On modern map This is Iraqi territory. The territory of Mesopotamia, open and accessible from all sides, was at the crossroads and was an arena of struggle for many tribes, peoples and states. These states - Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria, Urartu, etc., either rose, then fell into decline, or even completely disappeared. The peoples who inhabited this vast region were among the first to invent the wheel, coins and writing, and created wonderful works of art.
Cuneiform The writing system of the Western Asian region is associated with the so-called cuneiform script, which gradually developed from pictorial writing. Cuneiform was not an alphabet, that is, a sound writing, but contained ideograms that denoted either whole words, vowels, or syllables. The complex Sumerian texts resemble puzzles and were difficult to read. In total, the Sumerian cuneiform script, further developed by the Akkadians, had about 600 characters. Cuneiform texts on clay tablets: educational, religious, state - have become eternal monuments of this culture.
Thanks to the “clay books,” scientists were able to draw up a brief scheme for the periodization of the history of Ancient Mesopotamia. IV millennium BC - the time of collapse of the primitive communal system. III millennium BC - formation of the Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom. XXVII-XXV centuries BC. – the rise of Sumerian cities-states. XXIV-XXIII centuries BC. - power passes to the Semitic city of Mesopotamia - Akkad. XXIII-XXI centuries BC. new strengthening of the Sumerian cities of Ur and Agash. II millennium BC - Rise of Babylon. XIX-XII centuries BC. - unification of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule. I millennium BC: IX-VII centuries. BC. - strengthening the power of Assyria, which defeated Babylon. VII-VI centuries BC. - the new rise of Babylon, the Neo-Babylonian kingdom. 536 BC - conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, king of Iran. IV-II centuries BC. - the dominance of the Greco-Macedonian conquerors in Mesopotamia.
Art of Sumer and Akkad. The Sumerians and Akkadians are two ancient peoples who created the unique historical and cultural appearance of Mesopotamia in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. Having laid a network of canals from the Euphrates River, they irrigated the barren lands and built on them the cities of Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Lagash, etc. Each city was a separate state with its own ruler and army. Architectural monuments Very little remains of the Sumerian era. Beautiful examples of Sumerian sculpture have survived to this day.
Statue of the dignitary Ebih-Il from Mari. Mid-3rd millennium BC The most common type of sculpture was the adorant (from the Latin “adore” - “to worship”), which was a statue of a person praying - a figurine of a person standing with his hands folded on his chest, which was presented to the temple. The huge eyes of the adorants were especially carefully executed; they were often inlaid. main feature Sumerian sculpture is a convention of representation.
The objects found in the temple of Til Barsiba and housed in the Iraq Museum and the University of Chicago emphasize volumes inscribed in cylinders and triangles, as in the skirts, which are flat cones, or in the torsos, like triangles, with forearms, too. having a conical shape. Even the details of the head (nose, mouth, ears and hair) are reduced to triangular shapes.
"Standard" from the "royal" tomb at Ur. Fragment. Around 2600 BC. A mosaic of shells and carnelian forms a colorful design. The plate is divided into tiers, which depict scenes of “war and peace.” In the tombs of Ur, examples of mosaic art were found - two rectangular wooden plates, reinforced in the form of a steep gable roof, the so-called “standard” from Ur.
"Standard" from the "royal" tomb at Ur. “Standart of Ur” consists of two inclined panels connected by slats. Its purpose is unknown. There is an assumption that this item was worn on a pole (like a standard), hence its name. According to another theory, the "Standard of Ur" was part of a musical instrument. One panel of the standard depicts scenes of peaceful life, the other depicts military actions.
"Standard" from the "royal" tomb at Ur. The War Panel represents one of the earliest depictions of the Sumerian army. War chariots, drawn by four onagers each, pave the way, trampling the bodies of enemies; foot soldiers in cloaks are armed with spears; enemies are killed with axes, prisoners are led naked to the king, who also holds a spear in his hands. The "Peace Panel" depicts a ritual feast. Processions bring animals, fish and other food to the feast. Seated figures dressed in fringed skirts drink wine to the accompaniment of a musician playing the lyre. Scenes of this kind are very typical of cylinder seals of that time.
Ziggurat at Ur During the Akkadian period, a new form of ziggurat temple emerged. The ziggurat is a stepped pyramid with a small sanctuary on top. The lower tiers of the ziggurat, as a rule, were painted black, the middle tiers red, and the upper tiers white. The shape of the ziggurat obviously symbolizes the stairway to Heaven. During the Third Dynasty, the first ziggurat of colossal size was built at Ur, consisting of three tiers (with a base of 56 x 52 m and a height of 21 m). Rising above a rectangular foundation, it was directed to all four cardinal directions.
Ziggurat at Ur Currently, only two floors of its three terraces have survived. The walls of the platforms are tilted. From the base of this building, at a sufficient distance from the walls, a monumental staircase with two side branches begins at the level of the first terrace. At the top of the platforms was a temple dedicated to the moon god Sin. The staircase reached the very top of the temple, connecting the floors with each other. This monumental staircase responded to the desire for the gods to take an active part in worldly life.
Harp in the form of a bull's head from Ur. The inhabitants of Mesopotamia achieved amazing skill in making household items. Many similar items were discovered at the royal burial site at Ur. These are the “royal tombs”, where items made of precious metals and stones, weapons, animal figurines, and a harp were found. The inlaid head of a bull decorating the soundboard of the harp is beautifully executed.
The lyre was found in one of the royal tombs of Ur. The lyre was made of wood, which had decayed in places over time and was replaced by plastic. The front panel of the instrument was decorated with lapis lazuli, shells and red limestone. The resonant chamber of the lyre was decorated with a golden bull mask, which was also partially restored (horns). The bull's beard, fur and eyes are original, made of lapis lazuli. A similar lyre is depicted on the "World Panel" of the Standard of Ur.
Cylinder seal from Uruk. Special place in Sumerian visual heritage belongs to glyptic - carving on precious or semi-precious stone. Many Sumerian carved seals in the shape of a cylinder have survived to this day. The seals were rolled over a clay surface and received an impression - a miniature relief with a large number of characters and a clear, carefully constructed composition. For the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, a seal was not just a sign of ownership, but an object that had magical power. Seals were kept as talismans, given to temples, and placed in burials.
In Sumerian engravings, the most common motifs were ritual feasts with figures seated eating and drinking. Other motifs included the legendary heroes Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu fighting monsters, as well as anthropomorphic figures of a man-bull. Over time, this style gave way to a continuous frieze depicting fighting animals, plants or flowers.
Statue of Gudea, ruler of Lagash. After the death of King Naramsin, the decaying kingdom of Sumer and Akkad was captured by the nomadic Gutian tribes. But some cities in the south of Sumer managed to maintain their independence, including Lagash. Gudea, the ruler of Lagash became famous for the construction and restoration of temples. His statue is an outstanding work of Sumerian-Akkadian sculpture.
Victory stele of King Naramsin. A new type of memorial relief. Stone slabs different sizes, having a rounded top part and images with historical and religious themes. The stela relief of King Naramsin of Akkad tells of his victorious campaign against the Lullubey mountain tribe. The master managed to convey space and movement, the volume of figures and show not only the warriors, but the mountain landscape. The relief shows the signs of the sun and moon, symbolizing the deities - the patrons of royal power.
"Head of Sargon the Great" from Nineveh. During the Akkadian period there is a change in orientation in art, as interest concentrates more on the exaltation of the monarchy rather than on showing respect for the gods. Nevertheless, Sumerian traditions survived. The bronze head from Nineveh embodies the new achievements of Akkadian jewelers.
"Head of Sargon the Great" from Nineveh. The monument depicts a monarch with characteristic Semitic features (a long curly beard and hair tied in a bun). This is a true portrait, which rejects Sumerian geometric shapes and carefully depicts facial features: an aquiline nose, perfectly defined lips and set eyes. The beard is also carefully chiselled in each of its short and long curls, as is the weave of the hair.
A fragment of the decoration of the palace of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh Illustrates the military campaign of the Assyrians against Elam, which ended with the capture and sack of Susa. At the bottom of the fragment, on a triumphal chariot under an umbrella, stands the powerful king Ashurbanipal (ruled BC). Traditionally, the figure of the king is larger than all other characters.
Art of Assyria The motif of lion taming was part of a complex architectural and decorative system. It symbolized divine and royal power; the power emanating from the image protected the palace and extended the reign of the monarch. The colossal sculpture depicts a man strangling a lion. The hero (or spirit) is depicted from the front, which is rare for Assyrian art and is found only when depicting creatures with magical powers. In his right hand the hero holds a royal ceremonial weapon with a curved blade. He wears a short tunic and over it a fringed shawl, hiding one leg and leaving the other open. The magical effect of the image is that the hero looks directly into the eyes of the viewer. The hero's eyes, once brightly colored, were supposed to hypnotize the viewer
Statue of a fantastic winged bull - shedu Winged bulls with human heads were guardian geniuses, who were called shedu. The shedu was installed on the sides of the city gates or passages to the palace. Shedu were symbols that combined the properties of humans, animals and birds and, therefore, were a powerful means of protection against enemies.
Relief "Wounded Lioness" This small panel was part of an extensive composition depicting a royal lion hunt. The realism with which the artist depicted the wounded animal is amazing. Blood gushes from the mouth of a lion pierced by a royal arrow. Veins clearly appeared on the animal's face. At first glance, it seems that the artist sympathizes with the dying beast.
Art of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom. Gate of the Goddess Ishtar The ruins of the gate of the goddess Ishtar have survived to this day; this gate was for the Babylonians special meaning from them, past the Temple of Marduk, there was a Processional Road along which ceremonial processions took place. At the end XIX beginning XX centuries German archaeologists dug up a large number of fragments of the city wall, using which it was possible to completely restore the historical appearance of the Ishtar Gate, which was reconstructed (in full size) and is now exhibited in State museums Berlin.
Art of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom. The Gate of the Goddess Ishtar The Ishtar Gate is a huge arch with tall, massive crenellated towers on its four sides. The entire structure is covered with glazed bricks with relief images of the sacred animals of the god Marduk the bull and the fantastic creature sirrush. This last character (also called the Babylonian dragon) combines the characteristics of four representatives of the fauna: an eagle, a snake, an unidentified quadruped and a scorpion.
A lion. Tiled lining of the Processional Road from Babylon. Thanks to the delicate and sophisticated color scheme (yellow figures on a blue background), the monument looked light and festive. Strictly maintained intervals between animals tuned the viewer to the rhythm of the solemn procession.
Gate of all nations in Persepolis. BC. The original element of Achaemenid art is the column, which was widely used in all types of buildings. Initially, the columns were made of wood, and then covered with plaster and painted.
Palace at Persepolis Subsequently, at Persepolis, a stone column with a grooved shaft was used. The most original part of the Achaemenid column is the capital, from which half protrudes the carved bodies of two animals, usually bulls, dragons or man-bulls.
Art of the Achaemenid Empire. The love for everything grandiose and magnificent, characteristic of Achaemenid architecture, is absent in funerary structures, which were erected with the utmost modesty. In Pasargadae, the tomb of Cyrus II has been preserved - a strict structure eleven meters high, which vaguely resembles a Mesopotamian ziggurat. The tomb looks like a simple stone dwelling with a gable roof, installed on a platform consisting of seven steps. There was no decoration on the walls of the tomb; only above the entrance was the symbol of the supreme god Ahura Mazda, a large, complex rosette (a flower-shaped ornament) with gold and bronze inserts.
Sphinx relief of the palace in Persepolis The Sphinx depicted on the relief was a deity guarding the supreme Persian god Ahura Mazda, whom Darius I “raised to the rank” of a royal god. The divine essence of the sphinx is indicated by its headdress, decorated with horns.
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The emergence of civilization The time of the emergence of civilization is the middle of the 4th millennium BC. States - Sumer, Akkad, Babylon and Assyria.
Features of the culture of Mesopotamia Heterogeneity of culture (layering of cultural traditions of several states). Cultural continuity. Coexistence of primitive and ancient cultures (uneven development of cities). Special place material culture(formation of the irrigation system due to river floods).
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Houses of tablets In Mesopotamia there were schools for scribes - eddubba, which meant “house of tablets”. Under Eddubba, libraries were created in many branches of knowledge, and there were also private collections of “clay books.”
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Kuyundzhik Library Collection of King Ashurbanipal (7th century BC) is perhaps the world's first real, systematically compiled library. The king personally supervised its completion; on his orders, scribes throughout the country made copies of ancient or rare tablets kept in temple or private collections, or delivered the originals to Nineveh.
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The culture of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia was exclusively practical in nature - only those types of knowledge developed that could be used in life. Chemistry Architecture Mathematics Glyptics Geography Sculpture Medicine Astronomy
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Mathematics Hexadecimal counting system. The same number took on different meanings depending on the location.
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The mathematicians of Mesopotamia knew: the four rules of arithmetic, fractions, and knew how to solve algebraic equations with raising to square and cubic powers, with extraction of roots. knew the number n, were able to calculate the circumference, area of a circle, volume of a truncated pyramid, ratio between sides right triangle. A metric system and a system of weights were developed.
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Measuring territory land plot in Umma (Interfluve). Clay tablet. Babylonian clay tablet containing geometric problems. Beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e.
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Geography The inhabitants of Mesopotamia created one of the first “world maps”. They imagined the earth to be flat, floating in the middle of the ocean; Mesopotamia was depicted in the center of the earth. In the 1st millennium BC - they were familiar with the territory from modern Spain to modern India.
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Chemistry The use of practical chemistry in the technology of bronze production and glaze for painting ceramics and firing bricks.
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Medicine Medical procedures were described in special reference books, which contained information about hygiene rules, operations, for example, cataract removal, and the use of alcohol for disinfection during surgical operations. In Sumer, a system of hygienic rules developed, based on collective experience and folk traditions. For example, do not drink water from dirty dishes, wash your hands, limit yourself to certain types of food. Medical knowledge grew from practical experience and daily human activities.
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Sumerian medicine What did Sumerian doctors treat? Except kind words and a gentle look, plants were used (mustard, fir, pine, thyme, plum, pear, fig, willow, lecanora), natural substances (oil, asphalt resin, table salt), animal products (milk, internal organs of water snakes, turtle shells , wool). Sumerian doctor's recipe
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Astronomy was created by the Sumerians moon calendar, in which each month had 29 or 30 days, and the year consisted of 12 months and 354 days (plus an additional 11 days). Observations were made of the movement of the Sun, Moon, Venus and other planets. Solar and lunar eclipses, the appearance of comets, meteorites, and earthquakes were noted. Sundials and waterdials were used. The day began not at sunrise, but at sunset. It was divided into 12 parts of two hours each, the days formed into a 7-day week.
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Astrology Even in ancient times, the Sumerians distinguished twelve constellations of the Zodiac: GU ANNA (“heavenly bull”) - Taurus MASH TAB BA (“twins”) - Gemini DUB (“claws”, “pincers”) - Cancer UR GULA (“lion”) - Leo AB SIN (“her father was Sin”) - Virgo ZI BAAN NA (“heavenly destiny”) - Libra GIR TAB (“he who cuts with claws”) - Scorpio PA BIL (“protector”) - Sagittarius SUKHUR MASH ( "goat fish") - Capricorn GU ("master of the waters") - Aquarius SIM MAX ("pisces") - Pisces KU MAL ("dwelling in the fields") - Aries
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Ideographic writing The basis of writing is pictorial signs (pictograms), which are ideograms that convey not a word, but a concept, and most often not one, but a number of associatively related concepts. The number of characters in the Sumerian language reached a thousand.
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Sumerian Cuneiform A unique form of writing: Wedge-shaped characters were extruded with a sharp stick onto a wet clay tablet. The tablet was burned on fire. The earliest inscriptions date back to 2900 BC.
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Religious beliefs The peoples of Mesopotamia are characterized by polytheism - belief in many gods with different protective functions: the Mother Goddess, the patroness of agriculture, fertility and childbirth. The deification of those forces of nature, the importance of which was especially great for agriculture - sky, earth, water. Patrons of cities (universal deity, the embodiment of all higher powers) Good and evil spirits.
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Religion of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia The Sumerians argued that everything in the world belonged to the gods - temples were not the place of residence of the gods, who were obliged to take care of people, but the granaries of the gods - barns.
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Temple-Ziggurat The main type of building is a multi-stage Ziggurat tower. The temple was based on a parallelepiped; there were no smooth walls, only ledges and niches. An ordinary Ziggurat is truncated pyramids placed one on top of the other, painted in different colors.
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Temple-Ziggurat The ziggurat was a massive structure with sloping walls, completely monolithic, except for a small temple at the top. Its dimensions were enormous; more than 90 m high, the length of each side of the square base was also more than 90 m. The base of the structure was built from clay or clay bricks, additionally reinforced with layers of reed or asphalt; outside it was surrounded by a thick wall of baked bricks.
In the IV - I millennium BC. e. in the lower reaches of the large rivers Tigris and Euphrates lived peoples of high culture, to whom we owe the basics of mathematical knowledge and the division of the clock dial into 12 parts. Here they learned to calculate with great accuracy the movement of the planets and the time of revolution of the Moon around the Earth. In Mesopotamia they knew how to build the highest towers, using brick as a building material, draining swampy areas, laying canals and irrigating fields, planting orchards, inventing the wheel, Potter's wheel and built ships, knew how to spin and weave, and made tools and weapons from copper and bronze. The rich mythology of the peoples of Mesopotamia had a huge influence on the culture of Europe and Asia. Subsequently, some of their legends became part of the holy book of the Bible.
Example of cuneiform
2200-2000 BC e.
Unlike architecture
Babylon. Reconstruction
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Review questions:
3. What are the outstanding achievements of the culture of the Nars of Ancient Asia? In the IV - I millennium BC. e. in the lower reaches of the large rivers Tigris and Euphrates lived peoples of high culture, to whom we owe the basics of mathematical knowledge and the division of the clock dial into 12 parts. Here they learned to calculate with great accuracy the movement of the planets and the time of revolution of the Moon around the Earth. In Mesopotamia they knew how to build the highest towers, where they used brick as a building material, drained swampy areas, laid canals and irrigated fields, planted orchards, invented the wheel, the potter's wheel and built ships, knew how to spin and weave, made tools from copper and bronze and weapons. The rich mythology of the peoples of Mesopotamia had a huge influence on the culture of Europe and Asia. Subsequently, some of their legends became part of the holy book of the Bible.
The Sumerians entered the history of world culture primarily due to the invention of writing, which arose here about 200-300 years earlier than in Egypt. It was originally pictographic letter. They wrote on “tablets” on soft clay; for this purpose, reed or wooden sticks, sharpened in such a way that when pressed into wet clay they left a wedge-shaped mark. The tablets were then fired. At first they wrote from right to left, but it was inconvenient because right hand covered what she had written. Gradually we moved to more rational writing - from left to right.
“Tablets” made of soft clay and reed writing sticks
Example of cuneiform
Huge role in public life religion played. In Mesopotamia there was no developed funeral cult, there was no idea of resurrection and immortality. Death seemed inevitable and natural; it was only real earthly life. In this struggle for life, the gods can come to the aid of a person; they must be appeased, they must be served. In Mesopotamia, the heavenly bodies, water and other natural forces were deified.
God Enlil (lord of wind and water) is one of the greatest deities, who was the son of the sky god Anu and the earth goddess Ki. Enlil is the god of fertility. According to the mythology of the ancient Sumerians, Enlil divided heaven and earth, gave people agricultural tools and helped develop cattle breeding, agriculture, and introduced them to culture. But he attributes not only good things to him. Enlil, in order to teach people a lesson for their stupidity, sent natural disasters to them, and in the epic of Gilgamesh, it is mentioned that Enlil was the initiator of the global flood in order to destroy all of humanity. Enlil is often portrayed as an insidious, evil, cruel deity. His wife, Ninlil, was a goddess of extraordinary beauty and intelligence. He also had sons - the moon god Nannu, the god of the underground element Norgal, the warrior Ninurta and the ambassador of the gods Namtar.
Compared to Egypt, few monuments of art of the peoples of Mesopotamia have reached us. There was no stone in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, and how construction material They used short-lived raw brick. Temples, houses and fortress walls were created from clay. Only mountains of clay and garbage, which were previously beautiful cities, have survived to this day. However, from the remains found, we can conclude that here, as in Egypt, monumental architecture played a leading role.
The center of the city in Mesopotamia was the temple of the patron god, next to which stood a multi-stage tower, the so-called ziggurat. The ziggurat could have from three to seven terraces connected by wide, gentle ramps. At the very top was the sanctuary of the god, his resting place. Only dedicated priests were allowed there. The facing of the ziggurat was made of baked bricks and painted, with each tier painted in its own color, black, red or white. The terrace areas were occupied by gardens with artificial irrigation. During solemn services, processions of gods ascended the ramps of the temple to the sanctuary. The ziggurat was not only a religious building, but also a kind of observatory of antiquity. From the top of the ziggurats, the priests observed the planets and stars. Temples were the center of knowledge. A clear idea of the architecture of Mesopotamia is given by two-thirds of the preserved ziggurat of the moon god Nannu, built in 2200-2000. BC. in ancient Ur. Its three huge terraces tapering upward with three flights of stairs still make a majestic impression.
Ziggurat is a stepped temple. Reconstruction
Ziggurat of the moon god Nanna at Ur
2200-2000 BC e.
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The fine art of Mesopotamia looks relatively poor and primitive. Beautiful examples of Sumerian sculpture created at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC have survived to this day. e. A very common type of sculpture was the so-called adorant - a statue of a praying person with his hands folded on his chest, sitting or standing. The character's legs are very strong and are depicted parallel on a round base. Not much attention is paid to the body; it serves only as a pedestal for the head. The face was usually made more carefully than the body, although it had to comply with certain conventions, which deprived the sculpture of individual features: the nose, eyes, and ears were emphasized. Large ears (for the Sumerians - receptacles of wisdom), wide open eyes, in which a pleading expression is combined with the surprise of a magical epiphany, hands folded in a prayerful gesture. This created the image of an all-hearing and all-seeing human figure. An inscription was usually engraved on the shoulder of the adorant, indicating who its owner was. Finds are known where the first inscription was erased and later replaced by another.
During the rise of Assyria, cities were powerful fortresses surrounded by high walls with numerous towers. The entire city was dominated by a formidable citadel - the king's palace. The palace of King Sargon II in Dur-Sharrukin (8th century BC) can give an idea of it. With a total area of the city of 18 hectares, the palace occupied 10 hectares. It rose on an artificially erected platform 14 m high, with wide ramps leading to it, along which chariots could pass. The palace had more than 200 rooms: residential and utility rooms, state rooms and religious buildings. On the sides of the entrances to the palace there were five-meter statues of winged bulls “shedu” with the heads of people and the wings of eagles. These were the guardian geniuses of the king and his house. Interestingly, these statues had five legs - thus achieving the illusion of movement towards the viewer. Favorite subjects are wars and victory feasts, hunting wild animals and solemn processions of kings and nobles.
Palace of King Sargon II in Dur-Sharrukin Shedu
During the period of the new rise of Babylon, the capital of the state turned into a flourishing fortress city. According to Herodotus, two chariots could move freely on the Babylonian walls. A wide road made of white and red tiles led from the Ishtar Gate to the city center. The double gates themselves were an outstanding piece of architecture. The tall crenellated towers with an arched passage were decorated with a mosaic of multi-colored tiles. The magnificent friezes depicted a procession of fantastic lions and griffins - the guardians of the city. There were 53 temples in Babylon, the most majestic of which was the temple of the city's patron god Marduk. Marduk's ziggurat rose 90 m in height. The sanctuary was covered with sheet gold, and it contained a golden statue of Marduk weighing about 2.5 tons. In history, this majestic structure included under the name of the Tower of Babel.
Babylon. Reconstruction
The Greeks considered the famous “Hanging Gardens” of Queen Semiramis to be one of the wonders of the world. Architecturally, they were a pyramid consisting of 4 tiers-platforms. They were supported by columns up to 25 meters high. To prevent the seepage of irrigation water, the surface of each platform was first covered with a layer of reeds mixed with asphalt, then two layers of brick, and lead slabs were laid on top. On them lay a thick carpet of fertile soil, where seeds of various herbs, flowers, shrubs and trees were planted. The pyramid resembled an ever-blooming green hill. Pipes were placed in the cavity of one of the columns, through which water from the Euphrates was constantly supplied by pumps to the upper tier of the gardens, from where it, flowing in streams and small waterfalls, irrigated the plants of the lower tiers.
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The culture of Mesopotamia, one of the oldest cultures on earth, amazes everyone who gets acquainted with it with its originality. The original writing system, the high level of development of law, and the epic tradition of Mesopotamia had a significant influence on the subsequent development of world culture.
Review questions:
1. What are architectural features Ancient Mesopotamia? Tell us about the most important achievements of temple and urban architecture?
2. Identify the leading topics visual arts Mesopotamia. What circumstances and reasons are they due to?
3. What are the outstanding achievements of the culture of the Nars of Ancient Asia?
Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia- Mesopotamia (ancient Greek Μεσοποταμία - “Interfluve”), also Mesopotamia - the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, on the territory of modern Iraq, one of the cradles of Eurasian civilization.
- In Mesopotamia, in ancient times, there were several states - including the Sumerian cities of Kish, Uruk (biblical Erech), Ur, Lagash, Umma, the Semitic city of Akshak, the Amorite/Sumerian city of Larsa, as well as the states of Akkad, Elam, Assyria, Media, Armenia and Babylon.
- * Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) –
- 2.5-2.6 million years ago - 10 thousand years ago
- * Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) –
- 10 thousand - 6 thousand years ago
- * Neolithic (New Stone Age) -
- 6 thousand - 4 thousand years ago
- Sumer - a civilization that existed in the southeast
- Mesopotamia in the IV-III millennia BC It is considered one of the first civilizations on Earth.
- The Sumerians are credited with the invention of cuneiform writing, the wheel, baked bricks, and irrigation and watering systems.
- The oldest written documents found in excavations of the ancient city of Uruk date back to 3300 BC. e. The appearance of writing coincides with the development of cities and the accompanying complete restructuring of society. At the same time, the wheel and knowledge of copper smelting appeared in Mesopotamia.
- Clay tablet from Shuruppak, ca. 2600 BC
- Gilgamesh - king of the Sumerian city of Uruk, ruled at the end of the 27th - beginning of the 26th centuries BC. e.
- "The Epic of Gilgamesh" , or the poem “About Seeing Everything” (ša nagba imuru), is one of the oldest surviving literary works in the world, created in the 22nd century BC
- Modern look
- Ziggurat (from the Babylonian word sigguratu - peak, including the top of a mountain) - a religious building in ancient Mesopotamia.
- Modern look
- Ziggurat Etemenaki (reconstruction)
- The sexagesimal counting system used in Ancient Mesopotamia.
- Ishtar Gate in Babylon
- relief from the Ishtar Gate
- The Babylonians introduced world culture positional number system, precise time measurement system, they first to divide an hour into 60 minutes, and a minute for 60 seconds, they learned to measure the area of geometric shapes, distinguish stars from planets and devoted every day to their own “invented” seven day week a separate deity.
- The Babylonians left to their descendants and astrology, the science of the supposed connection of human destinies with the location of the heavenly bodies. All this is far from a complete listing of the heritage of Babylonian culture.
- The Assyrian Empire lasted for about 1,000 years, from the 17th century BC. until the 7th century BC
- Sargon II (right) with his heir Sennacherib (left)
- King Sennacherib on the throne
- storming of the city by the Assyrians
- King Ashurbanipal on the hunt
- Civilizations in Mesopotamia are among the oldest on Earth
- The peoples of Mesopotamia made a huge contribution to the development of world culture
- The inventions and discoveries of the peoples of Ancient Mesopotamia have not yet lost their significance.
- Reports on topics:
- Architecture of Ancient Mesopotamia
- Fine arts in Ancient Mesopotamia.
- Religions of Ancient Mesopotamia.
- Development of science in Ancient Mesopotamia
- The significance of the achievements of the peoples of Ancient Mesopotamia for modern times.
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Mesopotamia lat. Mesopotamia - “Interfluve”
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Mesopotamia is the country where the world's oldest civilization arose, which lasted approx. 25 centuries, from the creation of writing to the conquest of Babylon by the Persians in 539 BC.
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This country, separated from the rest of Western Asia by barely passable deserts, began to be settled around the 6th millennium BC. e. During the 6th-4th millennia, the tribes who settled here lived extremely poorly: barley, sown on a narrow strip of land between swamps and scorched desert and irrigated by unregulated and uneven floods, brought small and unstable harvests. Crops worked better on lands that were irrigated by canals diverted from the small Diyala River, a tributary of the Tigris. Only in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. individual groups of communities managed to create rational drainage and irrigation systems in the Euphrates basin.
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People of Mesopotamia
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Religion. The religion of Mesopotamia in all its main aspects was created by the Sumerians. Over time, Akkadian names of gods began to replace Sumerian ones, and personifications of the elements gave way to star deities. Local gods could also lead the pantheon of a particular region, as happened with Marduk in Babylon or Ashur in the Assyrian capital. But religious system in general, the view of the world and the changes taking place in it differed little from the original ideas of the Sumerians. None of the Mesopotamian deities were the exclusive source of power, none had supreme power. The full power belonged to the assembly of gods, which, according to tradition, elected a leader and approved everything important decisions. Nothing was set in stone or taken for granted. But the instability of space led to intrigue among the gods, which meant it promised danger and created anxiety among mortals.
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Economy. The economy of Mesopotamia was determined natural conditions region. The fertile soils of the valley produced rich harvests. The south specialized in date palm cultivation. The extensive pastures of the nearby mountains made it possible to support large herds of sheep and goats. On the other hand, the country experienced a shortage of stone, metal, wood, raw materials for the production of dyes and other vital necessary materials. The excess of some goods and the shortage of others led to the development of trade relations.
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At the same time, there was always the possibility that events would take a turn better side, if a person behaves correctly. The temple tower (ziggurat) was the place where the celestials stayed. It symbolized the human desire to establish a connection between heaven and earth. As a rule, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia relied little on the favor of the gods. They tried to appease them by performing increasingly complex rituals.
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Writing and science. The supreme rule of law was a characteristic feature of Mesopotamia historical period and may even have preceded it, but the effectiveness of legislative activity is associated with the use of written evidence and documents. There is reason to believe that the invention of writing by the ancient Sumerians was primarily driven by concern for private and communal rights. Already the earliest texts known to us testify to the need to record everything, be it objects needed for temple exchange or gifts intended for the deity. Such documents were certified by a cylinder seal.
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The most ancient writing was pictographic, and its signs depicted objects of the surrounding world - animals, plants, etc. The signs formed groups, each of which, consisting, for example, of images of animals, plants or objects, was composed in a certain sequence. Over time, the lists acquired the character of a kind of reference books on zoology, botany, mineralogy, etc. Since the Sumerian contribution to the development of local civilization was perceived as very significant, and after the establishment of the Akkadian dynasty, spoken Sumerian became rarely used, the Akkadians did everything in their power to preserve the Sumerian language. Efforts in this direction did not stop with the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur and continued into Amorite times. The result was the creation of word lists, numerous Sumerian-Akkadian dictionaries, and studies of grammar.
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There were many other cultural phenomena that were systematized thanks to writing. Among them, a special place is occupied by omens, through which people tried to find out their future through various signs, such as the shape of the liver of a sacrificed sheep or the location of the stars. The list of omens helped the priest predict the consequences of certain phenomena. It was also common to compile lists of the most commonly used legal terms and formulas. The ancient Mesopotamians also achieved significant success in mathematics and astronomy. According to modern researchers, the Egyptian mathematics system was crude and primitive compared to the Babylonian one; It is believed that even Greek mathematics learned a lot from the achievements of earlier Mesopotamian mathematics. The so-called was also a highly developed area. "Chaldean (i.e. Babylonian) astronomy."
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CULTURE Saterial culture. Ceramics gradually improved in terms of manufacturing techniques, variety of shapes and ornaments, this can be traced back to ancient culture Jarmo through other prehistoric cultures until the emergence of a unified technology for the production of stone and metal vessels. It is now impossible to say what important discoveries in the field of ceramics were brought to Mesopotamia from outside. A significant advance was the introduction of the closed kiln, which allowed the craftsman to achieve higher temperatures and more easily control them, resulting in high-quality ware in terms of shape and finish. Such ovens were first discovered at Tepe Gawre, north of modern Mosul. The oldest known examples of carefully crafted stamp seals were found in the same settlement.
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Mesopotamia created the oldest known structures of monumental architecture in the north - in Tepe Gavre, in the south - in Eridu. The high technical level of this time can be judged by the aqueduct in Jervan, approx. 50 km through which water flowed to Nineveh. Mesopotamian craftsmen brought metal work to the level high art. This can be judged by items made of precious metals, remarkable examples of which, dating back to the early dynastic period, were found in burials in Ur; a silver vase of the Lagash ruler Entemena is also known.
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Sculpture in Mesopotamia reached high level development back in prehistoric times. There are known cylindrical seals with pressed images, the rolling of which on clay made it possible to obtain convex prints. Examples of large forms of the ancient era are the reliefs on the Naram-Suen stele, carefully executed portrait sculptures of the ruler of Lagash Gudea and other monuments. Mesopotamian sculpture reached its highest development in the 1st millennium BC. in Assyria, when colossal figures and exquisite reliefs were created with images of animals, in particular, galloping horses, wild donkeys being killed by hunters, and dying lionesses. During the same period, magnificent reliefs were sculptured depicting individual episodes of military operations.
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Little is known about the development of painting. The mural painting could not survive due to moisture and soil conditions, but surviving examples from different eras show that this type of art was widespread. Magnificent examples of painted ceramics were found, in particular, in Ashur. They indicate that their creators preferred bright colors.