In the second half of the 50s of the XIX century. (period of preparation for peasant reform) in public political life Russia has seen a certain convergence of different ideological trends. The whole society understood the need to renew the country. It pushed and stimulated the government's transformative activities that had begun. However, the process of implementing the reform and its results aggravated and deepened the ideological and political confrontation in society.
The main thing is the preservation of the old socio-political system and, first of all, the autocratic system with its police apparatus, the privileged position of the nobility, and the lack of democratic freedoms. An equally significant reason is the unresolved agrarian-peasant issue, which remained central in the social life of the country. The half-heartedness of the reforms of the 60-70s and fluctuations in government policy (either measures towards liberalization, or increased repression) also intensified the social movement. A particular reason was the variety and spiciness social contradictions. To the old ones - between peasants and landowners - new ones were added, caused by the development of capitalism - between workers and entrepreneurs, the liberal bourgeoisie and the conservative nobility, between the autocracy and the peoples that were part of the Russian Empire.
A distinctive feature of the social life of Russia in the second half of the 19th century. there was a lack of powerful anti-government protests by the broad masses. The peasant unrest that broke out after 1861 quickly faded away, and the labor movement was in its infancy. The people retained tsarist illusions. The bourgeoisie also showed political inertia. All this provided the basis for the triumph of militant conservatism and determined an extremely narrow social basis for the activities of revolutionaries.
In the post-reform period, three directions in the social movement finally took shape - conservatives, liberals and radicals. They had different political goals, organizational forms and methods of struggle, spiritual and moral and ethical positions.
Conservatives
The social basis of this trend was the reactionary nobility, clergy, petty bourgeoisie, merchant class and a significant part of the peasantry.
Conservatism of the second half of the 19th century. remained within the ideological framework of the theory " official nationality" Autocracy was still declared the most important pillar of the state, ensuring the greatness and glory of Russia. Orthodoxy was proclaimed as the basis of the spiritual life of the people and was actively inculcated. Nationality meant the unity of the king with the people, which implied the absence of soil for social conflicts. Conservatives saw this as unique historical path Russia.
In the domestic political sphere, conservatives fought for the inviolability of autocracy, against the liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s, and in subsequent decades they sought to limit their results. In the economic sphere, they advocated the inviolability of private property, the preservation of landownership and the community. In the social field, they insisted on strengthening the position of the nobility - the basis of the state and maintaining the class division of society. In foreign policy they developed the ideas of Pan-Slavism - unity Slavic peoples around Russia. In the spiritual sphere, representatives of the conservative intelligentsia defended the principles of a patriarchal lifestyle, religiosity, and unconditional submission to authority. The main target for their criticism was the theory and practice of nihilists who rejected traditional moral principles. (F. M. Dostoevsky in the novel “Demons” exposed the immorality of their activities.)
The ideologists of the conservatives were K. P. Pobedonostsev, D. A. Tolstoy, M. N. Katkov. The spread of their ideas was facilitated by the bureaucratic apparatus, the church and the reactionary press. M. N. Katkov in the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti pushed the government’s activities in a reactionary direction, formulated the basic ideas of conservatism and formed public opinion in this spirit
Conservatives were statist guardians. They had a negative attitude towards any mass social action, advocating order, calm and tradition.
Liberals
The social basis of the liberal trend was made up of bourgeois landowners, part of the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia (scientists, writers, journalists, doctors, etc.).
They defended the idea of a common path of historical development for Russia with Western Europe.
In the domestic political sphere, liberals insisted on the introduction of constitutional principles, democratic freedoms and the continuation of reforms. They advocated the creation of an all-Russian elected body (Zemsky Sobor), expansion of rights and functions local authorities self-government (zemstvos). Their political ideal was a constitutional monarchy. Liberals advocated the preservation of a strong executive power, believing it to be a necessary factor of stability, and called for measures to be taken to promote the establishment of a rule-of-law state and civil society in Russia.
In the socio-economic sphere, they welcomed the development of capitalism and freedom of enterprise, advocated the preservation of private property and lower redemption payments. The demand to eliminate class privileges, recognition of the inviolability of the individual, his right to free spiritual development were the basis of their moral and ethical views.
Liberals stood for an evolutionary path of development, considering reforms the main method of socio-political modernization of Russia. They were ready to cooperate with the autocracy. Therefore, their activities mainly consisted of submitting “addresses” to the tsar - petitions proposing a program of reforms. The most “left-wing” liberals sometimes used conspiratorial meetings of their supporters.
The ideologists of the liberals were scientists, publicists, and zemstvo leaders (K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin, V. A. Goltsev, D. I. Shakhovskoy, F. I. Rodichev, P. A. Dolgorukov). Their organizational support was zemstvos, magazines (Russian Thought, Vestnik Evropy) and scientific societies. The liberals did not create a stable and organized opposition to the government.
Features of Russian liberalism: its noble character due to the political weakness of the bourgeoisie and its readiness for rapprochement with conservatives. They were united by the fear of popular “revolt” and the actions of radicals.
Radicals
Representatives of this trend launched active anti-government activities. Unlike conservatives and liberals, they sought violent methods of transforming Russia and a radical reorganization of society (the revolutionary path).
In the second half of the 19th century. the radicals did not have a broad social base, although objectively they expressed the interests of the working people (peasants and workers). Their movement was attended by people from different walks of life (raznochintsy), who devoted themselves to serving the people.
Radicalism was largely provoked by the reactionary policies of the government and the conditions of Russian reality: police brutality, lack of freedom of speech, meetings and organizations. Therefore, only secret organizations could exist in Russia itself. Radical theorists were generally forced to emigrate and act abroad. This contributed to strengthening the ties between the Russian and Western European revolutionary movements.
In the radical direction of the second half of the 19th century. The dominant position was occupied by a movement whose ideological basis was the theory of the special, non-capitalist development of Russia and “communal socialism.”
In the history of the radical movement of the second half of the 19th century. Three stages are distinguished: the 60s - the formation of revolutionary democratic ideology and the creation of secret raznochinsky circles; 70s - formalization of the populist doctrine, a special scope of propaganda and terrorist activities of revolutionary populist organizations; 80-90s - the activation of liberal populists and the beginning of the spread of Marxism, on the basis of which the first social democratic groups were created; in the mid-90s - the weakening of the popularity of populism and a short period of widespread enthusiasm for Marxist ideas among the democratically minded intelligentsia.
"Sixties"
The rise of the peasant movement in 1861-1862. was the people's response to the injustice of the February 19 reform. This galvanized radicals who hoped for a peasant uprising.
In the 60s, two centers of radical trends emerged. One is around the editorial office of “The Bell,” published by A. I. Herzen in London. He propagated his theory of “communal socialism” and sharply criticized the predatory conditions for the liberation of peasants. The second center arose in Russia around the editorial office of the Sovremennik magazine. Its ideologist was N.G. Chernyshevsky, the idol of the common youth of that time. He also criticized the government for the essence of the reform, dreamed of socialism, but unlike A.I. Herzen, he saw the need for Russia to use the experience of the European development model. In 1862, N. G. Chernyshevsky was arrested, sentenced to hard labor and exile to Siberia.
Therefore, he himself could not take an active part in the social struggle, but based on his ideas, several secret organizations were formed in the early 60s. They included N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solovyevich, G. E. Blagosvetlov, N. I. Utin and others. “Left” radicals set the task of preparing a people’s revolution and for this purpose launched active publishing activities. In the proclamations “Bow to the lordly peasants from their well-wishers”, “To to the younger generation", "Young Russia", "What should the army do?" and others, they explained to the people the tasks of the upcoming revolution, substantiated the need to eliminate the autocracy, the democratic transformation of Russia, and a fair solution to the agrarian question.
"Land and Freedom" (1861-1864)
The landowners considered N.P. Ogarev’s article “What do the people need?”, published in June 1861 in Kolokol, to be their program document. She warned the people against premature unprepared actions and called for the unification of all revolutionary forces. The main demands were the transfer of land to peasants, the development of local self-government and preparation for future active actions to transform the country.
"Land and Freedom" was the first major revolutionary democratic organization. It included several hundred members from different social strata: officials, officers, writers, students.
The organization was headed by the Russian Central People's Committee. Branches of the society were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov and other cities. At the end of 1862, the Russian military revolutionary organization created in the Kingdom of Poland joined “Land and Freedom”.
The first secret organizations did not last long
The decline of the peasant movement, the defeat of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland (1863), the strengthening of the police regime - all this led to their self-dissolution or defeat. Some members of the organizations were arrested, others emigrated. The government managed to repel the radicals of the first half of the 60s. IN public opinion there was a sharp turn against the radicals and their revolutionary aspirations. Many public figures who previously stood on democratic or liberal positions moved to the conservative camp (M. N. Katkov and others).
In the second half of the 60s, secret circles arose again. Their members preserved the ideological heritage of N. G. Chernyshevsky, but, having lost faith in the possibility of a people's revolution in Russia, they switched to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist tactics. They tried to realize their high moral ideals by immoral means. In 1866, a member of N.A. Ishutin’s circle, D.V. Karakozov, made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Tsar Alexander II.
In 1869, teacher S. G. Nechaev and journalist P. N. Tkachev created an organization in St. Petersburg that called on student youth to prepare an uprising and use any means in the fight against the government. After the defeat of the circle, S. G. Nechaev left the border for a while, but in the fall of 1869 he returned and founded the “People’s Retribution” organization in Moscow. He was distinguished by extreme political adventurism and demanded unquestioning submission from his participants. For disagreeing with the methods of S. G. Nechaev, student I. I. Ivanov was falsely accused of treason and killed. The police destroyed the organization. S. G. Nechaev fled to Switzerland, he was extradited as a criminal. The government used the trial against him to discredit the revolutionaries. “Nechaevism” for some time became a serious lesson for subsequent generations of revolutionaries, warning them against unlimited centralism.
At the turn of the 60-70s, largely based on the ideas of A. I. Herzen and N. G. Chernyshevsky, populist ideology took shape. It became very popular among democratically minded intellectuals of the last third of the 19th century, who considered it their duty to serve the people. There were two trends among the populists: revolutionary and liberal.
Revolutionary Populists
The main ideas of the revolutionary populists: capitalism in Russia is imposed “from above” and has no social roots on Russian soil; the future of the country lies in communal socialism, since the peasants can accept socialist ideas; transformations must be carried out by a revolutionary method, by the forces of the peasantry, led by an organization of revolutionaries. Their ideologists - M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov and P. N. Tkachev - developed theoretical basis three currents of revolutionary populism - rebellious (anarchist), propaganda and conspiratorial.
M.A. Bakunin believed that the Russian peasant is by nature a rebel and ready for revolution. Therefore, the task of the intelligentsia is to go to the people and incite an all-Russian revolt. Viewing the state as an instrument of injustice and oppression, he called for its destruction and the creation of a federation of self-governing free communities. This idea became the basis of the theory of anarchism.
P.L. Lavrov did not consider the people ready for revolution. Therefore, he paid most attention to propaganda with the aim of preparing the peasantry. The peasants were to be “awakened” by “critically thinking individuals” - the leading part of the intelligentsia.
P. N. Tkachev, like P. L. Lavrov, did not consider the peasant ready for revolution. At the same time, he called the Russian people “communists by instinct,” who do not need to be taught socialism. In his opinion, a narrow group of conspirators (professional revolutionaries), having captured state power, will quickly involve the people in socialist reconstruction.
In 1874, relying on the ideas of M.A. Bakunin, more than 1,000 young revolutionaries undertook a massive “walk among the people,” hoping to rouse the peasants to revolt. The results were insignificant. The populists were faced with tsarist illusions and the possessive psychology of the peasants. The movement was crushed and the agitators were arrested.
"Land and Freedom" (1876-1879)
In 1876, the surviving participants in the “walking among the people” formed a new secret organization, which in 1878 took the name “Land and Freedom.” Its program provided for the implementation of a socialist revolution by overthrowing the autocracy, transferring all land to the peasants and introducing “secular self-government” in the countryside and cities. The organization was headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others.
A second “going to the people” was carried out - with the aim of long-term agitation among the peasants. The landowners were also involved in agitation of workers and soldiers and helped organize several strikes. By 1876, with the participation of “Land and Freedom,” the first political demonstration in Russia was held in St. Petersburg on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral. G. V. Plekhanov addressed the audience, calling for the fight for land and freedom for peasants and workers. The police dispersed the demonstration and many of the participants were injured. Those arrested were sentenced to hard labor or exile. G.V. Plekhanov managed to escape from the police.
In 1878, V.I. Zasulich made an attempt on the life of the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov and wounded him. However, the mood of society and the circumstances of the case were such that the jury acquitted her, and F. F. Trepov was forced to resign.
Some populists again returned to the idea of the need for a terrorist struggle. They were encouraged to do this by both government repression and a thirst for activism. Disputes over tactical and programmatic issues led to a split in Land and Freedom.
"Black redistribution"
In 1879, part of the landowners (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deych, P.B. Axelrod) formed the organization “Black Redistribution” (1879-1881). They remained faithful to the basic program principles of “Earth and Soil” and agitation and propaganda methods of activity.
"People's Will"
In the same year, another part of the Zemlya Volya members created the organization “People's Will” (1879-1881). It was headed by A. I. Zhelyabov, A. D. Mikhailov, S. L. Perovskaya, N. A. Morozov, V. N. Figner and others. They were members of the Executive Committee - the center and main headquarters of the organization.
The Narodnaya Volya program reflected their disappointment in the revolutionary potential of the peasant masses. They believed that the people were suppressed and reduced to a slave state by the tsarist government. Therefore, they considered their main task to be the fight against the state. The program demands of the Narodnaya Volya included: preparation of a political coup and the overthrow of the autocracy; convening the Constituent Assembly and establishing a democratic system in the country; destruction of private property, transfer of land to peasants, factories to workers. (Many of the program provisions of the Narodnaya Volya were adopted by turn of XIX-XX centuries their followers are the Socialist Revolutionary Party.)
The Narodnaya Volya carried out a number of terrorist actions against representatives of the tsarist administration, but considered their main goal to be the murder of the tsar. They assumed that this would cause a political crisis in the country and a nationwide uprising. However, in response to the terror, the government intensified repression. Most of the Narodnaya Volya members were arrested. S. L. Perovskaya, who remained free, organized an attempt on the tsar’s life. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded and died a few hours later.
This act did not live up to the expectations of the populists. It once again confirmed the ineffectiveness of terrorist methods of struggle and led to increased reaction and police brutality in the country. In general, the activities of the Narodnaya Volya members significantly slowed down the possibility of an evolutionary transformation of Russia.
Liberal Populists
This direction, sharing the idea of the revolutionary populists about a special, non-capitalist path of development of Russia, differed from them in its rejection of violent methods of struggle. Liberal populists did not play a significant role in the social movement of the 70s. In the 80-90s their influence increased. This was due to the loss of authority of the revolutionary populists in radical circles due to disappointment in the terrorist methods of struggle. Liberal populists expressed the interests of the peasants, demanded the destruction of the remnants of serfdom, the elimination of landownership and the prevention of the “ulcers” of capitalism in Russia. They called for reforms to gradually improve the lives of the people. They chose cultural and educational work among the population as the main direction of their activities (the theory of “small deeds”). For this purpose, they used printed organs (the magazine “Russian Wealth”), zemstvos and various public organizations. The ideologists of the liberal populists were N.K. Mikhailovsky, N.F. Danielson, V.P. Vorontsov.
Radicals in the 80-90s of the 19th century. During this period, radical changes occurred in the radical movement. The revolutionary populists lost their role as the main anti-government force. Powerful repression fell upon them, from which they could not recover. Many active participants in the movement of the 70s became disillusioned with the revolutionary potential of the peasantry. In this regard, the radical movement split into two opposing and even hostile camps. The first remained committed to the idea of peasant socialism, the second saw in the proletariat main force social progress.
Group "Liberation of Labor"
Former active participants in the “Black Redistribution” G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deich and V.N. Ignatov turned to Marxism. In this Western European theory, created by K. Marx and F. Engels in the middle of the 19th century, they were attracted by the idea of achieving socialism through a proletarian revolution.
In 1883, the Liberation of Labor group was formed in Geneva. Its program: a complete break with populism and populist ideology; propaganda of Marxism; fight against autocracy; creation of a workers' party. They considered the bourgeois-democratic revolution to be the most important condition for social progress in Russia, driving force which will be the urban bourgeoisie and the proletariat. They viewed the peasantry as a reactionary force in society, as a political antipode to the proletariat.
Promoting Marxism in the Russian revolutionary environment, they launched a sharp criticism of the populist theory about a special non-capitalist path of development of Russia. The Liberation of Labor group operated abroad and was not connected with the labor movement emerging in Russia.
In Russia itself in 1883-1892. Several Marxist circles were formed (D.I. Blagoeva, N.E. Fedoseeva, M.I. Brusneva, etc.). They saw their task in the study of Marxism and its propaganda among workers, students and minor employees. However, they too were cut off from the labor movement.
The ideological and theoretical activities of the “Emancipation of Labor” group abroad and Marxist circles in Russia prepared the ground for the emergence of a Russian political party of the working class.
Workers' organizations
The labor movement in the 70-80s developed spontaneously and unorganized. The workers put forward only economic demands - higher wages, shorter working hours, and the abolition of fines. Unlike Western Europe Russian workers had neither their own political organizations nor trade unions. The “South Russian Workers' Union” (1875) and the “Northern Union of Russian Workers” (1878-1880) failed to lead the struggle of the proletariat and give it a political character.
The largest event was the strike at the Nikolskaya manufactory of manufacturer T. S. Morozov in Orekhovo-Zuevo in 1885 (Morozov strike). For the first time, workers demanded government intervention in their relations with factory owners.
As a result, a law was issued in 1886 on the procedure for hiring and firing, regulating fines and paying wages. The institution of factory inspectors was introduced, responsible for monitoring the implementation of the law. At the same time, the law increased the criminal liability of workers for participating in strikes. From now on, the government could not help but take into account the so-called labor issue, which gradually acquired the same urgency as the agrarian-peasant issue.
"Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class"
In the 90s of the XIX century. There has been an industrial boom in Russia. This contributed to an increase in the size of the working class and the creation of more favorable conditions for its struggle. Strikes began among workers employed in various industries: textile workers, miners, foundry workers, and railway workers. Strikes in St. Petersburg, Moscow, the Urals, and other regions of the country retained their economic and spontaneous character, but became more widespread in the number of participants.
In 1895 in St. Petersburg, disparate Marxist circles united into new organization- "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class." Its creators were V. I. Ulyanov (Lenin), Yu. O. Tsederbaum (L. Martov) and others. Similar organizations were created in Moscow, Yekaterinoslav, Ivanovo-Voznesensk and Kyiv. They tried to take the lead in the strike movement, published leaflets and sent propagandists to workers' circles to spread Marxism among the proletariat. Under the influence of the “Union of Struggle”, strikes began in St. Petersburg among textile workers, metal workers, workers at a stationery factory, sugar and other factories. The strikers demanded to reduce the working day to 10.5 hours, increase prices, and pay on time wages. The persistent struggle of workers in the summer of 1896 and winter of 1897, on the one hand, forced the government to make concessions: a law was passed to reduce the working day to 11.5 hours. On the other hand, it brought down repression on Marxist and workers' organizations, some of whose members were exiled to Siberia.
In the second half of the 1990s, “legal Marxism” began to spread among the remaining social democrats. P. B. Struve, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky and others, recognizing some of the provisions of Marxism, defended the thesis of the historical inevitability of the inviolability of capitalism, criticized the liberal populists, and proved the regularity and progressiveness of the development of capitalism in Russia. They advocated a reformist path to transform the country in a democratic direction.
Under the influence of “legal Marxists,” some of the Social Democrats in Russia switched to the position of “economism.” The “economists” saw the main task of the labor movement in improving working and living conditions. They put forward only economic demands and believed that workers should not waste energy on political struggle, since the bourgeoisie would benefit from its fruits.
In general, among Russian Marxists at the end of the 19th century. there was no unity. Some (led by V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin) advocated the meeting of a political party that would lead the workers to implement a socialist revolution and establish the dictatorship of the proletariat (the political power of the workers), others, denying the revolutionary path of development, proposed limiting themselves to the struggle for improving conditions life and work of working people of Russia.
Social movement in the second half of the 19th century. Unlike previous times, it has become an important factor in the political life of the country. The variety of directions and trends, views on ideological, theoretical and tactical issues reflected the complexity of the social structure and the severity of social contradictions characteristic of the transitional time of post-reform Russia. In the social movement of the second half of the 19th century. a direction capable of carrying out the evolutionary modernization of the country has not emerged. However, socio-political forces emerged that played a major role in the revolutionary events of the early 20th century, and the foundations were laid for the formation of political parties in the future.
Changes in economic and political life after the fall of Holistic Law created new conditions for the development of culture. Capitalist modernization stimulated scientific and technological progress and increased the need for highly educated people (administrators, lawyers, engineers, vocational and technically educated workers). The revitalization of socio-political life and the intensification of ideological struggle had a significant impact on the development of culture. A new one has emerged social layer- Russian intelligentsia, which has become characterized not only by belonging to intellectual work, but also by a special spirituality, concern for the fate of the country, and a desire to serve society and for the benefit of the people.
There were two lines in the government's cultural policy. The first was aimed at meeting the sociocultural needs of the state. About 10% of the state budget was spent on cultural needs, medical care and social charity. The second line was aimed at forming public consciousness in the spirit of the updated theory of “official nationality” and preventing the democratization of education. This line was reflected in its restrictions, censorship policies and the strengthening of the influence of the church on society.
Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. absorbed artistic traditions, aesthetic and moral ideals of the “golden age” of the previous time. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. In the spiritual life of Europe and Russia, trends emerged related to the worldview of a person in the 20th century. They demanded a new understanding of social and moral problems: personality and society, art and life, the artist’s place in society, etc. All this led to the search for new artistic methods and means. A unique historical and artistic period developed in Russia, which his contemporaries called the “Silver Age” of Russian culture.
Unlike Western European countries, Russia did not have a law on universal compulsory primary education. However, the needs of production required professionally educated workers. Therefore, the government decided to expand the network of schools. This made it possible to increase the literacy rate of the population from 7% in the early 60s of the XIX century. to about 30% at the beginning of the 20th century. The education system that developed in the second half of the 19th century was preserved in its main features until 1917.
Primary education was provided by state, zemstvo and church-parish schools. They taught writing, reading, counting and the law of God for 2-3 years. Zemstvo schools especially contributed to improving literacy. Despite the efforts of the government and the Synod to support parochial schools, their importance gradually declined.
The secondary education system included gymnasiums and real schools. In gymnasiums (male and female), much attention was paid to the natural and human sciences and the study of foreign languages. In real schools, the emphasis was on applied natural and technical knowledge.
In 1887, the so-called “circular on cooks’ children” prohibited the admission to the gymnasium of children of “coachmen, footmen, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like.” Without a certificate of completion of a gymnasium it was impossible to enter the university. This was a way to preserve the class system of education and slow down its democratization.
Significant changes have occurred in the higher education system. In the second half of the 19th century. Universities were created in Odessa and Tomsk, and at the beginning of the 20th century in Saratov. The number of special higher education institutions grew rapidly educational institutions; Mining and Forestry Institutes, Agricultural Academy, etc. were opened. In addition to state ones, private higher educational institutions appeared. Since it was difficult for women to enter universities, Higher Women's Courses were opened with public funds in St. Petersburg (Bestuzhevsky), Moscow (V.I. Gerye) and other cities. On the eve of the First World War, there were 120 higher educational institutions in Russia, with 130 thousand students studying.
Educational activities
In post-reform Russia and at the beginning of the 20th century. The people's desire for literacy, familiarization with scientific knowledge, literature and art has especially intensified. The leading Russian intelligentsia played a major role in realizing this need, creating various educational organizations at zemstvos and scientific societies, as well as new out-of-school forms of education. Since the 60s of the XIX century. Free Sunday schools for adults, which taught the basics of literacy and basic vocational knowledge, became widespread. In the late 90s, work courses began to emerge. The training program for them included primary, secondary and higher education.
Folk houses were opened to develop cultural and educational activities. They provided the opportunity to use books and magazines, and they hosted public lectures and theatrical and concert performances.
The democratization of higher education was facilitated by evening public universities, which accepted everyone regardless of social status, financial status and religion. The most famous was the Moscow People's University named after A. L. Shanyavsky, founded in 1908.
Printing played a major role in popularizing scientific knowledge and introducing people to reading fiction. Cheap publication of works by Russian writers, primers, children's books and textbooks made them accessible to the entire people. Of particular note are the activities of I. D. Sytin, who published a series of books “Library for Self-Education,” and F. F. Pavlenkov, who published the “Popular Science Library on Natural Science.”
In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. The number of public libraries and reading rooms has increased significantly. They were organized at zemstvos, educational institutions and museums (Rumyantsev, Polytechnic, Historical).
The development of culture and the familiarization of wide sections of the population with it was facilitated by the activities of scientific (Historical), technical (Polytechnic), literary ( Pushkin House), military memorials (Sevastopol, Borodino), local history museums in capitals and provinces. Of particular importance for Russian culture were the Imperial Russian Museum in St. Petersburg, the collection of Russian paintings by P. M. and S. M. Tretyakov (which became the basis Tretyakov Gallery) and Museum fine arts in Moscow.
The science
In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. The process of differentiation of sciences, their division into fundamental and applied, deepened. The needs of Russia's industrial development and new attempts at philosophical understanding of the relationship between nature and society left a special imprint on the state of the natural and human sciences.
In the natural sciences, the discovery of the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements by D.I. Mendeleev was of greatest importance. The classical theory of the chemical structure of organic bodies was created by A. M. Butlerov. N.D. Zelinsky laid the foundations of the doctrine of organic catalysis. A.I. Kablukov performed fundamental work in the field of electrochemistry and physical chemistry. 60-70s of the XIX century. became the “golden age” in domestic chemistry.
The research of mathematicians P. L. Chebyshev, A. M. Lyapunov, S. V. Kovalevskaya in the field of number theory, probability theory and a number of branches of mathematical physics was of fundamental and applied importance.
Outstanding discoveries were made in physics and mechanics. The works of A. G. Stoletov prepared the conditions for the creation of modern electronic equipment. A revolution in electric lighting was made by the discoveries of P. N. Yablochkov (arc lamp) and A. N. Lodygin (incandescent lamp). A. S. Popov was awarded a large gold medal at the World Exhibition in Paris (1901) for the invention of electrical communication without wires (radio) in 1895. A sensational report at the International Congress of Physicists was made by P. N. Lebedev, who confirmed the electromagnetic nature of light and measured its pressure on solids and gases. N. E. Zhukovsky, the founder of modern hydroaerodynamics, is called the “Father of Russian Aviation.”
K. E. Tsiolkovsky, with his work in the field of rocket dynamics, substantiated the possibility of space flights.
The encyclopedic works of V. I. Vernadsky contributed to the emergence of new directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology and the development of modern environmental concepts.
The development of biology and medicine was marked by major successes. I.M. Sechenov laid the foundations of the Russian physiological school and made a number of discoveries in psychology. Nobel Prizes were awarded to I. P. Pavlov, who developed the doctrine of higher nervous activity and the physiology of digestion, as well as I. I. Mechnikov, the author of the phagocytic theory of immunity. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology.
Russian geographers and ethnographers continued the study of little-known regions of the Earth: Tien Shan, Tibet, Turkestan, Mongolia, Indonesia, Philippines, Ethiopia, etc. During the travels of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, N. M. Przhevalsky, N. P. Miklouho-Maclay, V.K. Kozlov and others created maps of these areas and collected rich biological and ethnographic collections. Oceanographer Vice Admiral S. O. Makarov made two voyages around the world and gave a systematic description of the Black, Marmara and North Seas. He also proposed using icebreakers to explore the Northern Sea Route. The expeditions of E.V. Toll and A.V. Kolchak began the study of the Arctic, which was continued by G.Ya. Sedov. In 1912-1914. he organized an expedition to the North Pole and conducted a geodetic survey of the coast and islands of the Arctic Ocean.
The development of the humanities was particularly influenced by social changes, aggravation of social conflicts, and a deeper division of ideological positions than before. Discoveries in the natural sciences (atomic fission, X-rays, radioactivity) changed the previous understanding of the materiality of the world and significantly influenced the social sciences.
Philosophy revealed the need for a new understanding of nature, society and their connection with man. Criticism has intensified evolutionary theory Charles Darwin, who explained biological development by natural selection from a materialistic point of view. Many materialist scientists switched to idealistic positions. A significant part of the scientific and artistic intelligentsia became characterized by religious and philosophical quests (V. S. Solovyov, N. A. Berdyaev, P. A. Florensky). At the same time, Marxism became widespread in Russia as a philosophical basis for knowledge and transformation of society (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin). He was attracted by his apparent universality and simplicity in explaining socio-historical processes. However political practice Marxists, their focus on transforming society in a revolutionary way, recognition of the predominance of material life over spiritual life alienated part of the intelligentsia from them (especially after the revolution of 1905-1907). Increasingly, philosophers and sociologists began to lean towards the idea that only through moral improvement, spiritual purification and creative aspirations can a fair social order be created.
In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. due to the need to understand modern processes and the future of Russia, interest in historical knowledge has grown enormously. The outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov, whose activity began in the first half of the 19th century, wrote many works on various historical problems and the fundamental work “History of Russia from Ancient Times.” In it, he substantiated a new concept that explained Russian history by the natural and ethnic characteristics of the Russian people. V. O. Klyuchevsky, who created the original concept of Russian history, had a huge influence on the development of Russian historical science. Different ideological views of historians gave rise to works in which the history of Russia was considered either from liberal (P. N. Milyukov) or from Marxist positions (M. N. Pokrovsky).
The development of Russian economic thought was reflected in the works of Marxists (V.I. Ulyanov-Lenin, A.A. Bogdanov) and their critics (P.B. Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky). Lawyer and sociologist M. M. Kovalevsky founded the “Higher Russian School of Social Sciences” in Paris. Famous public figures taught there and Russian emigrants studied there.
Literature
Fiction of the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. preserved the traditions of critical realism: humanism, nationality and citizenship. They were developed by I. S. Turgenev. N. D. Nekrasov, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, V. G. Korolenko, A. P. Chekhov, I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin and etc. Social and philosophical-moral problems were especially reflected in the work of L. N. Tolstoy, who was the world leader of the critical movement in literature. In the works of M. Gorky, the connection between the realistic method and the formulation of acute socio-political problems of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was most clearly manifested.
However artistic techniques Critical realism ceased to satisfy many writers at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. A deeper interest in personality, its inner world, the search for new visual means and forms - all this caused the emergence of modernism in literature and art. There were many currents in it. The differences were determined by the difference in philosophical, ethical and aesthetic positions that determined the choice of stylistics and linguistic means. What they had in common was innovation, the celebration of individual freedom, the cult of beauty and exoticism, the sonority and richness of expressions, the unexpectedness of rhymes and images. The aesthetic principles of the Symbolists were formulated by D. S. Merezhkovsky, A. A. Blok, K. D. Balmont and V. Ya. Bryusov, who became their recognized leader. Among the Acmeist poets, the most famous were N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam, M. A. Kuzmin. The futurists included D. D. Burliuk, V. V. Khlebnikov, V. V. Mayakovsky, Sasha Cherny. The work of a brilliant constellation of Russian poets of the early 20th century. allowed us to call this time the “Silver Age” of Russian poetry.
At the same time, at the beginning of the 20th century. Russia was swept by a wave of pulp literature aimed at bourgeois tastes (low-grade melodrama, detective stories, erotica).
Theater
In the second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. actively developed performing arts. The repertoire was formed mainly on a national basis, on dramatic works classics of Russian literature - A. N. Ostrovsky, L. Ya. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, A. M. Gorky.
A galaxy of wonderful artists shone at the Moscow Maly Theater (M. N. Ermolova, G. N. Fedotova, A. I. Sumbatov-Yuzhin). In 1898, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded Art Theater, which became the center of Moscow's theatrical life. V. I. Kachalov, I. M. Moskvin, O. L. Knipper-Chekhova and others played in it. At the beginning of the 20th century. The theater of the great Russian actress V.F. Komissarzhevskaya opened in St. Petersburg. The directorial activity of V. E. Meyerhold began, looking for new forms of stage art.
Movie
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The art of cinema appeared in Russia and immediately gained particular popularity. The first demonstration of the film took place in Russia in May 1896 (in St. Petersburg - in the Aquarium pleasure garden, in Moscow - in the Hermitage garden). Since 1903, stationary “electric theaters” and “illusions” began to open. By 1916, there were about 4 thousand cinemas in Russia, which were visited daily by up to 2 million spectators.
In the 90s, documentaries began to be made in Russia. The domestic film companies of A. O. Drankov and A. A. Khanzhonkov arose in 1907-1908. Initially, they also created document mental tapes. In 1908, the first Russian feature film, “Stenka Razin and the Princess,” was shot, and in 1911, the first full-length film, “The Defense of Sevastopol.” In 1911-1913 in Russia there were about 30 domestic film companies that produced more than 600 films. In 1911-1913 The world's first three-dimensional (puppet) film was created in Russia.
The films directed by Ya. A. Protazanov became especially famous. The stars of Russian silent cinema were actors Vera Kholodnaya and I. I. Mozzhukhin. Although many films were based on the works of A. S. Pushkin (“ Queen of Spades", "House in Kolomna"), F. M. Dostoevsky ("Demons"), L. N. Tolstoy ("Father Sergius"), the artistic level of most paintings remained extremely low. As a rule, salon melodramas and primitive comedies were staged.
Music
In the second half of the 19th century. The national Russian musical school finally took shape. In the early 60s of the XIX century. In Russia, a creative group of composers emerged, which the critic V.V. Stasov called the “Mighty Handful.” It included M. A. Balakirev, Ts. A. Cui, M. P. Mussorgsky, A. P. Borodin, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. The national spirit and respect for folk song melodies were most fully manifested in their work.
Representatives of the “Mighty Handful” and other Russian composers (P. I. Tchaikovsky, A. K. Glazunov, S. V. Rachmaninov) created many opera, ballet, chamber vocal and symphonic works. At the beginning of the 20th century. The search for new musical means of expression was continued by A. N. Scriabin, in whose works intimacy and symphony were surprisingly intertwined.
Main centers musical culture became conservatories in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Odessa, Kyiv and other cities, as well as the Imperial Mariinsky and Bolshoi theaters, Moscow private opera of S. I. Mamontov (then - S. I. Zimin). The popularization of national music was facilitated by the activities of the Russian Musical Society, founded in 1859 on the initiative of A. G. Rubinstein “to develop musical education, taste for music and encourage domestic talents.” Propaganda of works of Russians and foreign composers taught by teachers of the free music school opened in St. Petersburg in the 60s by M. A. Balakirev and singing teacher G. Ya. Lomakin.
The Russian vocal school was represented by wonderful opera singers (F. I. Chaliapin, L. V. Sobinov, A. V. Nezhdanova). The names of outstanding ballet dancers (A. P. Pavlova, T. P. Karsavina, V. F. Nijinsky) have forever entered the treasury of world culture. The choreographic productions of M. I. Petipa have become classics of world ballet.
Of particular importance for the popularization of the theatrical and musical art of Russia was the activity of S. P. Diaghilev, who organized the “Russian Seasons” in Europe (1907-1913).
Painting and sculpture
In the middle of the 19th century. Realism established itself in the fine arts for a long period. It took shape in the struggle against academicism of the first half of the 19th century and expressed the principles of democratic and civic aesthetics.
In 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy of Arts formed their own “Artel” in St. Petersburg. In 1870 they created the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions”. I. N. Kramskoy, G. G. Myasoedov, V. G. Perov, N. N. Ge and others sought to develop national traditions and bring art closer to the people. The Wanderers deployed educational activities, organized exhibitions in many cities of Russia. The most prominent figure among them was I. E. Repin, who left a huge artistic legacy. At the school of the Wanderers, the historical genre, based on national subjects and folk epics, received great development (V. I. Surikov, V. M. Vasnetsov). Close to the Wanderers, V.V. Vereshchagin is known as a master of battle painting,
By the end of the 19th century. The influence of the Wanderers fell. New directions have appeared in the visual arts. Portraits by V. A. Serov and landscapes by I. I. Levitan were in tune with the French school of impressionism. Some artists combined Russian artistic traditions with new visual forms (M. A. Vrubel, B. M. Kustodiev, I. Ya. Bilibin, etc.).
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. modernist searches led to the formation of a group of artists united around the magazine “World of Art” (A. N. Benois, K. A. Somov, E. E. Lansere, L. S. Bakst, N. K. Roerich, I. E. Grabar, etc.). “Miriskusnik” proclaimed new artistic and aesthetic principles that opposed both the realistic views of the Wanderers and academicism. They promoted individualism, freedom of art from social and political problems. The main thing for them is the beauty and traditions of Russian national culture. Special attention they paid attention to the revival and new assessment of the heritage of past eras (XVIII - early XIX century), as well as the popularization of Western European art.
At the beginning of the 20th century. the “Russian avant-garde” emerged. Its representatives K. S. Malevich, R. R. Falk, M. Z. Chagall and others preached the art of “pure” forms and external non-objectivity. They were the forerunners of abstract art and had a huge influence on the development of world art.
In sculpture of the second half of the 19th century. realistic traditions were reflected in the work of A. M. Opekushin (monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow) and M. M. Antokolsky, who was close to the Wanderers, who created a gallery of sculptural portraits and historical figures of Russia (“Ivan the Terrible”, “Nestor the Chronicler”, "Ermak", "Peter I"). A number of monumental sculptural works belonged to M. O. Mikeshin (monuments “Millennium of Russia” in Novgorod-Catherine the Second in St. Petersburg and Bogdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv). Under the influence of impressionism at the beginning of the 20th century. sculptors A. S. Golubkina and S. T. Konenkov used new plastic forms and light and shadow contrasts in their work, which made it possible to overcome the static nature of the sculpture and create the impression of movement.
Architecture
Urban planning was associated with the rapid economic development post-reform Russia. The appearance of cities is now determined not by the palaces of the nobility, but by buildings for general civil purposes - banks, shops, train stations, apartment buildings. The range has expanded building materials- concrete, cement, metal structures, glass.
For the second half of the 19th century. Architectural eclecticism was characteristic - a variety of directions and a mixture of styles. According to the design of the architect A. I. Rezanov, the palace of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich was built in St. Petersburg, which combined elements of Baroque, Moorish and “Russian” styles. Gradually, the “Russian” style began to prevail. In its traditions, the buildings of the Historical Museum (architect V.O. Sherwood), the City Duma (architect D.N. Chichagov) and the Upper Trading Rows (architect A.N. Pomerantsev) in Moscow were built.
At the beginning of the 20th century. Three directions have taken shape in Russian architecture. The Yaroslavl Station and the building of the Art Theater (architect F. I. Shekhtel), the Megropol Hotel (architect V. F. Valkot), etc. were erected in the Art Nouveau style. In the neo-Russian style, motifs of ancient Russian architecture were used in a modern interpretation (architect. A.V. Shchusev - Kazansky railway station). Buildings in the neoclassical style: Kiev Station (architect I. I. Rerberg), the Museum of Fine Arts (architect R. I. Klein) and the State Bank building (architect I. V. Zholtovsky) - revived the basic principles of architectural classics: monumentality, pomp, strict symmetry.
In general, the achievements of Russian culture have received worldwide recognition. Many domestic scientists were honorary members of European academies and scientific institutions. The names of Russian travelers remained on the geographical map of the world. At the beginning of the 20th century. V Russian literature and fine arts, new ones were born art forms, which had a significant impact on the development of European and world culture.
1855 , February. Death of Nicholas I, accession to the throne of his son Alexander II.
1856 . The beginning of the expedition of P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who for the first time scientifically explored the Tien Shan mountains.
1856. Founding of the Ust-Zeysky military post, since 1858 - the city of Blagoveshchensk.
1857. Founding of Maykop.
1858 , 16th of May. The Aigun Treaty with China, according to which Russia annexed the left bank of the Amur, and Primorye (the right bank of the Amur) remained in joint ownership.
1858 , May 30. Completion of the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg (Auguste Montferrand).
1858 . May 31. Foundation of the Khabarovka post in the Amur region - the future city of Khabarovsk.
1858 , June 11. Approval of the black-yellow-white banner as the state flag of the Russian Empire.
1859 , April. The entry of France and Sardinia into the war against Austria is the beginning of the unification of Italy. Main events: defeat of the Austrians at Solferino (24.6.1859); truce, according to which Austria ceded the Lombardy region to Sardinia (7.1859); annexation by Sardinia of the small states of Central Italy and part of the Papal States (by 3.1860); transfer of the border regions of Nice and Savoy by Sardinia to France (4.1860); landing of Giuseppe Garibaldi's detachment in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (6.1860); the defeat of the Pope's army by the Sardinian army and the occupation of most of his possessions (9.1860); annexation of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to Sardinia (10.1860); proclamation of the Italian kingdom led by the Savoy dynasty (2.1861); Italian participation in the Austro-Prussian War, which led to the annexation of the Venetian region (1866); occupation of Rome and deprivation of the Pope of secular power (1870).
1859 , 25-th of August. The surrender of Shamil means the end of the annexation of Chechnya and Dagestan.
1860 , 2 June. Foundation of the Vladivostok post (since 1862 - a port, since 1880 - a city).
1860 , November 2. The Beijing Treaty with China, according to which Primorye was recognized as the possession of Russia.
1861 , February 4. Proclamation of the Confederate States of America - the beginning Civil War in North America (northern states against slave-holding southern states), which ended in April 1865 with the defeat of the Confederacy and the abolition of slavery in the United States.
1861 , February 19. Alexander II signed a manifesto on the emancipation of serfs, according to which serfs partially received civil rights without land, until the full purchase of which they became “temporarily obligated.”
1861 . Creation of the secret revolutionary society “Land and Freedom” (self-liquidated in 1864).
1862 , summer. The creation of military districts on the western border is the beginning of military reform.
1862 , 8 September. Opening of the Conservatory in St. Petersburg - the first higher musical educational institution in Russia (A. G. Rubinstein).
1862 . The formation in St. Petersburg of a creative community of Russian composers who strived to embody the Russian national idea in music, known as the “Mighty Handful” (A. P. Borodin, M. A. Balakirev, M. P. Mussorgsky, T. A. Cui, N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov).
1862. Otto von Bismarck (from 1871 - Reich Chancellor of the German Empire, until 1890) became the Minister-President and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Prussia, who achieved the unification of Germany under the supremacy of Prussia.
1863 , January. Beginning of the Polish uprising, suppressed in 1864
1863 , June 18. The introduction of a new university charter, which expanded the autonomy of higher education institutions.
1864 , 1st of January. Establishment zemstvos – local unclassified self-government in rural areas .
1864 , May 21st. Suppression of the last pocket of resistance in the west North Caucasus- end of the Caucasian War.
1864 , July 19. Publication of regulations on primary public schools, which stimulated the expansion of the network of primary educational institutions.
1864 , November 19. Introduction of a new charter for secondary educational institutions ( gymnasiums with in-depth study of Latin and Ancient Greek, real schools with in-depth study of “natural” disciplines - mathematics, physics, etc. .).
1864 , 20 November. Judicial reform, which introduced the lack of status of the court, adversarial process, transparency and independence of judges.
1865 , April 6. Adoption of a new censorship charter, which partially abolished preliminary censorship in St. Petersburg and Moscow.
1865. Founding of Elista.
1866 , April. The first unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (D.V. Karakozov fired a pistol near the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg, but missed).
1866 . Publication of I. M. Sechenov’s book “Physiology of the Nervous System”.
1866 . The first performance on stage of a work (“Overture in F major”) by P. I. Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers in the history of music (1840–1893).
1867 , March. Treaty for the sale of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska to the United States of America.
1867 , May 25. The second unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (former Polish rebel A. Berezovsky fired a pistol at the World Exhibition in Paris, but missed).
1868 . Establishment of a protectorate over the Kokand and Bukhara khanates.
1868 . Publication of the article “A device for studying the decomposition of carbon dioxide,” with which the scientific activity of K. A. Timiryazev, one of the founders of plant physiology, began.
1868 , January 3. The announcement of the Japanese Emperor to restore the fullness of his power is the culmination of the Meiji Revolution, which abolished the power of the Tokugawa shoguns - the beginning of the modernization of Japan and the creation of modern economic and political systems.
1869 , February. D. I. Mendeleev’s discovery of the periodic law, on the basis of which he compiled the periodic system of chemical elements.
1869 . The opening of higher women's courses in Moscow and St. Petersburg is the beginning of higher women's education in Russia.
1869 , October 12. Transformation of the Warsaw Region established in 1862 high school at the University of Warsaw.
1870 . The beginning of the Franco-Prussian War, which led to the defeat of France and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, its declaration as a republic (III Republic, 4.9.1870) and the proclamation of the German Empire under the rule of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty (18.1.1871).
1871. Foundation of the city of Ivanovo-Voznesensk (since 1932 - Ivanovo).
1872 . The beginning of the first of four expeditions of N. M. Przhevalsky to Central Asia, during which new species of mammals were discovered.
1873 . Acceptance of the Khanate of Khiva under the protectorate of Russia.
1874 . The introduction of universal conscription is the completion of military reform.
1874 , spring. The beginning of “going to the people” is the populists’ attempts to conduct revolutionary propaganda among the peasants.
1875 . An uprising in the Kokand Khanate against Russian rule, which led to the abolition of the Khanate and the inclusion of its territory into Russia (19.2.1876).
1875 , 25th of April. An agreement with Japan, according to which the Kuril Islands went to Japan, and Sakhalin was recognized as completely Russian.
1876 . Re-creation of “Land and Freedom” as a populist organization. 1876 , 11th of March. Inventor P. N. Yablochkov received a patent for the “Yablochkov candle” - the predecessor of the modern incandescent lamp.
1876 , December 6. The first political demonstration in Russia (at the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg).
1877 , February. “The Trial of 50,” at which a group of Moscow revolutionaries, including P. Alekseev, was convicted.
1877 , 12th of April. Manifesto on the beginning of the war with the Ottoman Empire. Main events: the passage of the Russian army across the Danube (6.1877); occupation of Northern Bulgaria (7.1877); the beginning of the siege of the Ottoman fortress of Plevna (1st assault - 8/7/1877); defense of the Shipka Pass (8.1877); capture by the Russian army of the Kars fortress in the Caucasus (10.1877); capitulation of Plevna (11/28/1877); the passage of the Russian army through the Balkans and the attack on Istanbul (12.1877–1.1878); signing of the truce in Adrianople (19.1.1878); the signing of the peace treaty in San Stefano, according to which Southern Bessarabia, the Caucasian fortresses of Kars, Ardahan, Bayazet and the port of Batum went to Russia, and the Ottoman Empire recognized the independence of Romania (it was given Dobruja - the area between the Danube and the Black Sea), Serbia (it was given region of the city of Nis), Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina (19.2.1878); The Berlin Congress (opened on June 13, 1878), at which the articles of the Treaty of San Stefano were partially revised (the territorial acquisitions of Russia were reduced - it was deprived of Bayazet - and Bulgaria - it was divided into two parts).
1877, October. The beginning of the “trial of the 193s”, in which many participants in the “going to the people” were convicted of revolutionary propaganda (1.1878).
1879 , April 2. The third unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (A.K. Solovyov fired five times from a revolver at Palace Square in St. Petersburg, but missed).
1879 , June. The split of “Land and Freedom” resulted in the emergence of “People’s Will”, whose goal was to provoke a revolution with high-profile terrorist acts, and “Black Redistribution”, whose supporters considered it necessary to continue propaganda.
1879 , November 19. The fourth unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (People's Volya blew up a railway track near Moscow, but the imperial train had already passed).
1880 , February 5th. The fifth unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II (the People's Volunteer S.N. Khalturin carried out an explosion in the Winter Palace, but thanks to his delay, the emperor was not injured).
1880 , February 9th. Organization of the Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace, designed to ensure counteraction to terrorists.
1880 , October. “The Trial of 16,” at which some of the Narodnaya Volya members were convicted.
1881 , March 1. The sixth attempt on Alexander II and his death at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya. Beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander III.
1881 , March. The trial of the murder of Alexander II: the trial of its organizers (including S. L. Perovskaya and A. I. Zhelyabov) and their execution (3.4.1881).
1881 , April 30. The publication by the new Emperor Alexander III of the manifesto “On the Inviolability of Autocracy,” which heralded the beginning of the “policy of counter-reforms.”
1881 , August 14. Publication of “Regulations on measures to preserve state order and public peace” to counter the revolutionary movement.
1882 , May 20. The final formation of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), directed against Russia and France.
1882 , June 1st. The Law “On Minors Working in Plants, Factories and Manufactories,” which prohibited the work of children under 12 years of age and limited the work of children 12–15 years of age, was the beginning of factory legislation in Russia.
1883 , April 28. Official recognition of the trade white-blue-red flag as the “Russian flag”.
1883 , May 18. Establishment of the Peasant Land Bank to help peasants purchase land.
1883 , 26 of May. Consecration of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow (architect K. A. Ton).
1883 , September. Creation in emigration of the first Russian social democratic group “Emancipation of Labor”, headed by G. V. Plekhanov.
1884 , August 23. Introduction of a new university charter, abolishing the autonomy of universities.
1885 , March. Conflict with Great Britain due to clashes with Afghans in the Kushki region.
1885 . Populist Ya. V. Abramov’s promotion of the “theory of small deeds” in a series of articles in the Nedelya newspaper, according to which revolutionaries should abandon violent methods and engage in “simple honest deeds,” improving the situation in Russia with constant daily work.
1885 , June 3. Establishment of the Noble Land Bank to maintain landownership.
1885 , October 1. Entry into force of the law “On the prohibition of night work for minors and women in factories, factories and manufactories.”
1886 , June 3. The publication of a law regulating the relations between factory owners and workers.
1886 , november. Severance of relations with Bulgaria.
1887 , 1st of January. Termination of the collection of poll tax (partially retained in Siberia).
1887 , April. The trial of terrorists from Narodnaya Volya, who planned an attempt on the life of Alexander III on the anniversary of the assassination of Alexander II, and the execution of five of them, including A.I. Ulyanov (8.5.1887).
1887 , July 1. “Circular about cooks’ children,” which limited access to gymnasiums for the children of “coachmen, footmen, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and the like.”
1888 , September 13. Start of classes at Tomsk University - the first university in Siberia.
1889 , 28 January. The introduction of zemstvo district chiefs appointed by the administration, who replaced justices of the peace and received, in addition to the judiciary, significant administrative powers in relation to peasants.
1891 , May. Beginning of construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway - a strategic railway to the Pacific Ocean (completed by 1916).
1891 , August. The conclusion of a Russian-French alliance treaty directed against Germany.
1891 , autumn. The beginning of famine in a number of provinces of the Volga and Non-Black Earth regions.
1894 , The 20th of October. Death of Alexander III and accession to the throne of his son Nicholas II.
1895 , January 17. Policy statement of Nicholas II against the creation of an elected legislative body.
1895 , February 27. An agreement with Great Britain on the delimitation of the Pamirs, which completed the expansion of Russia's borders in Central Asia.
1895 , 11 April. Russian intervention in Japanese-Chinese relations (Japan was forced to return Port Arthur to China), which served as the beginning of Russian-Japanese contradictions.
1895 , 25th of April. Demonstration by A. S. Popov of the “lightning detector” he designed - the predecessor of the radio receiver.
1896 , 22nd of May. The consent of the Chinese government to the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) is the beginning of Russia's penetration into Manchuria.
1897 , 28 January. The first All-Russian population census (125,640,021 people recorded).
1897 , 2 June. Adoption of a law limiting the working day at industrial enterprises to 11.5 hours (came into force on January 1, 1898).
1897 , August 29. Financial reform of S. Yu. Witte, within the framework of which gold backing of the ruble was introduced, and the right to issue (issue credit notes) was transferred to the State Bank.
1898 , 1 -March, 3rd. I (organizational) congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) in Minsk.
1898 , March 15th. The transfer by China to Russia of the lease of the ports of Port Arthur and Dalny, which in 1895 were supposed to go to Japan, is an aggravation of Russian-Japanese contradictions.
1898 , August 17. Appointment of General N.I. Bobrikov as Governor-General of Finland, who began the policy of Russification of Finland.
1899 . The beginning of the “Boxer Rebellion” against foreign influence in China, in the suppression of which Russia, along with other powers, participated, while occupying Manchuria.
1902 . The creation of a party of socialist revolutionaries (SRs), based on the populist tradition and setting socialist transformations in the countryside as its main goal.
1903 . The Second Congress of the RSDLP, at which a split occurred into the Bolsheviks (V.I. Lenin and other supporters of the creation of a centralized, disciplined party) and the Mensheviks.
1903 , 2 June. Workplace Accident Victims Compensation Act.
1904 , January 27. The attack of the Japanese fleet on Russian ships in Port Arthur and Chemulpo (the death of the Varyag) is the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War.
1904 , October. Physiologist I.P. Pavlov was the first Russian to receive the Nobel Prize “for his work on the physiology of digestion.”
1904 , november. Congress of opposition parties and movements in Paris.
1904 , november -December. The “banquet campaign” carried out by the liberal opposition, during which resolutions were adopted condemning the government, was the prologue to the revolution.
1905 , January 9. “Bloody Sunday” – the shooting of a workers’ demonstration in Petrograd – the beginning of the First Russian Revolution. Main events: strikes in different cities of the country in protest against the execution on January 9 (1.1905); the murder of the Moscow Governor-General, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, by a Socialist Revolutionary terrorist (4.2.1905); Nicholas II’s consent to convene a Duma with legislative functions (18.2.1905); mutiny on the battleship of the Black Sea Fleet "Potemkin" (6.1905); manifesto of convocation State Duma(6.8.1905); all-Russian political strike (10.1905); manifesto on granting democratic freedoms and giving the Duma a legislative character (10/17/1905); manifesto on the abolition of redemption payments for land - the end of the reform of 1861 (11/3/1905); armed uprising in Moscow and soldier riots along the Trans-Siberian Railway (12.1905).
1905 , February. Defeat of Russian troops in decisive battle Russian-Japanese War near Mukden.
1905 , 14 -May 15. Complete destruction of the Russian 2nd Pacific Squadron in the Battle of Tsushima.
1905 , September. The signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty with Japan, according to which Russia lost Port Arthur, Far and Southern Sakhalin, as well as control over the southern part of Manchuria.
1905 , October. The founding congress of the party of constitutional democrats (cadets) is the organizational form of the liberal opposition.
1906 , April 27. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the first convocation, which began a policy of confrontation with the government and was dissolved in early July.
1906 , August 19. The law on military courts, which contributed to the speedy elimination of revolutionary unrest.
1906 , November 9. The law allowing the free exit of peasants from the community is the beginning of the Stolypin agrarian reform.
Khutor– a plot of land allocated from communal land, with a separate peasant estate .
Cut– a plot of land allocated from communal land without moving the estate .
1907 , February 20th. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the second convocation, which continued the policy of confrontation with the government and was also dissolved on June 3, 1907.
1907 , June 3. “The Third June Coup” - the adoption of a new electoral law, according to which the number of “state-minded” deputies in the Duma increased.
1907 , June 7. Founding in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of the outstanding physiologist V. M. Bekhterev, the world's first Psychoneurological Institute.
1907, August 18. The Russian-British agreement that completed the creation of the Entente (the alliance of France, Great Britain and Russia against Germany).
1907 , Nov. 1. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the third convocation, which chose a policy of cooperation with the government.
1908 , October 15. The start of distribution of "Ponizovaya Volnitsa" - the first Russian feature film.
1908 , 17 October. Biologist I. I. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize “for his work on immunity.”
1911 , September 1. The murder of P. A. Stolypin is the end of the reform policy, which caused growing discontent among the liberal opposition.
1912 , June 23. Adoption of a law on compulsory health insurance for workers.
1912 , October 8. The beginning of the 1st Balkan War (Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece against the Ottoman Empire), which ended with the declaration of independence of Albania (11/28/1912) and the division of the European possessions of the Ottoman Empire between the allies, with most of Macedonia and all of Kosovo going to Serbia.
1912 , 15th of November. The beginning of the work of the State Duma of the IV convocation, which continued the policy of the III convocation.
1913 , June 29. The beginning of the 2nd Balkan War (Bulgaria against Serbia, Greece, Romania and the Ottoman Empire), which ended with the partial division of Bulgarian lands.
1914 , April 17. The adoption of Tuva (Uriankhai region) under the patronage of Russia, the founding of the city of Belotsarsk - modern Kyzyl.
Section III
Recent history
Russia in the second half of the 19th century
On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II ascended the throne. His reign (1855-1881) was marked by deep modernization of Russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and the legislative acts that constituted the “Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom” were approved. In 1864, zemstvo self-government was introduced (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), jury trials and the legal profession, in 1870 - city self-government, in 1874 - universal military service.
In 1863, an uprising broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864, Russia managed to end the Caucasian War, which lasted 47 years. Annexation to Russia in 1865-1876. significant territories of Central Asia confronted the tsarist administration with the need to organize the management of a remote foreign cultural outskirts.
Reforms of the 1860-1870s led to sharp growth economy and especially industry. The most noticeable aspect of this growth was the “railway boom” of the second half of the 1860s and early 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kyiv (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
In the middle of the 19th century. Russia was an agricultural country largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the terms of the abolition of serfdom, peasants had to buy back their land plots. “Redemption payments” placed a heavy burden on rural communities and often lasted for long years, which caused more than 1,300 mass protests by peasants, of which more than 500 were suppressed by force. Communal land use (the inability to manage their plots) and land shortages caused discontent among the peasants and restrained the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees on the part of the state led to increased exploitation of workers.
The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who believed, became widespread in society at this time. what's ideal government system can only be established on the principles of extending the communal order familiar to the Russian village to the entire society. He saw a general peasant uprising as a means of restructuring social life. To prepare for this all-Russian peasant revolt, the revolutionary youth tried to organize propaganda of their ideas among the peasants (“going to the people” in 1874-1875), but among the peasants naive monarchical sentiments were still very strong. Some young people mistakenly believed that the murder of the Tsar would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt on the life of Alexander II took place, and in 1879, the secret organization “People's Will” arose, which set as its task terror against prominent employees of the tsarist administration, and as highest goal- regicide. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the “populists,” but the peasant revolution did not occur.
The son of Alexander II became king - Alexander III. His reign (1881-1894) was characterized by protective tendencies. The new monarch sought in every possible way to strengthen the state apparatus and improve the controllability of the country. To do this, he went for a partial curtailment of the reforms that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography this period is called "period of counter-reforms". Zemstvo chiefs (nobles) appeared in the districts to manage peasant affairs; Security departments were established in the provinces to combat the revolutionary movement. The rights of zemstvo self-government were significantly limited, and the electoral system was changed in order to ensure the predominance of delegates from landowners in zemstvo bodies. Reactionary changes were made in judicial and censorship matters. On the other hand, the administration of Alexander III sought to act as a social arbiter. The government was forced to pass laws to limit the exploitation of workers. In 1883 the poll tax was abolished.
Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II ascended the throne, who, like his father, fought against liberal tendencies and was a consistent supporter of absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favorably treating certain innovations and transformations if they were tactical in nature and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, during the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917), gold backing of the ruble and a state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly improved the country’s finances. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, connected the Far Eastern borders with central regions Russia. In 1897 it was carried out The first All-Russian population census.
The liberation of peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the emergence large number industrial and trading enterprises, banks, construction of railways, development of agricultural production. By the end of the 19th century. the number of workers doubled and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900 the share of large enterprises increased from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, workers working for them - from 67 to 76%.
The growth of the proletariat was accompanied by the emergence of the first revolutionary workers' organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva united in the “Emancipation of Labor” group, which laid the foundation for the spread of Marxism in Russia. The group developed a program of Russian social democracy, the final goal of which was the creation of a workers' party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power by the working class, the transfer of the means and instruments of production to public ownership, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. Publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to emerge in Russia (by the end of the 19th century there were about 30 of them). In 1892, V.I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924) began revolutionary activity in Samara. In 1895, together with members of the Marxist circle of technology students (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, etc.) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B.I. Zinoviev and others) Lenin created an organization in St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class", which was soon crushed by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.
In 1898, a congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Yekaterinoslav “unions of struggle” and the Bund (the party of the Jewish proletariat) took place in Minsk. The congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) and elected the Central Committee (CC). On instructions from the congress, the Central Committee issued Manifesto of the RSDLP, in which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and its party were briefly stated. However, the party did not yet have a program and charter, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational confusion.
In 1855, the Kuril Islands were officially included in Russia. The annexation of the Amur region and Primorye was formalized Aigunsky(1858) and Beijing(1860) treaties with China. According to the Treaty of Aigun, the undelimited lands on the left bank of the Amur were recognized as the possession of Russia, and according to the Treaty of Beijing, Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was transferred to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island passed to Russia, and the Kuril Islands to Japan.
In 1867, the Turkestan Governor-General was formed from the annexed possessions of the Kokand Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kata-Kurgan districts of the Bukhara Emirate were annexed to Russia, which recognized the protectorate of Russia. In 1869, the Transcaspian military department was formed with its center in Krasnovodsk. After 1881, the Transcaspian region was formed with its Center in Askhabad. By agreement with Great Britain (England), on September 10, 1885, the Russian border with Afghanistan was established, and in 1895, the border in the Pamirs.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in Russia's Turkish possessions in the Balkans. The Serbs turned to the Russian government for help, which demanded that Turkey conclude a truce with the Serbs. The refusal of the Turks caused the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and entered Bulgaria.
However, there was not enough strength for a decisive offensive. The detachment of General Gurko advanced to the south occupied the Shipka Pass on the Balkan Range, but was unable to advance further. On the other hand, numerous attempts by the Turks to knock the Russians off the pass were also unsuccessful. The delay of the Russians in occupying Plevna on the western front of the Trans-Danube bridgehead became especially dangerous. Turkish troops were the first to reach this strategically important point and entrenched themselves in it. Three extremely bloody assaults on July 8 (20), July 18 (30) and August 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were unsuccessful. In the fall, the Russians occupied the fortifications of Telish and Gorny Dubnyak, finally blockading Plevna. Trying to support the encircled fortress, the Turks launched a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia and on the eastern front of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, the Turkish counter-offensive was repulsed, and the Russian Eastern Front was broken through, and only a desperate counterattack of Russian troops, which crushed the Turkish formations near Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the possibilities of resistance, after unsuccessful attempt breakthrough, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10), 1877. In the winter of 1877-1878. In incredibly difficult weather conditions, Russian troops crossed the Balkan ridge and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turks at Sheinovo. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, in the battle of Philippopolis (Plovdiv), the last Turkish army was defeated, and on January 8 (20), Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance. According to the Berlin Treaty, on July 13, 1878, Southern Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were annexed to Russia.
The trends in literature and art that emerged in the first half of the 19th century received their further development and in the second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century
Reforms of the 1860-1870s represented a real revolution, the consequence of which was fundamental changes in the social, state and entire folk life, which could not but affect the development of culture. There was not only a social, but also a spiritual emancipation of the people, who had new cultural needs and opportunities to satisfy them. The circle of intellectuals and bearers of culture has also expanded significantly. Scientific and technological progress, which served as both factors and indicators of cultural development, was also of no small importance.
Beginning of the 20th century - This " silver Age» Russian culture, primarily in the field of literature and art. Russia has firmly entered the system of world powers, closely linked by economic, political and cultural ties. In Russia, the latest scientific and technological progress of advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, automobile, etc.) and the achievements of the exact sciences were widely used; became widespread in literature and art various directions. And global culture has been significantly enriched by the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Performances by Russian composers, opera singers, and ballet masters took place in famous theaters in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the USA.
IN Russian literature second half of the 19th century The themes of folk life and various socio-political trends received a particularly vivid depiction. At this time, the creativity of outstanding Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky flourished. In the 1880-1890s. in Russian literature, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the works of those who came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. writers of the new generation - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this trend, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations emerged, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. The associations of symbolists (the poet V. Ya. Bryusov was the creator and theoretician of Russian symbolism) included K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, A. Bely, A. A. Block. A direction opposite to symbolism, acmeism arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist movement in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values(V.V. Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, early V.V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
The Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Maly Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of Russian theatrical culture
in the second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century In the repertoire of the Maly Theater leading place occupied by the plays of A. N. Ostrovsky. Prov Sadovsky, Sergei Shumsky, Maria Ermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yuzhin and others stood out among the actors of the Maly Theater. On stage Alexandrinsky Theater Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Strepetova shone.
In the 1860-1870s. private theaters began to emerge and theater clubs. In 1898 in Moscow, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater, and in 1904 in St. Petersburg, V. F. Komissarzhevskaya created the Drama Theater.
Second half of the 19th century. - blooming time Russian musical art. Anton and Nikolai Rubinstein played a major role in the development and organization of music education. N. G. Rubinstein initiated the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the “Balakirev Circle” (or, in the words of V. Stasov, “The Mighty Handful”) was formed in St. Petersburg, which included M. A. Balakirev, T. A. Cui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. The operas of Mussorgsky “Khovanshchina” and “Boris Godunov”, Rimsky-Korsakov’s “Sadko”, “Pskovite” and “The Tsar’s Bride” are masterpieces of Russian and world musical classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose creativity flourished in the 1870-1880s. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music(ballets “Swan Lake”, “The Nutcracker”, “Sleeping Beauty”; operas “Eugene Onegin”, “The Queen of Spades”, “Mazeppa”, “Iolanta”, etc.). Tchaikovsky wrote over a hundred romances, mostly based on the works of Russian poets.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. a galaxy appeared in Russian music talented composers: A.K. Glazunov, S.I. Taneyev, A.S. Arensky, A.K. Lyadov, I.F. Stravinsky, A.N. Scriabin. With the help of wealthy patrons, private operas arose, among which the private opera of S. I. Mamontov in Moscow became widely known. On its stage, the talent of F.I. Chaliapin was fully revealed.
IN Russian painting Critical realism took a dominant position, the main theme of which was the depiction of the life of the common people, especially the peasantry. First of all, this theme was embodied in the works of the Itinerant artists (I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Myasodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repin, A. I. Kuindzhi, I. I. Levitan). An outstanding representative of Russian battle painting was V.V. Vereshchagin, the largest marine painter was I.K. Aivazovsky. In 1898, the creative association of artists “World of Art” arose, which included A. N. Benois, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lansere, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N.K. Roerich, I.E. Grabar.
Implementation into architecture achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the industrial development of the country: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Art Nouveau became the leading style, along with which buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine style were erected: Upper shopping arcades (now GUM, architect A. N. Pomerantsev), buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V. O. Sherwood) and the Moscow City Duma ( architect D. N. Chichagov) and others.
A significant event in social and cultural life was the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, sculptor A. M. Opekushin). Among the outstanding sculptors of this time are: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov.
Developed successfully the science. The name of the great scientist D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) is associated with the discovery of the Periodic Table of Elements; I. M. Sechenov’s research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I. P. Pavlov; I. I. Mechnikov created the doctrine of the body’s protective factors, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
“The Father of Russian Aviation” E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the wind tunnel and founded the Aerodynamic Institute in 1904; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation for the theory of the movement of rockets and jet devices. Academician V.I. Vernadsky with his works gave rise to many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, and ecology. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology.
Technical discoveries and inventions are associated with the development of natural sciences: the creation of an incandescent electric light bulb (A. N. Lodygin), an arc lamp (P. N. Yablochkov), radio communications (A. S. Popov).
The outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed a fundamental work, “The History of Russia from Ancient Times,” in which he substantiated a new concept that explained Russian history by the natural and ethnic characteristics of the Russian people.
The abolition of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created the conditions for the rapid development of capitalism. In 1861-1900 Russia has transformed from an agricultural to an agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the 19th century. in industrial production it took fifth place, after the USA, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia annexed a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and obtaining a raw material base for the textile industry. In the Far East, the Amur region and the Ussuri Primorye were annexed, and possession of Sakhalin was secured (in return for the cession of the Kuril Islands). Political rapprochement with France began.
The emerging revolutionary movement of the populists was unable to rouse the peasants to revolt; the terror against the tsar and senior officials turned out to be untenable. In the 1880s The spread of Marxism began, in 1892 - the revolutionary activity of Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.
The 19th century for Russian literature is rightly called golden. He gave us many talented writers who opened Russian classical literature to the whole world and became a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century is being replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is considered to be A.S. Pushkin, or rather his later works, which marked the beginning of this era.
In the 40s, " natural school" - which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the “sitters” was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.
From the second half of the 19th century, realism received the name critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two movements are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, showing the impossibility of further moral development of society without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature; they reflected the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic serfdom, the truth of life made the works of that time popular.
Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century had significant differences from Western European realism. Many writers of the time identified in their works the motifs that prepared the shift to revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular novels and stories in Russia and abroad were those of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws governing its development. The characters in the works talk about the imperfections of society, conscience and justice.
One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works he raises important issues of that time (“fathers and sons”, “on the eve”, etc.)
Chernyshevsky’s novel “What is to be done?” made a great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth.
The works of I. A. Goncharov show the morals of officials and landowners.
Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility human soul, the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader and force them to show sympathy for the “humiliated and insulted.”
Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works brings out clean water officials and embezzlers, bribe-takers and hypocrites who rob the people.
L.N. Tolstoy in his work showed all the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.
A.P. Chekhov's worries about the fate of Russian society were reflected in his works, giving him a writer whose talent makes one admire him to this day.
The literature of the late 19th century had a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also entered the struggle for their ideals. The mood of society at that time is reflected in painting, introducing into people’s consciousness the idea of equality and benefit for the whole society.
- Winter - message report (2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th grade the world around us)
Winter is considered the coldest season of all. It is characterized by severe frosts and snowstorms. Winter consists of three months called December, January, February. The duration of this time of year is 90 days.