems, etc.) and thereby put the concept of government decisions under control. These movements (labor, trade union, environmental, etc.) are an important part of the political life of modern society, turning, according to sociologists, into the decisive driving force of its development.

Let us dwell on the classification of states as the most important element of the political sphere.

History knows many states. To understand this diversity and classify them, the categories “type” and “form” of the state are used.

The type of state reveals its formational meaning and is determined by which class (or classes) it serves, and therefore, ultimately, by the economic basis of a given society. Therefore, we can distinguish three main types of exploitative state: slave, feudal, bourgeois. The same type of state can exist in different forms.

The form of the state is a method of organization, as well as techniques and methods of exercising power. The form of the state is expressed:

Form of government (indicates who has supreme power in the country); There are two types of government: monarchy and republic;

Form of government: divided into unitary (single state entity), federation (union of legally relatively independent state entities - states, lands, etc.), confederation (state-legal associations);

The political regime, i.e., the system of methods for exercising state power, the real state of democratic rights and freedoms, the attitude of state authorities to the legal foundations of their activities.

From the point of view of the political regime, states can represent:

a) democracy;

b) dictatorship;

Let us give a brief description of these types of regimes.

Democracy is a method of exercising state power, which is based on the following principles: recognition of the will of the majority as the source of power, establishment and observance of the rights and freedoms of citizens, their equality, the ability to manage the processes of public life, election of the main government bodies, the rule of law, separation of powers, multi-party system. Democracy is a historical phenomenon. There is no democracy in general, but there are specific forms of it, determined by the specifics of the socio-political life of society (slave, feudal, bourgeois democracy). So, the analysis shows the ambiguity of the concept of “form” of the state. This conclusion has not only scientific value, since the question of the form of the state is one of critical issues realpolitik. At the same time, the categories “type” and “form” of a state allow one to correctly navigate when assessing a particular state and aim at identifying its essence and development trends caused by formational and civilizational changes.