The Napoleonic Wars became the most important stage in the history of the development of the entire European continent. Russia also did not remain aloof from these battles, taking part in the Third, Fourth and Fifth military campaigns in Prussia and the Baltics. And later becoming the first country that managed to oppose the powerful enemy army with the spirit and courage of a simple soldier and the military genius of Russian commanders. Actually, the first successful one for Russian forces The Patriotic War of 1812 became an episode of the Napoleonic wars. Probably every one of our compatriots knows briefly about it. Well, who hasn’t heard about the battle of Borodino or Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow? Let's take a closer look at this page of our history.
Patriotic War of 1812: briefly about the background
The course of the Napoleonic wars in their first decade was extremely unsuccessful for their opponents French Emperor. Trafalgar Friedland and a number of other significant victories made Napoleon the ruler of all of Europe. In 1807, as a result of military defeats, the emperor was forced to sign the Treaty of Tilsit, humiliating for Russia. Its main condition was the Russians’ promise to join the continental blockade of Great Britain. However, this was unprofitable for Russia both politically and economically. Alexander I used the treaty only for a respite and recuperation, after which Russia violated the terms of the continental blockade in 1810. This, as well as Alexander I’s desire for revenge and the return of territorial possessions lost during previous battles, are the main reasons for the Patriotic War of 1812. Both sides understood the inevitability of a clash already in 1810. Napoleon actively transferred his armies to Poland, creating a bridgehead there. In turn, the Russian emperor concentrated the main military forces in the western provinces.
Patriotic War of 1812: briefly about the main events
Napoleon's invasion began on June 12, 1812, when he crossed the Neman River with his 600,000-strong army. Russian troops numbering 240 thousand people were forced to retreat before superior enemy forces. Only small battles took place, such as near Polotsk. The first serious battle took place on August 3 in the Smolensk region. The French won, but the Russians managed to save part of their army. The next battle took place when the Russian armies were controlled by the talented strategist M. Kutuzov. We are talking about the famous Battle of Borodino, which took place at the end of August. Choosing wisely geographical area and positional disposition of troops, domestic commander managed to inflict huge losses on the enemy army. The Battle of Borodino ended late in the evening of August 12 with a nominal victory for Napoleon. However, the heavy losses of the French army, coupled with the lack of support in foreign lands, contributed greatly to its future retreat from Russia. On September 2, Kutuzov made what turned out to be a far-sighted decision to leave the capital, which Napoleon entered a day later. The latter stayed there until October 7, awaiting capitulation or at least the start of negotiations on the Russian side. However, a fire in the city, the depletion of supplies in the Napoleonic army and the guerrilla war of local peasants forced him to leave the capital. From mid-November the war took a different turn. Now the hungry and exhausted French army is leaving Russia along a devastated path, and mobile Russian formations are actively destroying it in skirmishes. The final defeat occurred on November 14-16 near the Berezina River. Only 30 thousand Napoleonic soldiers left Russia.
Patriotic War of 1812: briefly about the results
The war had a major impact on Russian history. The results of the Patriotic War of 1812 are contradictory. On the one hand, it caused colossal damage to the domestic economy, infrastructure and human potential. On the other hand, it allowed the Russian troops to begin a foreign campaign already in January 1813, which ended with the destruction and restoration of the Bourbons in it. This actually leads to the restoration of reactionary regimes throughout the continent. An important influence was also exerted on internal socio-economic and cultural processes in Russia. Thus, the officers who visited Europe formed the backbone of the democratic movements in the country that led to 1825.
The official cause of the war was the violation of the terms of the Tilsit Peace by Russia and France. Russia, despite the blockade of England, accepted its ships under neutral flags in its ports. France annexed the Duchy of Oldenburg to its possessions. Napoleon considered Emperor Alexander's demand for the withdrawal of troops from the Duchy of Warsaw and Prussia to be offensive. The War of 1812 was becoming inevitable.
Here summary Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon, at the head of a huge 600,000-strong army, crossed the Neman on June 12, 1812. Russian army, numbering only 240 thousand people, was forced to retreat deeper into the country. In the battle of Smolensk, Bonaparte failed to win a complete victory and defeat the united 1st and 2nd Russian armies.
In August, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed commander-in-chief. He not only had the talent of a strategist, but also enjoyed respect among soldiers and officers. He decided to give a general battle to the French near the village of Borodino. The positions for the Russian troops were chosen most successfully. The left flank was protected by flushes (earthen fortifications), and the right flank by the Koloch River. The troops of N.N. Raevsky were located in the center. and artillery.
Both sides fought desperately. The fire of 400 guns was directed at the flashes, which were courageously guarded by the troops under the command of Bagration. As a result of 8 attacks, Napoleonic troops suffered huge losses. They managed to capture Raevsky's batteries (in the center) only at about 4 o'clock in the afternoon, but not for long. The French attack was contained thanks to a bold raid by the lancers of the 1st Cavalry Corps. Despite all the difficulties of bringing the old guard, the elite troops, into battle, Napoleon never risked it. Late in the evening the battle ended. The losses were enormous. The French lost 58, and the Russians 44 thousand people. Paradoxically, both commanders declared victory in the battle.
The decision to leave Moscow was made by Kutuzov at the council in Fili on September 1. This was the only way to maintain a combat-ready army. On September 2, 1812, Napoleon entered Moscow. Waiting for a peace proposal, Napoleon stayed in the city until October 7. As a result of fires, most of Moscow was destroyed during this time. Peace with Alexander 1 was never concluded.
Kutuzov stopped 80 km away. from Moscow in the village of Tarutino. He covered Kaluga, which had large reserves of fodder and the arsenals of Tula. The Russian army, thanks to this maneuver, was able to replenish its reserves and, importantly, update its equipment. At the same time, French foraging detachments were subject to partisan attacks. The detachments of Vasilisa Kozhina, Fyodor Potapov, and Gerasim Kurin launched effective strikes, depriving the French army of the opportunity to replenish food supplies. The special detachments of A.V. Davydov also acted in the same way. and Seslavina A.N.
After leaving Moscow, Napoleon's army failed to get through to Kaluga. The French were forced to retreat along the Smolensk road, without food. Early severe frosts worsened the situation. The final defeat of the Great Army took place in the battle of the Berezina River on November 14–16, 1812. Of the 600,000-strong army, only 30,000 hungry and frozen soldiers left Russia. The manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War was issued by Alexander 1 on December 25 of the same year. The victory of 1812 was complete.
In 1813 and 1814, a campaign of the Russian army took place, liberating European countries from the rule of Napoleon. Russian troops acted in alliance with the armies of Sweden, Austria, and Prussia. As a result, in accordance with the Treaty of Paris on May 18, 1814, Napoleon lost his throne and France returned to its 1793 borders.
The Patriotic War of 1812 was the greatest test for the Russian people and at the same time a turning point in the spiritual life of the entire vast country.
The enemy's invasion of Russia, the Battle of Borodino, the fire of Moscow, the intense and finally victorious struggle against Napoleon's armies caused a powerful popular upsurge, and did not affect only the “upper floors” of society. “This people,” Herzen wrote about Russia, “is convinced that at home they are invincible; this thought lies in the depths of the consciousness of every peasant, this is his political religion. When he saw a foreigner on his land as an enemy, he threw down the plow and grabbed his gun. Dying on the battlefield "for the white king and Holy Mother of God“- as he said, he actually died for the inviolability of Russian territory.”
Beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812
Napoleon On June 12, 1812, Napoleon’s “Great Army” (649 thousand people), having crossed the Neman, invaded Russia. Her invasion can hardly be called unexpected. Two weeks before, Paris notified the European treaties about the severance of diplomatic relations with Russia, and on June 22, the French ambassador in St. Petersburg handed a corresponding note to the head of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Capture Russian territory and annexing it to his possessions was not part of Napoleon’s plans. He hoped to defeat the Russian army in a series of border battles and force Alexander I to conclude a peace treaty beneficial for France.
M. B. Barclay de Tolly
The Russian army numbered 590 thousand people, but a little more than 210 thousand could be put up against Napoleon. It was divided into three groups far apart from each other (under the command of generals M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration and A. P. Tormasova).
While inferior to the French army in numbers, organization, and control, the Russian army had no less combat experience. The Russian soldier was rightfully considered the best in Europe. Many generals in training and talent could compete with the famous Napoleonic marshals.
The "Great Army" had great virtues. But there was a serious flaw in it, which was clearly revealed during the war. Motley by national composition, it was deprived of cohesion, unity, moral superiority, which distinguished Russian army.
The first stage of the Patriotic War of 1812 includes the retreat of the Russian army from the Neman to Borodino. This retreat was not a simple withdrawal of some troops under pressure from others. It largely determined the further course of events.
Firstly, Napoleon failed to defeat the Russian armies in one or more pitched battles.
Secondly, by waging constant rearguard battles with the French, Russian troops gained experience, recognized strong and weaknesses enemy, showed miracles of heroism. Near Mogilev, near the village of Saltanovka, during a battle with the units of Marshal Davout, Lieutenant General N.N. Raevsky, taking the hands of his two sons, 10 and 17 years old, rushed to attack the enemy, dragging the soldiers with him. N.N. Raevsky himself was not inclined to exaggerate the significance of this episode, but admitted that he was ahead of the soldiers in that battle and that his sons were nearby.
Thirdly, the 1st and 2nd Russian armies managed, despite the desperate efforts of the French, to unite near Smolensk. Now they could more successfully resist Napoleon and prepare for a serious battle with him. The retreat showed the inconsistency of mediocrities, such as the author of the extremely unsuccessful war plan, General E. Foul. They were replaced by talented generals like A.P. Ermolov.
Fourthly, the “great army” lost its fighting qualities as it moved deeper into the country. The population fought the enemy. Suffering from hunger and thirst, Napoleon's soldiers robbed and looted. French morale was steadily declining.
Battle of Borodino.
In August 1812, a new commander-in-chief, Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov, arrived in the Russian army. He replaced M.B. Barclay de Tolly in this post.
M. I. Kutuzov
In 1812, Mikhail Illarionovich was the oldest “full” general in terms of age and time of service. His family's roots went back to the 13th century. M.I. Kutuzov was a military comrade-in-arms of P.A. Rumyantsev and A.V. Suvorov (he spent 50 of his 67 years on military campaigns). He served successfully under Catherine II and Paul I, and was not only a respected general, but also a careful courtier. His relationship with Alexander I was not so successful; the emperor could not forgive him for the defeat at Austerlitz.
The masses of nobles and soldiers saw him as “one of their own,” in contrast to the foreigner and irreplaceable man M. B. Barclay de Tolly. Back in June, the Moscow and St. Petersburg nobility chose M.I. Kutuzov as head of the militia.
The issue of appointing the commander-in-chief was decided by an emergency committee consisting of the most prominent dignitaries of Russia. After considering a number of candidates, the committee settled on M.I. Kutuzov and voted for him almost unanimously.
On September 3, the commander-in-chief decided to give a general battle near the village of Borodino, 110 kilometers from Moscow. In the famous Battle of Borodino, sung by A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, L.N. Tolstoy, 125,000-strong Russian and 134,000-strong French troops fought. On September 7, the battle began with a French attack on the first flank of the Russian position and their capture of the village of Borodino.
P. I. Bagration
As it turned out, it was a distraction. Napoleon intended to break through the Russian positions in the center, bypass the left flank, push the Russian army back from the Old Smolensk Road and clear his way to Moscow. Napoleon directed the main attack on the opposite flank, on Bagration's flushes. The battle raged for more than 5 hours. During the eighth attack, General Bagration was mortally wounded. Command of the flank passed to General P. P. Konovnitsyn. Around noon, at the cost of huge losses, the French captured the fortifications. Russian troops retreated to the nearest hills. An attempt by the French cavalry to dislodge the Russians from their new position failed.
At the same time, two French attacks on Raevsky’s battery were repulsed. While the third attack was being prepared, the Russian cavalry, led by Cossack ataman M.I. Platov and General F.I. Uvarov, was behind the French lines. Several hours passed before the French organized a response. During this time, Kutuzov transferred reinforcements to the sites of the main battles. The third, decisive attack on Raevsky’s battery was launched at about two o’clock in the afternoon. The fight lasted more than an hour and a half. Under pressure from superior forces, the Russians were forced to retreat. Napoleon threw his cavalry after them. But the Russian cavalry responded with a counterattack, and the French were stopped. Wedged into the defense of the Russian troops, they were unable to achieve a breakthrough. The day ended with the roar of artillery. With the onset of darkness, Napoleon ordered the abandonment of a number of captured points, including Raevsky's battery.
The attacking side usually suffers larger losses. In battles, Napoleon lost 58.5 thousand soldiers and officers. However, as the battle progressed, the armies repeatedly changed roles - the Russians knocked out the French from their captured positions. Russian troops suffered heavy losses from enemy artillery. The Russian army had a slight advantage in the number of guns, but the French fired more concentratedly. The actions of the Russian artillery were affected by the death of its commander, General A.I. Kutaisov, at the height of the battle. Later, the brave Bagration died from his wound.
Five horses were killed on this day near M.B. Barclay de Tolly, 9 or 12 of his adjutants were wounded.
Neither Napoleon (the defeat of the Russian army) nor M.I. Kutuzov (the salvation of Moscow) managed to achieve the main goals facing the battle. The Russians lost 45.6 thousand people killed and wounded (among them 29 generals), the French lost about 60 thousand people (among them 49 generals). Militarily, Napoleonic troops turned out to be, perhaps, more trained; they were managed more professionally. But in a moral and even political sense, Borodino was a victory for Russia. This battle broke the spirit of the conquerors, their confidence in the final victory, and weakened the offensive activity of the French.
The turning point in the war, however, was ahead. Napoleonic troops continued to advance, the Russians retreated.
Fire of Moscow.
The beginning of the turning point was the abandonment of Moscow by M. I. Kutuzov - the most dramatic event of the war of 1812. The decision to give the ancient capital to the enemy was made on September 13 at a military council in Fili. Kutuzov convened a military council and raised the question of whether to give a new battle at the walls of the ancient capital or retreat without a fight. Some generals (Bennigsen, Dokhturov, Uvarov, Konovnitsyn, Ermolov) insisted on a battle. Barclay objected, pointing out that in the event of an unsuccessful outcome, the army would not be able to quickly retreat through the narrow streets big city and a disaster will occur. Kutuzov was also not happy with the position taken by the Russian army. “As long as the army still exists and is able to resist the enemy,” he said, “until then there will still be hope of ending the war with honor, but with the destruction of the army, not only Moscow, but all of Russia would be lost.”
The question arose in which direction to retreat. Barclay suggested going to the Volga: “The Volga, flowing through the most fertile provinces, feeds Russia.” If they had accepted this proposal, they would have had to retreat along the Vladimir Road. But Kutuzov did not agree: “We should now think not about the regions that feed Russia, but about those that supply the army, and therefore we should take the direction of the midday (southern) provinces.” It was decided to go along the Ryazan road. Closing the council, Kutuzov said: “No matter what happens, I accept responsibility before the sovereign, the Fatherland and the army.”
Muscovites left the city. Almost 270 thousand people left, about 6 thousand remained.
The Russian army also left Moscow. When he managed to break away from the enemy, Kutuzov performed his famous march maneuver. Leaving the Ryazan road, the army moved along country roads, through Podolsk, to Kaluga. There were food warehouses in Kaluga and its environs.
Meanwhile, the French entered a deserted, orphaned Moscow.
Already on September 14, the great Moscow fire began. The fire burned for 6 days. There are still disputes about who set fire to Moscow. Now the version that the French command did this “to intimidate the Russians” has been completely rejected. The French generals could not help but understand that it would be difficult for them to place their army in a burned city. There was also no convincing evidence for the version that Moscow was burned on the orders of the Russian authorities, who wanted to deprive the enemy of shelter and food. Many pointed to Moscow Governor-General F.V. Rostopchin. He actually burned down his estate near Moscow when the enemy was approaching him. However, Rostopchin denied his involvement in the Moscow fire. The third version looks much more plausible. In a mostly wooden city abandoned by its residents, from which the police had left and fire trucks had left, in which looters from the “Great Army” and ordinary robbers were operating, fires were inevitable. And in dry and windy weather they quickly merged into one big fire. After all, Russian cities burned before and after that, even in peacetime and without any “order”.
The fire of Moscow, which burned three-quarters of the city's buildings, put Napoleon in a hopeless situation. All his attempts to persuade Alexander I to negotiate and establish trade with residents of the Moscow region failed.
In addition, the famous commander literally “lost” the Russian army. Having started moving along the Ryazan road, it suddenly switched to the Kaluga highway and stopped near the village of Tarutino, 80 km southwest of Moscow. With this maneuver, Kutuzov blocked the enemy’s path to Kaluga with its food supplies, to the Tula arms factories and the Bryansk foundry. Having a 100,000-strong Russian army in the rear, Napoleon could not move towards St. Petersburg. Retreating to Smolensk was also dangerous.
Guerrilla warfare.
Napoleon's capture of Moscow sparked a full-scale people's war against the French. The people's war is not only numerous partisan detachments and squads. This is 100 million rubles of public donations - an amount equal to all the military expenses of the empire in 1812. This includes 420 thousand militias who fought with Napoleon.
The Russian army was stationed near Tarutino, 80 km from Moscow, covering the Tula arms factories and the fertile southern provinces. Reserves were brought in, wounds were healed. Napoleon, who settled in Moscow, believed that the campaign was over and was waiting for proposals for peace. But no one sent ambassadors to him. The proud conqueror had to make his own requests to Kutuzov and Alexander I. Kutuzov answered evasively, citing a lack of authority. However, the army he led was resolutely against peace negotiations. Meanwhile, a behind-the-scenes struggle was going on at court. The Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, the Tsar's brother Constantine and the Tsar's favorite Arakcheev led the court group that demanded peace with Napoleon. They were joined by Chancellor N.P. Rumyantsev. Tensions arose between the army and the court, and the generals made known their wish for Rumyantsev’s resignation. Alexander considered this the greatest insolence, but suppressed his anger. Rumyantsev remained chancellor. But the tsar refused to enter into negotiations with Napoleon.
The position of Napoleonic army quickly deteriorated. Having been cut off from the rear bases, it existed by confiscating food from the population. Foragers and marauders were rampant everywhere. Peasants near Moscow, like those from Smolensk before, went into the forests. A partisan movement developed on Smolensk land and in the Moscow region. The partisan detachments were led by soldiers who had escaped from captivity, local landowners, and particularly authoritative peasants. A 5,000-strong detachment operated in the Moscow region under the command of the serf Gerasim Kurin. In October, he gave the French seven battles and liberated Bogorodsk (now Noginsk) from them. In the Smolensk province, elder Vasilisa Kozhina became famous, leading a detachment of teenagers and women. The partisans hunted down and destroyed individual small groups of enemy soldiers.
Kutuzov, who quickly appreciated the importance of partisan warfare, began sending flying cavalry detachments behind enemy lines. Using the support of the population, they delivered sensitive blows to the enemy. One of the first to join the partisans was the hussar Denis Vasilyevich Davydov. Colonel A. S. Figner penetrated into occupied Moscow and sent reports to Kutuzov’s headquarters. He then organized a partisan detachment from stragglers and peasants. His reports contributed to the success of Russian troops in the battle of Tarutino. Bold raids behind enemy lines were carried out by A. N. Seslavin’s detachment. The detachment of I. S. Dorokhov, interacting with peasant rebels, liberated city near Moscow I believe. During the month of their stay in Moscow, the French army lost 30 thousand people.
Expulsion of the enemy.
The cold weather was approaching, and Napoleon realized that spending the winter in the Moscow ashes would be madness. In early October, a battle took place near the village of Tarutina between the French vanguard and units of the Russian army. The French retreated with heavy losses. As if in order to “punish” the Russians, Napoleon withdrew his army from Moscow on October 7. The advanced units of the two armies met at Maloyaroslavets. While the city was changing hands, the main forces arrived. Napoleon was faced with the question: whether to fight a general battle to break through to the Kaluga road, or retreat along Smolenskaya, where burned and plundered villages and an embittered population awaited him. A council of war was convened. It turned out that only the hot Murat was eager to fight. Other marshals pointed out that Kutuzov deployed his army to a very secure position. And one of the French military leaders said without hesitation: “I believe that we should immediately retreat beyond the Neman, and, moreover, along the shortest road, in order to quickly leave the country where we have already spent too long.” And Napoleon decided not to tempt fate and retreat to Smolensk.
But it turned out that you cannot escape fate. The retreating French troops were attacked by Cossacks, flying cavalry units, and partisans. Horses died from lack of food, the French cavalry dismounted, and artillery had to be abandoned. Kutuzov's army moved parallel to Napoleonic's, all the time threatening to get ahead and cut off the route of retreat. Because of this, Napoleon was unable to stay in Smolensk longer four days. In November, cold weather began, and the position of the French army became critical. Only the guard and the two corps that joined it remained combat capable. The Russian army pursuing Napoleon also suffered heavy losses - not only in battles, but also from cold, poor nutrition, and fatigue. Closer to the border, she almost did not participate in battles. Now main role went over to the flanking armies.
From the south, an army under the command of Admiral Chichagov marched across Napoleon. Wittgenstein's corps advanced from the north. They were supposed to unite at the crossing of the Berezina River and cut off the enemy's retreat. Napoleon's capture could have led to the end of the war. However, the army commanders acted inconsistently. Napoleon managed to escape, although his army suffered terrible losses at the crossing. Military experts were inclined to believe that the main blame for the failure at the Berezina lay with Wittgenstein, who did not notice how the French corps passed just two miles away from him. But public opinion took up arms against Chichagov.
After the Berezina, Napoleon left the army in distress and urgently went to Paris to recruit a new one. In mid-December, the remnants of the “Great Army” crossed the Neman.
Seeing the army and the country in such a difficult situation, Kutuzov was inclined to end the war. He considered the complete defeat of France to be beneficial only for England. But Alexander was convinced that Napoleon, remaining in power, would pose a constant threat to the world. Soon the Russian army resumed military operations.
The Napoleonic invasion was a huge misfortune for Russia. Many cities were reduced to dust and ashes. In the fire of the Moscow fire, many precious relics of the past disappeared forever. Industry and agriculture. Subsequently, the Moscow province quickly recovered from the devastation, and in Smolensk and Pskov, until the middle of the century, the population was less than in 1811.
But a common misfortune brings people together. In the fight against the enemy, the population of the central provinces, constituting the core of the Russian nation, closely rallied. Not only the provinces that were directly affected by the invasion, but also the lands adjacent to them, which received refugees and the wounded, sent warriors, food and weapons, lived in those days with one life, one thing. This significantly accelerated the complex and lengthy process of consolidation of the Russian nation. Other peoples of Russia became closer to the Russian people. The sacrificial role that befell Moscow in the dramatic events of 1812 further increased its importance as the spiritual center of Russia.
Good day, dear reader! The Patriotic War of 1812 should be briefly presented very skillfully, because although this is a small segment of history, it is densely saturated with events, and in addition to them there are many ensuing consequences that need to be understood.
The topic is quite complex and partly because of this, it often comes up in the OGE and Unified State Examinations in history. After reading this work, you will receive the necessary knowledge base for this section of history and will be able to easily answer questions and score points. What, are you intrigued? - Then let's begin.
A little background
During the revolution in France, Napoleon Bonaparte or Napoleon 1 came to power. Alexander 1 was on the Russian throne at that time. France at that time had ambitious plans and wanted to significantly expand its lands and colonies to increase economic growth and build up political power.
Napoleon Bonaparte
In the first steps, she did this very well; almost all over Europe, heads of state were replaced and replaced by those who were loyal to Napoleon, most often these were his own relatives. They all paid money together and were completely economically dependent on France.
However, England, being a strong country, actively opposed the French attempt to establish a monopoly in all spheres of geopolitical relations, which is why a conflict arose between them. In parallel with England, Austria also did not want a violation of sovereignty, and Russia was in an alliance with it. In the end, everything, as often happens, came to hostilities.
The beginning was made in the Battle of Shengraben - November 16, 1805, from which France did not receive any special dividends, but on December 2, 1805. The Battle of Austerlitz took place, which turned out to be an excellent example of Napoleon's leadership talent, and as a result, the Allied forces were defeated, France benefited, and Napoleon 1 rode into France on horseback. He was showered with thunderous applause and recognized as a genius. But all these battles were far from Russia, so this is not yet a patriotic war. In addition, the Peace of Tilsit was concluded with France on June 7, 1807, and a lull began.
Origins of the war
So, before moving directly to hostilities, we will discuss the reasons for the outbreak of the armed conflict and the plans of the parties.
Firstly, Napoleon’s monstrous desire for world domination did not decrease in 5 years; rather, on the contrary, it acquired a more intrusive character, and Russia at that time was a superpower, so why not get even with it?
Secondly, Russia violated the agreements of the Tilsit Peace in every possible way, and in particular, tried to sabotage the continental blockade against England, this, by the way, was main reason France's interest in signing this agreement. In addition, Russia also tried to counteract the expansion of Napoleon's hegemony and power, which of course disgusted him.
As a result, in 1810 the parties began actively preparing for the battle.
Plans of the parties
This is worth discussing briefly.
Napoleon wanted to seize the main industrial part of Russia right up to Moscow, after signing an agreement with the emperor and subsequently seize power in the country. The main plan was simple: not to allow the Russian army to unite, to win in numbers. It is necessary to decide the outcome of several pitched battles.
Alexander and his advisers approached this issue more carefully. Firstly, there could be no compromise or agreement with Napoleon; we had to fight to the end. Secondly, an active defense strategy has been chosen.
Beginning of the war
You need to know that the conflict consisted of two stages: defense, exhausting the enemy by luring him deep into the country and a counteroffensive followed by expulsion from one’s territory.
June 12, 1812 - Napoleon, commanding his troops, crossed the Neman and invaded Russia, and thus the Patriotic War began. The Russian armies retreated and did not accept the battle, trying to establish communication.
The further course of events can be characterized as minor skirmishes between the partisans and the French, looting by the aggressors, and further advancement. Eventually, the mood in the Russian ranks began to deteriorate, the soldiers thirsted for blood and demanded a general battle. It will be given later, but for now, until July 22, the desire to unite the armies continued, and on that very day, near Smolensk, the 1st and 2nd armies united.
Battle of Borodino
The Battle of Borodino can rightfully be called the most controversial event of this conflict. To this day, historians argue about who won; the prevailing opinion can to some extent be called a compromise, although it is difficult to disagree with it - it was a draw.
Before moving on to the battle itself, let's look at the tactical plans of the parties.
Napoleon wanted to sweep away the Russian army with a powerful blow of his fist and take it in numbers. To do this, it was necessary to advance rapidly and attack confidently. Breaking through and encircling the defense is the best characteristic of this plan.
Kutuzov, and it was he who was the commander-in-chief, understood perfectly well that nothing could be done against Bonaparte’s ardor, so he only had to defend himself. It was decided to create artificial fortifications in the form of ditches and embankments and repel attacks in waves. The defense was located in three directions. The right flank was commanded by M.B. Barclay de Tolly, the army of P.I. Bagration was on the left, and the artillery of General N.N. Raevsky was in the center.
The battle began on the left flank, with the French doing well at first. Then the fighting moved to the center, where the main attack was concentrated. However, the Russian soldiers fought tooth and nail and held firm. Of course, they could not completely stop Napoleon, the ardor of his subordinates could not be appeased, but after 16 hours the attacking potential had dried up, the strength was gone, and rest was needed.
After 12 hours it was already possible to sum up the results, since the battle was ending. The French were never able to break through; defensive tactics triumphed. The losses were colossal. Most importantly, the morale of Russian soldiers increased, while that of their opponents fell.
Was Moscow given to the French for nothing? – No, not for nothing, but making such a decision, which would predetermine the further course of all hostilities, was rightfully not easy.
Military Council in Fili © Alexey Danilovich Kivshenko
In the village of Fili, west of Moscow, a military council was convened to decide the future of the former capital. There were fierce debates, but Kutuzov’s point of view prevailed, which stated that it was necessary to leave devastated Moscow to the enemy without any resources, in order to then, being prepared, finish off the enemy, who had no supplies. This scene is most vividly described in Leo Tolstoy’s epic novel “War and Peace.”
Although Napoleon entered the burned Moscow, he did not receive any dividends from this, but only spent the strength of his army, a terrible fate awaits him, the cold Russian winters are coming.
Expulsion of Napoleon
After realizing the mistake, the French army began a massive retreat, but it was too late. The Russians were located in untrodden directions, thereby maintaining the enemy blockade. Napoleon fled the way he came, the road burned to the ground. What can we say, Russia is a big country, it was a long way to go, and even small raids by partisans constantly bothered us. Mass desertion began, and the enemy's retreat began to look like a disorderly flight. Napoleon himself subsequently, leaving his army, secretly fled. Kutuzov's order on December 21 and the Tsar's manifesto on December 25, 1812 marked the end of the Patriotic War.
Conclusion
The results of the war were as follows. During the war, Russia suffered significant economic damage, estimated at 1 billion rubles, and approximately 300 thousand soldiers were also killed. In addition to this, many Russians poured into Europe, which subsequently provoked the Decembrist uprising. However, the usurper was defeated, an even greater status was gained, with the rights of a victorious country, and relations were established with some European powers.
It is worth adding that all issues following the war with Napoleon were resolved at Congress of Vienna in 1815. The results are so extensive that they deserve a separate analysis.
By the way, in our training courses the entire topic of the Napoleonic wars is discussed using first-class illustrative material and with all the nuances. .
The date of Napoleon's invasion of Russia is one of the dramatic dates in the history of our country. This event gave rise to many myths and points of view regarding the reasons, plans of the parties, the number of troops and other important aspects. Let's try to understand this issue and cover Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 as objectively as possible. Let's start with the background.
Background to the conflict
Napoleon's invasion of Russia was not a random or unexpected event. This is in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” it is presented as “treacherous and unexpected.” In fact, everything was natural. Russia brought disaster upon itself through its military actions. At first, Catherine the Second, fearing revolutionary events in Europe, helped the First Anti-French Coalition. Then Paul the First could not forgive Napoleon for the capture of Malta, an island that was under the personal protection of our emperor.
The main military confrontations between Russia and France began with the Second Anti-French Coalition (1798-1800), in which Russian troops, together with Turkish, English and Austrian troops, tried to defeat the army of the Directory in Europe. It was during these events that the famous Mediterranean campaign of Ushakov and the heroic transition of the thousands of Russian army through the Alps under the command of Suvorov took place.
Our country then first became acquainted with the “loyalty” of the Austrian allies, thanks to whom Russian armies of thousands were surrounded. This, for example, happened to Rimsky-Korsakov in Switzerland, who lost about 20 thousand of his soldiers in an unequal battle against the French. It was the Austrian troops who left Switzerland and left the 30,000-strong Russian corps alone with the 70,000-strong French corps. And Suvorov’s famous campaign was also forced, since the same Austrian advisers showed our commander-in-chief the wrong path in the direction where there were completely no roads or crossings.
As a result, Suvorov found himself surrounded, but with decisive maneuvers he was able to get out of the stone trap and save the army. However, ten years passed between these events and the Patriotic War. And Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 would not have taken place if not for further events.
The Third and Fourth Anti-French Coalitions. Violation of the Tilsit Peace
Alexander the First also started a war with France. According to one version, thanks to the British, a coup d'état took place in Russia, which brought young Alexander to the throne. This circumstance may have forced the new emperor to fight for the British.
In 1805, the Third was formed. It included Russia, England, Sweden and Austria. Unlike the previous two, new union was designed as a defensive one. No one was going to restore the Bourbon dynasty in France. England needed the alliance most of all, since 200 thousand French soldiers were already stationed near the English Channel, ready to land on the island, but the Third Coalition prevented these plans.
The climax of the alliance was the “Battle of the Three Emperors” on November 20, 1805. It received this name because all three emperors of the warring armies - Napoleon, Alexander the First and Franz the Second - were present on the battlefield of Austerlitz. Military historians believe that it was the presence of “dignitaries” that created complete confusion for the allies. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Coalition troops.
We try to briefly explain all the circumstances, without an understanding of which Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812 will be incomprehensible.
In 1806, the Fourth Anti-French Coalition appeared. Austria no longer took part in the war against Napoleon. The new union included England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Sweden. Our country had to bear the entire brunt of the fighting, since England helped mainly only financially, as well as at sea, and the other participants did not have strong ground armies. In one day everything was destroyed at the Battle of Jena.
On June 2, 1807, our army was defeated near Friedland and retreated beyond the Neman - the border river in the western possessions of the Russian Empire.
After this, Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon on June 9, 1807 in the middle of the Neman River, which was officially interpreted as equality of the parties when signing the peace. It was the violation of the Peace of Tilsit that became the reason why Napoleon invaded Russia. Let us examine the agreement itself in more detail so that the reasons for the events that occurred later are clear.
Terms of the Peace of Tilsit
The Tilsit Peace Treaty implied Russia's accession to the so-called blockade of the British Isles. This decree was signed by Napoleon on November 21, 1806. The essence of the “blockade” was that France was creating a zone on the European continent where England was prohibited from trading. Napoleon could not physically blockade the island, since France did not have even a tenth of the fleet that the British had at their disposal. Therefore, the term “blockade” is conditional. In fact, Napoleon came up with what today are called economic sanctions. England traded actively with Europe. From Russia, therefore, the “blockade” threatened the food security of Foggy Albion. In fact, Napoleon even helped England, since the latter quickly found new trading partners in Asia and Africa, making good money on this in the future.
Russia in the 19th century was an agricultural country that sold grain for export. The only major buyer of our products at that time was England. Those. the loss of the sales market completely ruined the ruling elite of nobles in Russia. We are seeing something similar today in our country, when counter-sanctions and sanctions have hit the oil and gas industry hard, resulting in the ruling elite incurring colossal losses.
In fact, Russia joined the anti-British sanctions in Europe, initiated by France. The latter itself was a large agricultural producer, so there was no possibility of replacing a trading partner for our country. Naturally, our ruling elite could not fulfill the conditions of the Tilsit Peace, as this would lead to the complete destruction of the entire Russian economy. The only way to force Russia to comply with the demands of the “blockade” was by force. That is why the invasion of Russia took place. The French emperor himself did not intend to go deep into our country, wanting to simply force Alexander to fulfill the Peace of Tilsit. However, our armies forced the French emperor to advance further and further from the western borders to Moscow.
Date
The date of Napoleon's invasion of Russian territory is June 12, 1812. On this day, the enemy troops crossed the Neman.
The Invasion Myth
There is a myth that Napoleon's invasion of Russia happened unexpectedly. The emperor held a ball, and all the courtiers had fun. In fact, balls for all European monarchs of that time occurred very often, and they did not depend on political events, but, on the contrary, were an integral part of it. This was an unchanging tradition of monarchical society. It was there that public hearings on the most important issues. Even during the First World War, magnificent celebrations were held in the residences of nobles. However, it is worth noting that Alexander still left the First Ball in Vilna and retired to St. Petersburg, where he stayed throughout the entire Patriotic War.
Forgotten heroes
The Russian army was preparing for the French invasion long before this. War Minister Barclay de Tolly did everything possible to ensure that Napoleon’s army approached Moscow at the limit of its capabilities and with huge losses. The Minister of War himself kept his army in full combat readiness. Unfortunately, the history of the Patriotic War treated Barclay de Tolly unfairly. By the way, it was he who actually created the conditions for the future French catastrophe, and the invasion of Napoleon’s army into Russia ultimately ended in the complete defeat of the enemy.
Tactics of the Minister of War
Barclay de Tolly used the famous “Scythian tactics”. The distance between Neman and Moscow is huge. Without food supplies, provisions for horses, or drinking water, the “Grand Army” turned into a huge prisoner of war camp, in which natural death was much higher than losses from battles. The French did not expect the horror that Barclay de Tolly created for them: peasants went into the forests, taking livestock with them and burning food, wells along the army’s route were poisoned, as a result of which periodic epidemics broke out in the French army. Horses and people were dying of hunger, mass desertion began, but there was nowhere to run in unfamiliar terrain. In addition, partisan detachments from peasants destroyed individual French groups of soldiers. The year of Napoleon's invasion of Russia is a year of unprecedented patriotic upsurge of all Russian people who united to destroy the aggressor. This point was also reflected by L.N. Tolstoy in the novel “War and Peace”, in which his characters pointedly refuse to speak in French, since this is the language of the aggressor, and also donate all their savings to the needs of the army. Russia has not seen such an invasion for a long time. Last time Before that, our country was attacked by the Swedes almost a hundred years ago. Shortly before this all secular world Russia admired the genius of Napoleon, considered him greatest man on the planet. Now this genius threatened our independence and turned into a sworn enemy.
The size and characteristics of the French army
The size of Napoleon's army during the invasion of Russia was about 600 thousand people. Its peculiarity was that it resembled a patchwork quilt. The composition of Napoleon's army during the invasion of Russia consisted of Polish lancers, Hungarian dragoons, Spanish cuirassiers, French dragoons, etc. Napoleon gathered his “Great Army” from all over Europe. She was a motley, speaking different languages. At times, commanders and soldiers did not understand each other, did not want to shed blood for Grand France, so at the first sign of difficulty caused by our “scorched earth” tactics, they deserted. However, there was a force that kept the entire Napoleonic army at bay - Napoleon's personal guard. This was the elite of the French troops, who went through all the difficulties with the brilliant commanders from the first days. It was very difficult to get into it. The guardsmen were paid huge salaries and were given the best food supplies. Even during the Moscow famine, these people received good rations, when others were forced to look for dead rats for food. The Guard was something like Napoleon's modern security service. She watched for signs of desertion and brought order to Napoleonic's motley army. She was also thrown into battle in the most dangerous sectors of the front, where the retreat of even one soldier could lead to tragic consequences for the entire army. The guards never retreated and showed unprecedented perseverance and heroism. However, there were too few of them in percentage terms.
In total, about half of Napoleon's army were French themselves, who showed themselves in battles in Europe. However, now this was a different army - aggressive, occupying, which was reflected in its morale.
Army composition
The Grand Army was deployed in two echelons. The main forces - about 500 thousand people and about 1 thousand guns - consisted of three groups. The right wing under the command of Jerome Bonaparte - 78 thousand people and 159 guns - was supposed to move to Grodno and divert the main Russian forces. The central group led by Beauharnais - 82 thousand people and 200 guns - was supposed to prevent the connection of the two main Russian armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration. Napoleon himself moved towards Vilna with renewed vigor. His task was to defeat the Russian armies separately, but he also allowed them to unite. Marshal Augereau's 170 thousand men and about 500 guns remained in the rear. According to the calculations of the military historian Clausewitz, Napoleon involved up to 600 thousand people in the Russian campaign, of which less than 100 thousand people crossed the border river Neman back from Russia.
Napoleon planned to impose battles on the western borders of Russia. However, Baclay de Tolly imposed a game of cat and mouse on him. The main Russian forces all the time avoided battle and retreated into the interior of the country, drawing the French further and further from Polish supplies, and depriving them of food and provisions on their own territory. That is why the invasion of Napoleon's troops into Russia led to the further catastrophe of the Grand Army.
Russian forces
At the time of the aggression, Russia had about 300 thousand people with 900 guns. However, the army was divided. The First Western Army was commanded by the Minister of War himself. Barclay de Tolly's group numbered about 130 thousand people with 500 guns. It stretched from Lithuania to Grodno in Belarus. Bagration's Second Western Army numbered about 50 thousand people - it occupied a line east of Bialystok. Tormasov's third army - also about 50 thousand people with 168 guns - was stationed in Volyn. There were also large groups in Finland - not long before there was a war with Sweden - and in the Caucasus, where Russia traditionally waged wars with Turkey and Iran. There was also a group of our troops on the Danube under the command of Admiral P.V. Chichagov in the amount of 57 thousand people with 200 guns.
Napoleon's invasion of Russia: the beginning
On the evening of June 11, 1812, a patrol of the Life Guards Cossack Regiment discovered suspicious movement on the Neman River. With the onset of darkness, enemy sappers began to build crossings three miles up the river from Kovno (modern Kaunas, Lithuania). Crossing the river with all forces took 4 days, but the French vanguard was already in Kovno on the morning of June 12. Alexander the First was at a ball in Vilna at that time, where he was informed about the attack.
From Neman to Smolensk
Back in May 1811, suggesting a possible invasion of Napoleon into Russia, Alexander the First told the French ambassador something like this: “We would rather reach Kamchatka than sign peace in our capitals. Frost and territory will fight for us.”
This tactic was put into practice: Russian troops rapidly retreated from the Neman to Smolensk in two armies, unable to unite. Both armies were constantly pursued by the French. Several battles took place in which the Russians openly sacrificed entire rearguard groups in order to hold the main French forces for as long as possible in order to prevent them from catching up with our main forces.
On August 7, a battle took place at Valutina Mountain, which was called the battle for Smolensk. Barclay de Tolly had by this time united with Bagration and even made several attempts to counterattack. However, all these were just false maneuvers that made Napoleon think about the future general battle near Smolensk and regroup the columns from the marching formation to the attacking one. But the Russian commander-in-chief well remembered the emperor’s order “I have no more army,” and did not dare to give a general battle, rightly predicting future defeat. The French suffered huge losses near Smolensk. Barclay de Tolly himself was a supporter of further retreat, but the entire Russian public unfairly considered him a coward and a traitor for his retreat. And only the Russian emperor, who had already fled from Napoleon once at Austerlitz, continued to trust the minister. While the armies were divided, Barclay de Tolly could still cope with the wrath of the generals, but when the army was united near Smolensk, he still had to make a counterattack on Murat’s corps. This attack was needed more to calm the Russian commanders than to give a decisive battle to the French. But despite this, the minister was accused of indecision, procrastination, and cowardice. His final discord with Bagration emerged, who was zealously eager to attack, but could not give an order, since formally he was subordinate to Barcal de Tolly. Napoleon himself expressed annoyance that the Russians did not give a general battle, since his ingenious outflanking maneuver with the main forces would have led to a blow to the Russian rear, as a result of which our army would have been completely defeated.
Change of commander in chief
Under public pressure, Barcal de Tolly was nevertheless removed from his post as commander-in-chief. Russian generals in August 1812 already openly sabotaged all his orders. However, the new commander-in-chief M.I. Kutuzov, whose authority was enormous in Russian society, also gave the order for further retreat. And only on August 26 - also under public pressure - did he give a general battle near Borodino, as a result of which the Russians were defeated and left Moscow.
Results
Let's summarize. The date of Napoleon's invasion of Russia is one of the tragic ones in the history of our country. However, this event contributed to a patriotic upsurge in our society and its consolidation. Napoleon was mistaken that the Russian peasant would choose the abolition of serfdom in exchange for support for the occupiers. It turned out that for our citizens, military aggression turned out to be much worse than internal socio-economic contradictions.