Decorative and applied 17th - 18th centuries. Decorative and applied art of the first half of the 18th century. Monuments of Russian culture

Wedding chest. Italy. 17th century

Sculptural group "Winter". From the series "Four Seasons". Germany. Meissen

Service items. France. Sever. 1780-1784. Soft porcelain, painting. Freezer

Hall of French art of the 18th-19th centuries

Cabinet. Augsburg. 17th century Wood, carving, white metal, gilding, 196x135x61

Bureau-cylinder. Russia. End of the 18th century.

Vase. Russia. First quarter of the 19th century. Glass, gold painting. Height 35.5

Freezer. Russia. Imperial Porcelain Factory. First quarter of the 19th century. Porcelain, painting. Height 40

Collections of decorative and applied art are also associated with the name of A.P. Bogolyubov, who donated 40 pieces of old porcelain, mostly Saxon, at the opening of the museum. Various utensils and furniture then numbered 92 items. In 1897, after Bogolyubov’s death, another group of things was received in his will, including furniture, glass, bronze, and silverware.

The Bogolyubov collections, in particular porcelain, were significantly replenished in the first post-revolutionary years from the State Museum Fund, which received all nationalized works of art. In 1970, the museum received samples of Russian and Western European porcelain (more than 300 items), bequeathed by O. A. Gordeeva, a famous Saratov ophthalmologist.

The history of this subtle and exquisite art goes back centuries. Porcelain originated at the turn of the 7th-8th centuries in China. In Europe they learned about it in the 13th century. The famous Venetian traveler Marco Polo brought several porcelain vessels from the East. Europe was gripped by a “porcelain fever”; everyone wanted to have products made from this white shiny material, painted with bright, unfading colors. There is information that when things made of porcelain were broken, they continued to be stored anyway; often the shards were set in precious metals and worn as jewelry. Porcelain was valued not only for its beauty, but also for its hitherto unseen properties. The glazed surface of porcelain was not exposed to chemical influences and was impenetrable. Legends arose about porcelain. The secret of its production could not be unraveled until the beginning of the 18th century. But along the way, many new materials were discovered that were similar in appearance to the products of Chinese craftsmen. This is how milk glass appeared in Venice, Spanish-Moorish ceramics, and faience in England and Holland.

The first in Europe to obtain porcelain was I.F. Betger, who found deposits of white clay (kaolin) near Meissen in Saxony. The secret of porcelain production, which Europe had been struggling with for centuries, was discovered. Soon the porcelain of the Meissen manufactory became known throughout Europe. And now the products of this plant are popular among art lovers.

In the collection of our museum, Meissen porcelain is presented very well and completely. This includes items bequeathed by Bogolyubov and porcelain items from the collection of O. A. Gordeeva, as well as other exhibits.

Of greatest interest is Meissen porcelain from the 18th century. This era is considered classical period in the development of European porcelain. At this time, the master strives to emphasize the whiteness and fineness of the porcelain, serving the material taking into account its natural properties.

Meissen - the first European porcelain production - is especially famous for its small plastic pieces. In the images of ladies, gentlemen, allegorical compositions and pastorals, one of the qualities of the Rococo style was manifested with particular force - the illusion of a continuous smooth flow of line. The names of Johann Joachim Kaendler and Peter Reinicke are associated with the development of Meissen plastic art. Their works combined elements of sculpture and decorative and applied art itself. The whimsicality of contours and the beauty of color are what characterize the sculptures made from their models.

Two allegorical figures from the series “Four Seasons” - “Winter” and “Spring”, made according to models by Johann Joachim Kaendler, reveal the characteristic features of the Rococo style in porcelain. Seasons are represented in images ancient gods sitting on the clouds. Winter is personified by Saturn and Hebe, spring by Mars and Flora. The sculptural groups are decorated with finely crafted stucco and painted bright colors flowers for which the Meissen plant was famous in the 18th century.

High artistic quality distinguishes the small collection of products from the Berlin plant. These are mainly items for table setting and interior decoration. The “carriage cup” is painted based on A. Watteau’s motifs in the most delicate purple, which was the glory of this production. The bodies of teapots, coffee pots, and decorative vases are decorated with pastorals and floral patterns, which were popular in the 18th century.

The group of objects from the Vienna factory is represented by the 18th - early 19th centuries, when European porcelain developed the features of a new style - Empire style. Taking care of increased decorativeness, Viennese masters gave their own version of painting. Copies of paintings by Renaissance masters were most often placed in the mirror of the plates in a rich gold ornamental frame.

Each country followed its own path to porcelain, developing both a special technology and a special character of ornamentation, sometimes within the same style. Throughout Europe, French dishes with colored backgrounds were famous: turquoise, pink, blue, painted in medallions framed with gilded ornaments. Such porcelain was made at the Sevres Manufactory, the main porcelain production in France.

This is exactly how the blue ice cream maker, tray and spice utensil that were part of the service that belonged to Prince Yusupov are painted. This service took many years to produce and was decorated by major porcelain painters. The ice cream maker was painted by Vincent Jr., the author of the painting on the famous cameo service, commissioned by Catherine II of Sèvres and now kept in the Hermitage. Yusupov's service was made of "soft porcelain". And the specific properties of this material could not have been more consistent with the Rococo style with its usual soft contours and wavy lines. The peculiarities of the Sèvres mass also determined the nature of the painting: no ceramic material produces such ringing, deep tones with many shades.

In Russia, porcelain was first produced in the mid-18th century by D.I. Vinogradov at the Imperial Porcelain Factory (IFZ) in St. Petersburg. In the museum's collection, Russian porcelain is represented by products from numerous private enterprises. The museum can be proud of magnificent examples of the IPP, Gardner, Popov, Kornilov, Gulin, Safronov factories, which have their own unique charm.

The achievements of Russian masters in the style of classicism of the early 19th century, or Empire style, are well known. Russian porcelain within this style, as well as other branches of applied art, provides excellent examples.

Empire style was inspired by antiquity. The decorative motifs are dominated by laurel wreaths, lions, griffins, military attributes, etc. The forms reveal the solidity of the masses and their static nature. According to the laws of this style, a table decoration vase in the form of two classical figures supporting an oval-shaped bowl was made by IFZ craftsmen. The white color of the figures made from bisque (unglazed porcelain) is contrasted by the blue tone and gilding of the base. The Empire style’s love for brightness and color contrast is evident. Another vase is also a sculptural group: Venus puts a quiver of arrows on Cupid. Such vases were made for large ceremonial or anniversary sets and placed in the center of the ceremonial table.

Features of the same style are clear in the ice cream maker on three lion paws, dark in color, looking like old bronze. Its color blended beautifully with the shine of the gilding.

The products of private factories are more original. You can talk about priestly, Gardner or Safronov porcelain. These factories are represented by objects that are not unique, unlike IFZ, but by so-called ordinary utensils associated with the life of a particular class. It is easy to guess the social affiliation of the so-called “tavern” brightly decorated teapots, decorated with simple floral paintings, created at the Popov factory in the 1830-1850s.

The source from which the craftsmen drew the forms of dishes and painting motifs is traditional Russian folk art. This path will be the most fruitful at the time of the approaching inter-style, it will largely protect Russian private factories in this difficult time from the loss of “ceramic”, inevitable in the era of eclecticism. In the coffee pot of the Kornilov factory, painted according to white background small golden leaves and roses, in bright green cups made by the craftsmen of the priest's factory, the main thing was not lost: the balance of the form and functionality of the object.

The collection of Soviet porcelain is relatively small. It is represented by propaganda porcelain, which in the 20s was one of the means of revolutionary propaganda.

Dish and cups painted according to drawings by S. Chekhonin and N. Altman, sculptures by N. Danko, plates by A. Shchekatikhina-Pototskaya with revolutionary slogans and emblems of the young Soviet state - this first porcelain of the Land of the Soviets spoke the language of its time. It was exhibited in special showcases in Moscow on Kuznetsky Most and in Petrograd on Nevsky. “This porcelain was news from a wonderful future, for which the Soviet country fought in terrible battles with hunger, devastation, and intervention,” wrote E. Ya. Danko, an artist and historiographer at the Lomonosov Factory (formerly the Imperial Porcelain Factory), in her memoirs.

Glassware stored in the A.N. Radishchev Museum came in the same way as porcelain: in 1897, according to the will of A.P. Bogolyubov, through the State Museum Fund, from private collections.

A small but interesting collection of Russian glass from the late 18th - early 19th centuries was bequeathed to the museum by E.P. Razumova in 1973.

Russian glass factories, public and private, appeared at the beginning of the 18th century in Moscow and St. Petersburg, near Smolensk and Kaluga. The demand for glass objects is growing. The number of factories is also growing. The famous Maltsev plant appeared on the Gus River near Vladimir, and the Bakhmetyev plant near Penza in the village of Nikolskoye.

The earliest works of the 18th century glass industry in our collection are products from private factories. This is, first of all, a green glass damask with a simple floral ornament and the inscription: “This vessel was made in the Gavril factory in 726...” This is an early example of Russian ordinary tableware, which was made in large quantities; it was not spared or taken care of. Instead of the lost and broken one, they bought a new one. Therefore, few such dishes have survived. Shtof is also interesting because it is a signature item. It indicates the date and place of manufacture. It is known that in 1724 the plant of Gavrilov and Loginov was founded in the Moscow district. There is no further information about this production. Our damask gives an idea of ​​the nature of the products of a little-known company.

Glass in Russia was practically not marked. Only starting from the 20s of the 19th century (from the era of Nicholas I) the Imperial Glass Factory began to put stamps on its products. The presence of a brand, of course, is not the only way to determine the place and time of manufacture of a particular item. Remarkable monuments of glassmaking are the goblets of the 18th century, tall, conical in shape, often with lids, decorated with carved coats of arms of the reigning persons or monograms. Benzels were framed with plant shoots and curls, which were called “rocaille”. Along the top of the cups, near the rim, there is a pattern of engraved and polished “pits” with arms. The leg posts were made in the form of a baluster with “apples”, which were sometimes strung on the post up to five pieces. The engraving in these items was shallow and sweeping. These qualities distinguish Russian cups from the cups of Bohemia and Germany kept in the museum.

Apparently, numerous colored glasses, decanters, and bottles were produced in private factories. Colored glass was very popular in Russia. Unlike Western Europe, here they made dishes from solid colored glass, which large quantities appeared in the middle of the 18th century. This is due to the successful experiments of M. Lomonosov.

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, tall faceted decanters with stoppers of various shapes appeared, glasses raised on thin legs, elegant glasses with sparkling edges - elegant dishes that were used to decorate festive tables and supplies. Faceted dishes are made from colorless glass with the addition of lead, which gives it a special shine. It is called crystal and is cut with the so-called “diamond edge”. This technique is still used in glassmaking.

The second half of the 19th century was a time of heightened interest in decorative and applied arts, especially in its history. Collecting antiques is becoming widespread. It is no coincidence that there was an increased interest in antique furniture at the same time. Collectors collect carved gilded furniture from the 18th century, inlaid chests of drawers, cabinets, Italian and German wedding chests, and massive oak and walnut cabinets from Germany from the 17th century. There were similar items in Bogolyubov’s collection.

The craze for antique furniture gives rise to fakes that flood antique stores. One after another, workshops are being created in Paris, Venice, St. Petersburg, producing antique furniture, sometimes indistinguishable from the original - the wood is so smoothly polished, the proportions of its structural parts are so faithfully observed.

The earliest furniture in the museum collection dates back to the 16th-17th centuries. This is furniture from Germany, France, Italy, Holland, collected by A.P. Bogolyubov. Of course, our collection of furniture from that time does not give reason to talk about the existing interior, but it allows us to imagine national characteristics works of furniture art from different countries within a fairly broad chronological framework.

Furniture is not durable; the material for its production is wood, which is easily exposed to a variety of influences. A lot of them died both from natural disasters or as a result of wars, and for reasons related to the influence of fashion. Furniture is a consumer item. This means that over time it wears out and has to be replaced with a new one. Little furniture from the homes of ordinary people has survived. Nevertheless, the main stages in the history of furniture art in some European countries can be traced in the objects of our collection.

In Italy of the 16th century, a chair made of solid wood with a carved back, a wedding chest, a Venetian workmanship, and an altar were made. To make this furniture, brown walnut was used, a material characteristic of Italy, which allows the craftsman to achieve great artistic effect. The carving motifs were drawn from the heritage of ancient art. In the wedding chest, obviously of Florentine work, one is surprised by the rare unity of form and ornament, which distinguished the Italian furniture makers of the 16th - early 17th centuries.

Furniture of this era in its constructive logic is similar architectural structures. The altar is designed in the form of a portal with columns entwined with vines, with a podium in a niche for the figure of the Mother of God - these architectural elements are extremely characteristic of furniture of the 16th-17th centuries. This is especially felt in cabinet furniture made in the south of Germany. The closet turns into something like a two-story building, each floor-tier of which is separated by a cornice. The tiers are decorated with columns or pilasters. The cabinet doors resemble portals or windows topped with platbands or pediments. All these architectural details are strengthened with glue and are, in fact, decoration that hides the structure of the cabinet, made up of two chests. This impression is reinforced by the folding chest handles on its side facades. This is exactly how the cabinet is designed, decorated with burl (a growth on the wood, a defect in the wood that gives a rich, beautiful texture). Wardrobes were necessarily equipped with shelves, and clothes were stored folded in them. They could also serve to store various utensils.

The shape of a folding chair, the so-called curule chair, can also be considered traditional for Germany in the 16th-17th centuries. For the ancients it was a symbol of power. Only sitting on such a chair could justice and reprisals be carried out. Such a chair was usually worn by consuls, senior military leaders, and dictators. Smoothly curved legs-stands, made of several narrow planks, are crossed and connected by crossbars for strength, and a removable board inserted into the upper part of the chair as a spacer makes up the backrest.

Since the 16th century, a unique form of chair appeared in Germany, which became widespread in the furniture art of this country in the 17th century - the so-called peasant chair. Our museum also has a whole series of similar products with different versions of the same ornament. The prototype of such a chair was at first simply a tree stump, cleared of branches and strengthened for stability on three legs. And for comfortable urban dwellings, chairs with four legs were made - examples of high craftsmanship. Only the board that serves as the back is decorated. It can be made not only from walnut, but from oak and pine. It depends on where the item was made. In carving, as a rule, grotesque ornamental motifs are used, which, with the imagination of the master, are often transformed into a fairy-tale pattern.

The 17th century brings a lot of new things to the art of furniture. This is primarily due to social transformations in Europe, which led to a change in the position of the third estate. Having come to power, it cultivates modesty, simplicity, and the sanctity of the family hearth. Dutch furniture is in great demand and is exported to all countries. At the other pole is France, in whose art a magnificent, solemn style triumphs.

In our furniture collection there is only one piece that is typical of a palace ceremonial setting of the 17th century. This is the so-called cabinet - a cabinet with many drawers, compartments, and a pull-out board. It was made by craftsmen from the city of Augsburg, decorated on the facade with metal overlays with images of animals and twisted gilded columns. The board is made of valuable wood.

Such offices appeared in the 16th century. Their homeland is Spain. The first cabinets were caskets on a base. In the 17th century, these were already large cabinets that became part of the decoration of the room, called the cabinet. Medals, letters, and jewelry were stored in cabinets.

Most of the collection of Russian furniture, which includes works of the 18th-19th centuries, was made either in small private workshops or by furniture makers of noble estates. The masters introduced various artistic tastes, all the knowledge and skills they have accumulated, techniques for wood processing, finishing and decor. They were reflected primarily in the forms of household furniture of that time, which were greatly influenced folk art. This was manifested not only in forms and decor, but in the choice and processing of wood. Already at the end of the 18th century, Karelian birch and poplar became the favorite materials. They are used only in Russia.

Each country in the art of furniture was either the ancestor of a certain style, such as Italy during the Renaissance, or the birthplace of a famous furniture maker, such as T. Chippendale in England or J. Jacob in France.

Russian furniture is represented mainly by furnishings of the noble interior of the first third of the 19th century. This was one of the most brilliant eras in the history of decorative and applied art in Russia, and furniture in particular. In the art of the first decades XIX century, the Empire style dominates, which originated in France and became the property of all of Europe. Russia gives its own special, original version of this style, where it has become an exponent of high and progressive ideas. The decorativeness characteristic of the Empire style, the desire for monumentality and generalization of forms determined the choice of material in furniture and the nature of its interaction with form and decor. The main materials used by Russian furniture makers will be mahogany and Karelian birch, which they loved for their beautiful wood texture.

The furniture stored in our museum was mainly made by the hands of serf craftsmen and represents that version of the Empire style, which was widely used in the life of the Russian nobility. It is simpler than palace furniture. This furniture entered the museum after the Great October Revolution socialist revolution from surrounding estates, city houses and has not only artistic, but also historical value.

The seating furniture is especially varied. Two paired armchairs with openwork carved backs decorated with gilded lyres are an example of Russian household furniture of the first quarter of the 19th century. There are forms almost devoid of decoration, veneered with golden-colored Karelian birch with black eyes.

At this time, another room appeared in the interior of the noble estate, the so-called sofa room, and its indispensable accessory was the sofa. Usually these are soft, rectangular sofas, the tops of the backs and elbows are veneered with Karelian birch or mahogany, which became widespread in those years. In the interior, the sofa was combined with armchairs and a pre-sofa table. Such variations are also found in our exhibition and indicate the already established interior in the Empire era. This furniture differs from the front furniture: there is less gilding, instead of bronze, wood is used, gilded on gesso, and one of the traditional methods of wood processing, so beloved by Russian craftsmen, is preserved - carving.

The museum's collecting activities continue. IN last years collections of decorative and applied arts were replenished with interesting exhibits, the best of which found their place in the exhibition.

Already in the art of the 17th century, especially in its second half, trends were observed that prepared the ground for the rapid development of secular realistic art. art XVIII V. Iconographic convention gives way to life-like reproduction of people, landscapes and historical events. Traditional floral ornament, which was interpreted rather conventionally, is replaced by the reproduction of realistically rendered flowers, fruits, leaves, garlands and shells. On works of applied art, painting on religious subjects takes on an almost secular character, sometimes emphatically decorative and theatrical. The shapes of objects become magnificent, solemn, with a wide variety of decorations. Many ancient types of household items are disappearing, such as cups with flat shelves and handles, and silver coins. Traditional ancient ladles are turning into purely decorative reward items that have lost their practical meaning. New types of utensils appeared: cups decorated with baroque ornaments, everyday scenes and secular inscriptions, cups in the shape of an eagle, cups made of horn on stands and many others. Church utensils and household items of the clergy were now no different in style from purely secular things, and sometimes even surpassed them in greater pomp and material value.

After the secularization of the lands in 1764, the Trinity-Sergius Lavra lost its possessions, but its wealth by this time was so great that this reform did not affect the scope of construction work in the monastery, nor the rich decoration of church interiors, personal chambers of the governor and metropolitan who lived in the monastery, as well as from the wealth of its sacristy and treasury. The monastery continued to receive contributions from empresses and high court dignitaries, the Moscow Metropolitan and other clergy. As a rule, these were works made by the best masters of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Veliky Ustyug, Rostov-Yaroslavl and other centers of applied art. Therefore, the Lavra collection of applied art of the 18th century. represents the most diverse types of jewelry techniques of this time.

The art of silver coinage acquired a unique look, especially from the mid-18th century. These are mostly large baroque scrolls masterfully executed in rather high relief in combination with images of fruits, baskets of flowers, cupids, garlands of flowers and leaves. The embossing was often made openwork and in this case had an additional background that illuminated the pattern.

Classic example Similar coinage is the massive setting of the Gospel made in Moscow in 1754, contributed by Empress Elizabeth1. Silver plates with painted enamel images of the Trinity, the Evangelists, and scenes from the life of Christ are placed in tall chased bezels and squares. They are distinguished by their secular character.

The Moscow master P. Vorobey made a silver bowl in 1768 (used in the monastery as a holy bowl). It is decorated with an excellent chased ornament of peculiar curled cartouches and wide leaves on a gilded background. The legs of the bowl are lion paws, holding smooth balls in their claws. A salt shaker made in 1787, decorated with embossing and niello, was made by a Moscow master, a gift from Catherine II to Metropolitan Plato3.

New center jewelry making - St. Petersburg - is represented in the museum's collection by a chased silver hand-wash with a spout in the shape of an eagle's head, made in 1768 by master Claes Johann Ehlers4. The same master made a chased silver dish with a baroque ornament on the field and a depiction of a biblical scene: a whale washes up Jonah5. At the same time, the master depicted here the shore of St. Petersburg with the Peter and Paul Fortress and the spire of the cathedral. The hand and the dish are the contribution of Metropolitan Plato.

Objects for ritual purposes also acquired a secular, decorative character, and their solemnity was emphasized by their unprecedentedly large sizes. Typical for the 18th century. a set of liturgical vessels (chalice, paten, star and two plates) contributed in 1789 by A. V. Sheremetyev6. The tall communion bowl here has a large hammered bell-shaped base, an openwork silver casing on the body of the bowl and a bell with painted enamel. Large-diameter paten and plates, specially made for this chalice, are decorated with engravings depicting traditional iconographic scenes.

Filigree art takes on a completely different character. Instead of a flat curl with branches curling on the smooth surface of the metal in ancient works, the filigree drawing of the 18th century. it is further complicated by additional decorations placed on top, sometimes in combination with enamel and precious stones. In some cases, the filigree is made openwork and superimposed on an additional background. Sometimes the item was made from filigree threads.

An outstanding piece of filigree work is the tabernacle of 1789, contributed by Metropolitan Plato7. Here are openwork filigree, filigree combined with enamel, and filigree superimposed on a smooth silver background. The tabernacle has the appearance of a secular box, as evidenced by its completely non-ecclesiastical shape, elegant decoration and flowers planted in the corners made of thin metal parts with enamel.

An example of skillful relief filigree can be the cover of the book “Officer of the Bishop's Service”, also a contribution of Metropolitan Platon in 17898.

Great development was achieved in the 18th century. Solvychegodsk and Veliky Ustyug enamels with their single-color (blue or white) background, on which human figures, flowers and other images, sometimes additionally colored with enamels, are superimposed in the form of separate metal plates. The museum has a large collection of household items from Solvychegodsk and Ustyug.

In the 18th century For the interior of the Lavra churches, monumental structures were made from silver according to drawings by famous artists of Moscow and St. Petersburg. For the altar of the Trinity Cathedral, by order of Metropolitan Plato, a large silver seven-candlestick in the shape of a laurel tree was made9; the tiblas of the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral were also decorated with silver. The Moscow master David Prif made a silver canopy over the shrine of Sergius of Radonezh from a Caravacca design (commissioned by Emperor Anna Ivanovna10). Thus, the applied art of the 18th century. represented in the museum's collection by the most characteristic works.

The works of artistic craft in the museum's collection make it possible to trace its development from the early monuments of the Grand Ducal Moscow to the end of the 18th century. Over the course of this long period, technical skills changed and improved, old forms disappeared and new forms of objects appeared, the nature of decoration changed, which always depended on aesthetic views, determined by the socio-economic and political conditions of their time, the development of internal and foreign market, scale and method of production.

On works of the XIV-XV centuries. the picture of the gradual revival of artistic crafts after the Tatar-Mongol devastation of the Russian land in the 13th century is revealed. Masters of Moscow and other art centers Ancient Rus' master various artistic techniques and improve their technique.

In the 16th century Moscow is finally gaining a leading place in the cultural life of the country. The applied arts of this period are distinguished by a variety of forms and artistic decorations, as well as great technical skill. The complex art of enamel, which has taken on a mainly ornamental character, is being improved, and the art of gold niello, embossing and engraving is achieving greater mastery.

Works made of silver for household and church purposes follow the traditions of folk art and are associated with the living conditions of the people, their rituals and way of life.

The colorfulness and decorativeness of 17th-century products, the complexity of ornaments, the appearance of painted enamels, and the use of large quantities of precious stones, pearls and colored glass give a more secular character to applied art.

In the 18th century new forms of objects, a realistic character of ornament and enamel painting were adopted. In the collection of the Zagorsk Museum, this period is represented by the best workshops of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Their works allow one to judge the new changes taking place in the applied arts.

The high artistic mastery of works of applied art, presented over more than five centuries, places the collection of the Zagorsk Museum in a prominent place in the history of Russian artistic culture

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"Decorative and applied art of the 18th century."

Introduction

In the second half of the 18th century, Russian applied art achieved a significant rise. This was facilitated by the development of economics, trade, science and technology and, to a large extent, close ties with architecture and fine arts. The number of large and small factories, factories, workshops producing fabrics, glass, porcelain, and furniture grew. Landowners set up various workshops based on serf labor on their estates.

One of the brightest phenomena of Russian culture is Russian folk art, the history of which goes back as many centuries as people live on earth.

Russian decorative and applied arts and folk crafts are original phenomena that have no analogues in world culture. From time immemorial, the Russian land has been famous for its craftsmen, people capable of creating and creating real beauty with their own hands. Through the art of folk crafts, the connection between the past and the present is traced.

Folk crafts are exactly what makes our culture rich and unique. Painted objects, toys and fabric products are taken with you Foreign tourists in memory of our country. Almost every corner of Russia has its own type of handicraft.

Main types of handicrafts

DYMKOVO TOY

Dymkovo toy (Vyatka, Kirov toy), Russian folk art craft; has long existed in the settlement of Dymkovo (now on the territory of the city of Kirov). A Dymkovo toy is sculpted from clay, fired and painted over the ground with tempera, and gold leaf is included. Depicts animals, horsemen, ladies in crinolines, fabulous, everyday scenes. Artistic originality Dymkovo toys are characterized by massive, laconic plasticity, emphasized by harmonious decorative painting in the form of a large geometric pattern (circles, cages of different colors, etc.).

The Dymkovo toy is the most famous clay craft in Russia. It is distinguished by its extremely simple and clear plastic form, generalized silhouette, and bright ornamental painting on a white background.

Traditionally, the Dymkovo toy industry does not have mass production.

Khokhloma - old Russian folk craft, which arose in the 17th century in the Volga region (the village of Semino, Nizhny Novgorod province). This is perhaps the most famous type of Russian folk painting. It is a decorative painting on wooden utensils and furniture, done in red and black (less often green) tones and gold on a golden background. What is surprising is that when painting is done, it is not gold, but silver tin powder that is applied to the wood. Then the product is coated with a special compound and processed three or four times in an oven. Then this delightful honey-golden color appears, thanks to which light wooden utensils seem massive.

BOGORODSKAYA TOY

Variegated wooden chickens on a stand, figurines of blacksmiths, a man and a bear - pull the bar and they will knock with hammers on a small anvil... Funny toys, known in Rus' since time immemorial, have become the main folk craft for residents of the village of Bogorodskoye near Moscow.

The “Bogorodskaya toy” owes its birth to the village of Bogorodskoye, now located in the Sergiev Posad district of the Moscow region. In the 15th century, the village was owned by the famous Moscow boyar M.B. Pleshcheev, after whose death, the village along with the peasants was inherited by his eldest son Andrei, and then by his grandson Fedor.

Since 1595, the village of Bogorodskoye became the property of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and the peasants became monastery serfs. It was the peasants who laid the foundations of wood carving in the 16th-17th centuries, which glorified Bogorodskoye, the current “capital of the toy kingdom,” throughout the world.

MATRYOSHKA

Matryoshka is the most famous and beloved Russian souvenir, a global phenomenon. The first Russian nesting doll appeared at the end of the 19th century, however, it gained unprecedented recognition as one of the comprehensive images of Russia, a symbol of Russian folk art. The predecessor and prototype of the Russian nesting doll was the figurine of a good-natured bald old man, the Buddhist sage Fukuruma, which contained several more figures nested one inside the other. This figurine was brought from the island of Honshu. The Japanese, by the way, claim that an unknown Russian monk was the first to carve such a toy on the island of Honshu.

The Russian wooden detachable doll was called a matryoshka. In the pre-revolutionary province, the name Matryona, Matresha was considered one of the most common Russian names, based on the Latin word “mater”, meaning mother. This name was associated with the mother of a large family, who had good health and a portly figure. Subsequently, it became a household word and began to mean a turning, detachable, colorfully painted wooden product. But to this day, the nesting doll remains a symbol of motherhood and fertility, since the doll with its large doll family perfectly expresses the figurative basis of this ancient symbol of human culture.

The first Russian nesting doll, carved by Vasily Zvezdochkin and painted by Sergei Malyutin, had eight seats: a girl with a black rooster was followed by a boy, then a girl again, and so on. All the figures were different from each other, and the last, eighth, depicted a swaddled baby.

ORENBURG DOWN SCARF

The foundations of applied art, thanks to which Orenburg became known throughout the world, were laid by Cossack women at the end of the 17th century, when Russian pioneers, having established themselves in the Urals, entered into trade relations with the local population.

The harsh climate of these places required warm but light clothing. Cossack women easily adopted goat down handicrafts from the Kazakhs and Kalmyks. Only the knitting style of the steppe people was continuous, and the Yaik women began to use Russian lace ornaments.

PAVLOPOSAD SCARF

Bright and light, feminine Pavloposad shawls are always fashionable and relevant. And today, original designs are complemented by various elements such as fringe, created in different colors and remain an excellent accessory to almost any look.

Pavlovsky Posad printed, woolen and half-woolen scarves, decorated with traditional colorful printed patterns, originated in the town of Pavlovsky Posad near Moscow in the 1860s-80s. The area of ​​Pavlovsky Posad (the territory of the former Bogorodsky district) is one of the oldest Russian textile centers. In the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Bogorodsk shawls and sarafan fabrics were distinguished by the special beauty of the ornament woven with gold thread. Later, silk weaving became widespread here, and from the 1860s. The production of woolen and half-woolen scarves, decorated with colorful printed patterns, began. Gradually, production expanded and acquired a pronounced national character.

ROSTOV FINISH

Rostov enamel is a unique traditional folk art craft that arose in the second half of the 18th century. as an icon painting craft. In this series, it is related to Palekh, Mstera, Kholui, only the material is quite rare - enamel painting. “Enamel” comes from the Greek noun tsEggpt (phengos), meaning “shimmer.” Special paints (invented in 1632 by the French jeweler Jean Toutin) based on glass with the addition of metal oxides are applied to a metal base (steel, copper, silver, gold sheet) and fixed by firing in an oven. Rostov enamel is one of the ten best folk crafts in Russia.

Gzhel is the name of a picturesque region near Moscow, which is 60 kilometers from Moscow. The word "Gzhel" is incredibly popular today. Harmony, fairy tales and true stories are associated with beauty. Porcelain with elegant blue painting and multi-colored majolica are now known not only in Russia, but also abroad. Gzhel products attract everyone who loves beauty, rich in imagination and harmony, and the high professionalism of their creators. Gzhel is the cradle and main center of Russian ceramics. It was formed here best features and the highest achievements of folk art appeared.

How old is this Russian folk craft? Archaeological research on the territory of Gzhel confirms the existence of pottery here since the beginning of the 14th century. And it is not surprising, the Gzhel land has long been rich in forests, rivers, high-quality clays, ... “which I have never seen with more beautiful whiteness.” Since then, over its more than six-century history, Gzhel has experienced different periods.

The end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries became a period of deep crisis. It seemed that Gzhel art had perished forever.

The post-war period is associated with the beginning of the revival of the craft and the search for its own figurative language. This required years of painstaking and tireless work, training of new masters. As a result, this led to success. Dymkovsky matryoshka toy Gzhel applied

In 1972, the Gzhel association was created on the basis of six small production facilities located in several villages. Creative groups developed new samples. Completely new product forms were created. Painting has become richer, and fulfills the artistic demands of the current day.

TAGIL TRAY

Ural lacquer painting metalworking arose in the 18th century. at Nizhny Tagil factories. The Tagil tray is older than the Zhostovo one. It is Nizhny Tagil that is considered the birthplace of Russian metal painting. The Ural factory Demidovs, being the main customers of painted products, supported the lacquer industry in every possible way. Tagil metal painting cannot be confused with any other: it is characterized by a richness of colors, purity and grace in the processing of colors, completeness of the composition, and a refined pattern of ornaments.

Zhostovo painting is a folk craft of artistic painting of metal trays that exists in the village of Zhostovo, Mytishchi district, Moscow region. The craft of painted metal trays arose in the mid-18th century. in the Urals, where the Demidov metallurgical plants were located. Only in the first half of the 19th century. Trays began to be made in the villages of the Moscow province - Zhostovo, Troitsky, Novoseltsev. The Moscow region fishery soon became the leading one.

Zhostovo trays are paintings, mainly of floral patterns, the creators of which were simple Russian peasants. They brought bright cheerfulness of colors, simplicity and clarity of images, accuracy of characteristics, and clarity of drawing to lacquer painting.

Painting is performed using free brush stroke techniques, without preliminary drawing. Most often a black background is used. The volumes of flowers and leaves seem to grow from the depths of the background. This is done by gradually moving from dark tones to lighter ones. Flowers seem to come to life in the painting.

Modern technology for making trays differs little from that previously used by craftsmen from the village of Zhostovo. A thin sheet of iron is pressed into the desired shape, the edges of the tray are rolled to give rigidity, and the surface is leveled. The front surface of the tray is primed and puttied, and then sanded and coated with black (less often a different color) varnish. The trays are dried in ovens at temperatures up to 90 degrees C. The coating is done three times, after which the colored surface of the tray becomes shiny.

FEDOSKINO

Fedoskino miniature, a type of traditional Russian lacquer miniature painting oil paints on papier-mâché, which developed at the end of the 18th century. in the village of Fedoskino near Moscow.

The production of papier-mâché products arose in 1798, when the merchant P.I. Korobov organized visor production in the village of Danilkov, which he bought (currently part of Fedoskino). A few years later, Korobov visited Johann Stobwasser’s factory in Brauschweig, adopted the technology of papier-mâché products there and began producing in his factory the then popular snuff boxes, decorated with engravings glued to the lid, sometimes painted and varnished. In the second quarter of the 19th century. snuff boxes, bead boxes, boxes and other products began to be decorated picturesque miniatures, made with oil paints in a classical pictorial manner.

The craftsmen worked at the factory for hire, many of them came from the icon-painting workshops of Sergiev Posad and Moscow, some had art education, received at the Stroganov School. The names of some of them are known - S. I. Borodkin, A. A. Shavrin, A. V. Tikhomirov, D. A. Krylov and others.

The favorite motifs for painting by the Fedoskino miniaturists became subjects that were popular at that time: “troikas”, “tea parties”, scenes from Russian and Little Russian peasant life. The most valued were caskets decorated with complex multi-figure compositions - copies of paintings by Russian and Western European artists.

The Fedoskino miniature is painted with oil paints in three or four layers - shading (general sketch of the composition), copy-painting or re-painting (more detailed work), glazing (modeling the image with transparent paints) and highlighting (finishing the work with light paints that convey highlights on objects) are performed in succession.

The Palekh miniature has no analogues in the whole world. It is done on papier-mâché and only then transferred to the surface of boxes of various shapes and sizes.

The unique and subtle art of lacquer miniatures in Palekh incorporates the principles of ancient Russian painting and folk art as its basis. Currently, Palekh miniatures are an integral part of Russian decorative and applied art as a whole. Along with the development of ancient traditions, it carries within itself a poetic vision of the world, characteristic of Russian folk tales and songs.

The birth of this art in Palekh is not accidental. It was a natural result of the development of centuries-old traditions in new historical conditions, inheriting the skill of many generations of icon painters. The old Palekh experience is rich and diverse. The traditions of ancient Russian art have long been studied and preserved in Palekh.

The independent Palekh style of icon painting was formed only in the middle of the 18th century. He absorbed and developed the basic principles and elements of the Novgorod and Stroganov schools and painting of the Volga region of the second half XVII century. In the 17th-19th centuries, Palekh masters repeatedly fulfilled orders for icons in the Novgorod style or in the character of the Moscow mud.

Conclusion

The ability to identify the aesthetic qualities of a material has always distinguished Russian craftsmen, which manifested itself in all spheres of life from everyday life to architecture, where skill was expressed in the art of stone cutting.

The flourishing of jewelry art in Russia began in the middle of the 18th century and continued throughout the century.

During this period, silversmiths achieved great success. In accordance with new tastes, the shapes of silver services are simple and clear. They are decorated with flutes and antique ornaments. On silver glasses and snuff boxes, the craftsmen of Veliky Ustyug reproduce images of ancient scenes and victories of Russian troops from engravings.

An outstanding phenomenon in the applied art of the 18th century is the steel artistic products of Tula craftsmen: furniture, boxes, candlesticks, buttons, buckles, snuff boxes.

The flourishing of Russian applied art of the 18th century was associated with the work of architects Kazakov, Starov, Quarenghi, Cameron, Voronikhin and a number of trained folk artists. But its true glory was created mostly by serf craftsmen who remained unknown - furniture makers, carvers, weavers, stone cutters, jewelers, glass makers, ceramists...

Literature

History of Russian art. Responsible editors I.A. Bartenev, R.I. Vlasova - M., 1987

History of Russian art. Ed. I.E. Grabar. T. 1-12 (sections of decorative and applied arts). M.: 1953-1961

Russian decorative and applied arts. Ed. A.I. Leonova. T. 1-3. M.: 1962-1965

Rybakov B.A. Russian applied art of the X-XIII centuries. L.: 1971

Vasilenko V.M. Russian applied art. Origins and formation. I century BC. - XIII century AD M.: 1977

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The time of the rise of public self-awareness and social thought, the flowering of art. Paintings by Russian artists - Rokotov, Levitsky, Borovikovsky, Losenko, Shibanov. The predominance of the realistic direction, historical, landscape, everyday painting.

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As a result, the art of interior design becomes a special type of artistic activity in the work of architects of the 18th century. This type of artistic activity determines the emergence of new types of premises (offices, front rooms, bedrooms, living rooms, “picture halls”) and their subject content (Summer Palace, A.D. Menshikov Palace, Great Peterhof Palace, Monplaisir).

All this contributes to the development of furniture making; new types and forms of furniture, materials and methods of decorating them appear. The influence of English and Dutch furniture is very strong here. Under the influence of Europe, even the Baroque and Rococo styles in furniture were developing in Russia.

Classicism furniture has characteristic character and shapes. To a large extent, antique motifs can be traced in the shapes and decoration of furniture. In the middle of the 18th century, architects took part in the development of new types of furniture, furniture art and designer furniture appeared in Russia (Brenna, Lvov, Cameron, Voronikhin). In the second half of the 18th century, the first furniture workshops appeared (the workshop of G. Gambs and I. Ott). This period in furniture art is characterized by the Jacob style. By the second half of the 18th century, materials in furniture art changed: mahogany, gilded wood, poplar, Karelian birch appeared here; Fabric and embroidery are increasingly being used in furniture making.

Ceramics and faience occupy a special place in the decorative and applied arts. This occurs initially due to the expansion of imports of earthenware from England and Holland. However, soon the first private manufactory of A. Grebenshchikov appeared in Moscow, producing Russian fine faience. Later, the style of ceremonial palace dishes with matte engraving was formed and the fashion for crystal as an interior item spread. This entails the opening of Maltsov’s first private glass and crystal factory in Mozhaisk district.

In the 18th century, due to the growing popularity of decorative and applied arts and room decoration, the consumption of glass increased significantly, which was used to create a variety of mirrors and lighting fixtures.

Sculpture and painting of the second half of the 18th century.

Played a major role in the development of painting in the 18th century creation Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky. Despite the fact that the artist was not officially listed as a student of the Academy, he, without a doubt, used the advice of its teachers and, above all, Levitsky. The young artist’s natural talent and iron tenacity soon led to Borovikovsky becoming one of the first masters of the late 18th century. He created a series of excellent portraits of his contemporaries, including G. Derzhavin, V. Arsenyeva, M. Lopukhina, O. Filippova and many others. A constant interest in the emotional experiences of a person, emphasized lyricism and contemplation, fanned with a haze of sentimentality, so characteristic of the era, are characteristic of most of Borovikovsky’s works. The artist never followed the path of external, superficial characterization of the image, constantly striving to convey the subtlest spiritual movements of the persons portrayed.

Chamber portraits predominate in his work. Borovikovsky strives to affirm the self-worth and moral purity of a person (portrait of “Lizynka and Dashinka”, portrait of E.N. Arsenyeva, etc.). At the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, Borovikovsky was attracted by strong, energetic personalities; he focused on citizenship, nobility, and dignity of those portrayed. The appearance of his models becomes more restrained, the landscape background is replaced by images of the interior (portraits of A.A. Dolgorukov, M.I. Dolgoruka, etc.).

Borovikovsky is also a recognized master of portrait miniatures. The collection of the Russian Museum contains works belonging to his brush - portraits of A.A. Menelas, V.V. Kapnist, N.I. Lvova and others. The artist often used tin as a basis for his miniatures.

Russian portrait painting at its true peak XVIII century achieves in creativity D.G.Levitsky . Already in one of his early works - a portrait of the architect A. Kokorinov - Levitsky showed outstanding abilities as a painter. The portrait of the great French materialist philosopher D. Diderot, painted by Levitsky in St. Petersburg in 1773, and the series of portraits of female students of the Smolny Institute created by the artist are distinguished by high artistic merit. The images of these girls are marked with sincerity and warmth, and the uniqueness of each of them is masterfully conveyed.

Portraits of subsequent years - Lvova, the artist's father, the Bakunins, Anna Davia and many other masterpieces by Levitsky - are clear evidence of his brilliant talent.

Levitsky created an extensive gallery of portraits of his contemporaries, capturing broadly and completely, like no one else, living images of people of the era. Levitsky's art completes the history of the development of Russian portrait painting in the 18th century. It should, however, be noted that there are some historically determined limitations of his work: like other remarkable artists of his time, Levitsky could not reflect the social contradictions of reality. The people depicted by the artist, in accordance with the prevailing aesthetic ideas, always pose somewhat; they seem to be trying to show themselves to the viewer in the “most pleasant” light. However, in a number of his works the artist achieves amazing simplicity and vitality.

Levitsky's legacy is enormous and still evokes a feeling of immediate aesthetic pleasure in viewers. The professional perfection of his works and their realistic orientation place the artist in one of the most honorable places in the entire history of Russian art.

Among the most famous works of D. G. Levitsky are the following: “Portrait of E. A. Vorontsova”, “Portrait of the architect A. F. Kokorinov”, “Portrait of N. A. Lvov”, “Portrait of M. A. Dyakova”, “Portrait Ursula Mniszech”, “Portrait of Agasha’s daughter in Russian costume”, etc.

In the field of portraiture, Russian artists of the second half of the 18th century also said their new word. The sharpness of the psychological characteristics that marked many portraits of this time is striking - the brush of the best Russian masters is increasingly gravitating towards a truthful depiction of the image of a person. It is significant that at this time portraits were created not only of the nobility and “ powerful of the world this,” but also a number of progressive public figures. These portraits completely lack elements of pomp and external gloss; Artists pay their attention to conveying the inner content of a person, to revealing the strength of his mind, the nobility of his thoughts and aspirations.

The development of Russian portraiture found its expression in works of F. Rokotov.

Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov- one of the best Russian portrait painters. Having received an artistic education under the guidance of L.-J. Le Lorrain and Count Pietro Rotari, worked in the manner of the latter, but delved into nature more than him and was diligent in execution. In 1762 he was admitted as an adjunct to the newly established St. Petersburg. Academy of Arts for the painting “Venus” presented to her and for the portrait of Emperor Peter III.

Subtle pictorial skill distinguishes the portraits of this artist. Rokotov brings the intimate spirituality of the image, especially in female portraits, to great expressiveness and strength. The highly technical perfection of the artist's works - in terms of the nature of the drawing and pictorial skill, only Levitsky can be compared with him. The portraits created by Rokotov are distinguished by their sophistication of design and elegance of color.

The most famous works of Rokotov include: “Portrait of an unknown woman in a pink dress”, “Portrait of A.I. Vorontsov”, “Portrait of G.G. Orlov in armor”, “Coronation portrait of Catherine II”, “Portrait of A.P. Struyskaya” , “Portrait of the poet V.I. Maykov”, “Portrait of Surovtseva”, etc.

In the second half of the 18th century. began to develop in Russian painting everyday genre. However genre painting was considered by the leadership of the Academy of Arts and privileged layers of society as something base, unworthy of the artist’s brush. Despite this, after the peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev, both in literature, theater and music, and in painting of the 1770-1780s. interest began to appear in the peasantry, their way of life, and way of life. Often these were sentimental images of idyllic shepherds and shepherdesses, which had nothing in common with real peasant life. However, there were exceptions.

One of the first in Russian painting to develop the peasant theme was the serf of Prince G. A. Potemkin Mikhail Shibanov . He painted the paintings “Peasant Lunch”, “Wedding Agreement Celebration”, etc. In Shibanov’s paintings there is no denunciation of serfdom, however, in these paintings there is no idealization of peasant life. The artist is distinguished by his knowledge and understanding of the life and character of the Russian peasant.

The peasant theme was reflected in the work of the artist I. M. Tankov (1739 - 1799), the author of the painting “Holiday in the Village” and I. A. Ermenev (1746 - after 1792), who painted the watercolors “Peasant Lunch”, “Beggar Singers” and etc.). For the first time in the history of Russian art, the artist conveyed the gloomy aspects of people's life, the squalor of poverty.

In the second half of the 18th century. the real flowering of Russian sculpture begins. It developed slowly, but Russian educational thought and Russian classicism were the greatest incentives for the development of the art of great civic ideas, large-scale problems, which led to interest in sculpture during this period. Shubin, Gordeev, Kozlovsky, Shchedrin, Prokofiev, Martos - each was a bright individual in his own right and left his mark on art. But they were all united by common creative principles, which they learned from Professor Nicolas Gillet, who headed the sculpture class at the Academy from 1758 to 1777, general ideas of citizenship and patriotism, and the high ideals of antiquity.

The search for the generally beautiful does not exclude the full depth of comprehension of human character, the desire to convey its versatility. This desire is palpable in monumental decorative sculpture and easel sculpture of the second half of the century, but especially in the genre of portraiture.

His highest achievements are associated primarily with creativity Fedot Ivanovich Shubin (1740-1805), a fellow countryman of Lomonosov, who arrived in St. Petersburg already as an artist who had mastered the intricacies of bone carving. Shubin's first work in his homeland is a bust of A.M. Golitsyn already testifies to the full maturity of the master. All the versatility of the model’s characteristics is revealed when examining it all around, although there is undoubtedly a main point of view for the sculpture.

Shubin worked not only as a portrait painter, but also as a decorator. He executed 58 oval marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace (located in the Armory Chamber), sculptures for the Marble Palace and for Peterhof, a statue of Catherine II - the legislator (1789-1790). There is no doubt that Shubin is a major phenomenon in Russian artistic culture XVIII centuries. The French sculptor Etienne-Maurice Falconet worked in Russia together with domestic masters, who in the monument to Peter I on Senate Square in St. Petersburg expressed his understanding of Peter’s personality, her historical role in the destinies of Russia.

Fedor Fedorovich Shchedrin(1751-1825). He went through the same stages of training at the Academy and retirement in Italy and France as Shubin. “Marsyas,” performed by him in 1776, is full of violent movement and a tragic attitude. Like all sculptors of the era of classicism, Shchedrin is fascinated by ancient images (“Sleeping Endymion”; “Venus”), showing a particularly poetic insight into their world.

The history of Russia at the end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century is inseparable from the name of one of the largest political figures in Russia - Peter I. Significant innovations invaded at this time not only the field of culture and art, but also industry - metallurgy, shipbuilding, etc. At the beginning of the 18th century, the first mechanisms and machines for metal processing appeared. Much has been done in this area by Russian mechanics Nartov, Surnin, Sobakin and others.

At the same time, the foundations of the state system of general and special education are laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established, with a department of artistic crafts opened.

A. Nartov. Lathe. Peter's era. XVIII century

In the 18th century, new principles of architecture and urban planning were formed. This period was marked by the strengthening of the characteristic features of Western European Baroque (Holland, England) in the formation of products.

As a result of the initiatives of Peter I, products of traditional Russian forms quickly disappear from the royal and aristocratic life of the palace, while still remaining in the homes of the masses of the rural and urban population, as well as in church use. It was in the first quarter of the 18th century that a significant difference in stylistic development emerged, which remained characteristic of professional creativity and folk artistic crafts for a long time. In the latter, the centuries-old traditions of Russian, Ukrainian, Estonian, etc. applied art are directly and organically developed.

The norms of noble life require a demonstration of wealth, sophistication and splendor in the life of a sovereign person. The forms of the old way of life, including that of Peter the Great (still businesslike and strict), were finally being supplanted by the middle of the 18th century. The dominant position in Russian art is occupied by the so-called Rococo style, which logically completed the trends of the late Baroque. The ceremonial interiors of this time, for example, some rooms of the Peterhof and Tsarskoye Selo palaces, are almost entirely decorated with elaborate carvings.

The general features of rocaille ornamentation (curvature of lines, abundant and asymmetrical arrangement of stylized or close to nature flowers, leaves, shells, eyes, etc.) are fully reproduced in Russian architecture and furniture of that time, ceramics, clothing, carriages, ceremonial weapons, etc. . d. But the development of Russian applied art nevertheless followed a completely independent path. Despite the unconditional similarity of the forms of our own products with Western European ones, it is not difficult to notice the differences between them. So, but compared to French ones, Russian furniture products have much freer shapes and are softer in outline and drawing. The masters still retained the skills of folk carving, larger and more generalized than in the West. No less characteristic is the polychrome nature of Russian products and the combination of gilding and painting, which is rarely found in France, but is accepted everywhere in Russia.

Since the 60s of the 18th century, a transition to classicism began in Russian architecture with its laconic and strict forms, directed towards antiquity and marked by great restraint and grace. The same process occurs in applied art.

In the layout, equipment and decor of city mansions and palaces (architects Kokorinov, Bazhenov, Quarenghi, Starov, etc.) a clear symmetry and proportional clarity appear. The walls of the rooms (between the windows or opposite them) are hidden with mirrors and panels made of silk damask, decorative cotton fabrics, and cloth.

.

Sofa - Rococo style. Russia (fragment). Mid-18th century

Classic style chair. Russia. Second half of the 18th century.

The floors are made of wood of various species, and sometimes covered with canvas or cloth; the ceilings are painted (for example, using the grisaille technique, imitating relief modeling). Instead of stacked parquet, spruce planks “under wax” are used. Walls and ceilings are often covered with fabric or covered with wallpaper. If impressively sized marble fireplaces are installed in the main rooms, then in the intimate rooms more traditional stoves are built on tables or legs, lined with tiles. The difference in lamps is just as noticeable: in the halls there are jewelry-made and expensive chandeliers, candelabra, sconces, in the chambers there are much more modest candlesticks and lamps. There is even more contrast in the shapes of formal and household furniture. All this speaks not so much about the desire of the owners of palaces and mansions to save money, but about their consideration of the subject environment as an important factor in the psychologically appropriate atmosphere.

Most furniture and a number of other products at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries were not constantly needed; if there was no need, they were either removed or moved to inactively used parts of the premises. Seating furniture must be covered. In the same regard, transformable furniture with a working surface has received great development - tea and card tables, a folding dining table, a table for needlework, a system of uneven-high tables that fit under each other, etc. All this significantly increased the comfort of life, the subtle differentiation of its functional support and variety of appearance of premises in different everyday situations. At the same time, a number of everyday processes that took place outside the building during the warm season - on the terrace and in the park - were especially highlighted. As a result, new types of products became widespread - garden furniture, umbrella awnings, park lamps, etc. In the 18th century, serf workshops were organized at individual estates, producing fairly large batches of furniture, porcelain, rugs and other products.

At the end of the 18th century, in the equipment of large palaces, the separation of the actual design of products (furniture, lamps, clocks, tapestries and other utensils and furnishings) as a special area of ​​creative activity from their craft production was already noticeably affecting. The role of designers is mainly played by architects and professional artists. The production of products for the mass market uses machines and mechanical methods of processing materials, turning the engineer into a leading figure in production. This leads to distortion and loss of the high aesthetic qualities inherent in consumer products, to the separation of industry from art. This trend was natural in the conditions of capitalist development of society and one of the main ones for the entire 19th century.

During the intensive development of capitalist relations in Russia in the 19th century, industrial production capacity increased. By the middle of the 19th century, there was already an urgent need for artistically professional personnel of product developers and craftsmen. For their training, specialized educational institutions were opened in Moscow (Count Stroganov) and St. Petersburg (Baron Stieglitz). Their very name is “schools technical drawing" - speaks of the emergence of a new type of artist. Since 1860, special craft education for master performers has been developed. Many books are published on the technology of processing various materials: wood, bronze, iron, gold, etc. Trade catalogs are published, replacing the previously published Economic Store magazine. Since the middle of the 19th century, sciences related to issues of occupational hygiene and the use of household items have been formed. However, throughout the entire 19th century, all mass factory products artistically remained completely subordinated to the undividedly dominant idea of ​​beauty as the decorative and ornamental design of products. The consequence of this was the introduction of stylistic elements of classicism into the form of most of the products: complex profile finishes, fluted columns, rosettes, garlands, ornaments based on ancient motifs, etc. In a number of cases, these elements were introduced into the forms of even industrial equipment - machine tools.

In the stylistic development of applied art and household products in the 19th century, three main periods are chronologically conventionally distinguished: the continuation of the trends of classicism in line with the so-called Empire style (the first quarter of the century); late classicism (circa 1830-1860) and eclecticism (after the 1860s).

The first quarter of the 19th century was marked by a general rise in ideological spirit and construction scope in Russian architecture, which caused a significant revival in the applied arts.

Empire style armchair. First quarter of the 19th century.

Victory in the War of 1812 to a certain extent accelerates and completes the process of formation of Russian national culture, which is acquiring pan-European significance. The activities of the most famous architects - Voronikhin, Quarenghi, Kazakov, closely connected with the classicism of the previous era, occurred only in the first decade of the century. They are being replaced by a galaxy of such wonderful masters as Rossi, Stasov, Grigoriev, Bove, who brought new ideas and a different stylistic spirit to Russian art.

Severity and monumentality are characteristic features of the architecture and forms of various household items in the Empire style. In the latter, decorative motifs noticeably change, or rather, their typology expands through the use of decorative symbols of Ancient Egypt and Rome - griffins, sphinxes, fasces, military attributes (“trophies”), wreaths intertwined with a garland, etc. Compared with examples of early classicism in general the amount of decor, its “visual weight” in the compositional design of products increases. Monumentalization, at times, as if the coarsening of forms, occurs due to the greater generalization and geometrization of classical ornamental motifs - edging, wreaths, lyres, armor, etc., which are increasingly moving away from their real prototypes. Painting of objects (scenes, landscapes, bouquets) almost completely disappears. The ornament tends to be spotty, contouring, and applicative. Most products, especially furniture, become large, massive, but varied in overall configuration and silhouette. The heaviness of the Empire style in furniture almost disappeared already in the 1830s.

From the middle of the 19th century, new searches began in the field of architecture, applied and industrial creativity.

A pan-European artistic movement was born, called “Biedermeier,” after the bourgeoisie of one of the characters of the German writer L. Eichrodt (the work was published in the 1870s) with its ideal of comfort and intimacy.

Factory made iron. Russia. Second half of the 11th century.

In the second half of the 19th century, manual labor was further displaced from the production of utilitarian household products. Over the centuries, the methods and techniques of their artistic solution, the principles of form-building, that have developed over the centuries, come into conflict with new economic trends in the mass production and profitability of producing things for the market. The response to the changing situation is twofold. Some masters - the majority of them - make compromises. Considering inviolable the traditional view of all everyday things as objects of decorative and applied art, they begin to adapt the ornamental motifs of classicism to the capabilities of the machine and serial technologies. “Effective” types of decoration and finishing of products appear. Back in the 1830s in England, Henry Kuhl put forward a seemingly reformist slogan to decorate factory products with elements “from the world of fine art forms.” Many industrialists willingly pick up the slogan, trying to take maximum advantage of the consumer masses’ attachment to externally decorated, ornamentally enriched forms of home furnishings.

Other theorists and practitioners of applied art (D. Ruskin, W. Morris), on the contrary, propose organizing a boycott of industry. Their credo is the purity of the traditions of medieval craft.

In the countries of Western Europe and in Russia, for the first time, artisanal artels and masters, in whose work deep folk traditions were still preserved, attracted the attention of theorists and professional artists. In Russia, Nizhny Novgorod fairs of the 1870-1890s demonstrate the viability of these traditions in new conditions. Many professional artists - V. Vasnetsov, M. Vrubel, E. Polenova, K. Korovin, N. Roerich and others - enthusiastically turn to folk origins decorative arts. In various regions and provinces of Russia, in cities such as Pskov, Voronezh, Tambov, Moscow, Kamenets-Podolsk, etc., craft enterprises are emerging, the basis of which is manual labor. The work of the workshops in Abramtsovo near Moscow, in Talashkino near Smolensk, the enterprise of P. Vaulin near St. Petersburg, and the Murava ceramic artel in Moscow were especially important for the revival of creative, dying crafts.

Samovar. XIX century

Russia. Second half

Industrial pump. XIX century

However, the products of all these workshops constituted such an insignificant part of total consumption that they could not have any noticeable influence on mass production, although they proved the legitimacy of the existence, along with mass machine production, of items of decorative art that preserve folk traditions. This was later confirmed by the invasion of machine technology into such areas of decorative and applied arts as jewelry, carpet weaving, and tailoring, which led to a sharp drop in their artistic quality.

In the forms of the bulk of manufactured products in the second half of the 19th century, practically nothing new has yet been developed. However, the novelty of the general situation already at this time contributes to the formation of internal prerequisites for innovative quests - the awareness of stylistic searches as an important creative need, as a manifestation of the artistic individuality of the master. If until now style trends (Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Classicism, etc.) were born and spread, as a rule, as a result of general, almost “global”, spontaneously crystallized trends in the aesthetic development of the world, then from the middle of the 19th century, stylistic originality is regarded as a direct creative achievement of an individual artist or architect. In this regard, interest in the heritage of art of all times and peoples is sharply intensifying. This rich heritage becomes a source of imitations, direct borrowings, or is subjected to bizarre creative processing.

Art Nouveau style table with chair. End of the 19th century

As a result, the bulk of the products present an unusually motley picture, in which either obvious or subtle reminiscences of antiquity, the Romanesque era, Gothic, Italian or French Renaissance, the art of Byzantium and Ancient Russia, Baroque, etc. flicker, often eclectically mixing into design of one product, interior, building. Therefore, this period in the history of architecture and applied art was called eclectic. Products (lamps, metal buckets, troughs, dishes, stools, etc.) that are relatively cheap, but made without any artistic purpose, often in ugly forms and of poor quality, are still beginning to be introduced into people’s everyday life.

The search for a new style is carried out taking into account the real need in the conditions of machine production, a fundamentally new approach to the shaping of products, on the one hand, and the preservation of the decorative traditions of the past, on the other. The bourgeoisie, which by the end of the 19th century had occupied a strong position in the Russian economy, strove for its own artistic ideology in architecture and design - the cult of the rational, relative freedom from the archaisms of noble culture, encouraging in art everything that could compete with the styles of the past. This is how the Art Nouveau style appeared at the end of the 19th century - “new art” in Belgium, Great Britain and the USA, “Jugendstil” in Germany, “Secessions style” in Austria, “free style” in Italy. Its name - “modern” (from the French moderne) meant “new, modern” - from lat. modo - “just now, recently.” In its pure form, fading out and mixing with other stylistic movements, it lasted relatively short, until about 1920, i.e., about 20-25 years, like almost all stylistic movements of the 17th-20th centuries.

Art Nouveau is diverse in different countries and in the work of individual masters, which complicates the understanding of the problems they solved. However, the almost complete eradication of all previously used decorative and ornamental motifs and techniques and their radical renewal became characteristic. Traditional cornices, rosettes, capitals, flutes, “rolling wave” belts, etc. are replaced by stylized local plants (lilies, iris, carnations, etc.), female heads with long curly hair, etc. Often there is no decoration at all , and the artistic effect is achieved due to the expressiveness of the silhouette, divisions of form, lines, usually finely drawn, as if freely flowing, pulsating. In the forms of Art Nouveau products one can almost always feel some whimsical will of the artist, the tension of a tightly stretched string, and exaggerated proportions. In extreme manifestations, all this is sharply aggravated, elevated to a principle. Sometimes there is a disregard for the constructive logic of form, an almost sham enthusiasm for the spectacular side of the task, especially in the design of interiors, which are often spectacularly theatricalized.

In front of everyone weaknesses- pretentiousness, sometimes loudness of forms, a new approach to the solution of the building, interior, furnishings with the logic of a functional, constructive and technological solution arose.

Art Nouveau style candlestick. Beginning of the 20th century

Set of dishes. End of the 19th century

Dressing table from the Art Nouveau period. Beginning of the 20th century

Art Nouveau in the vast majority of its examples did not abandon the decoration of products, but only replaced old decorative motifs and techniques with new ones. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, at the time of the triumphs of the new style, the fashion for old styles returned again, timidly at first, then widely, which had a well-known connection with the beginning of preparations for the celebration of the centenary of the Patriotic War of 1812. The exhibition “Modern Art”, organized in St. Petersburg in 1903, clearly showed the birth of “classicizing modernity”.

The results of modernity are complex. This is the purification of applied art from eclecticism, and from the “anti-machinism” of champions of handcrafts, and from failed attempts to restore the styles of the past. These are the first symptoms of architecture and applied art entering the path of functionalism and constructivism, the path of modern design. At the same time, soon revealing a tendency to nationalize style, Art Nouveau caused a new wave of purely decorative quests. Many painters turn to applied art and interior design (S. Malyutin, V. Vasnetsov, A. Benois, S. Golovin, etc.), gravitating towards the colorfulness of the Russian fairy tale, to the “gingerbread”, etc. In the perspective of the subsequent historical process , solutions to pressing problems of mass industrial production, such experiments could not have serious ideological and artistic significance, although they gave impetus to the development of another branch of applied art - artistic crafts and especially theatrical and decorative art.

Modernity, as it were, cleared and prepared the way for the establishment of new aesthetic and creative principles in the art of creating everyday things, and accelerated the emergence of a new artistic profession - artistic design (design).

The formation of functionalism and constructivism into special directions in the architecture and artistic design of Western countries occurred at the end of the 1910s in connection with the stabilization of life and economic success after the First World War. But the fundamental foundations of new modern architecture were determined in the pre-war period in the work of such architects as T. Garnier and O. Perret (France), H. Berlaga (Holland), A. Loos (Austria), P. Behrens (Germany), F. Wright (USA), I. Shekhtel, I. Rerberg (Russia), etc. Each of them in their own way overcame the influence of modernity and struggled.

In 1918, special departments for architecture and the art industry were formed under the Fine Arts Department of the People's Commissariat for Education. Serious attention is paid to the issues of training specialists. In 1920, V.I. Lenin signed a decree on the creation of the Higher State Artistic and Technical Workshops (VKHUTEMAS). Graduates created new samples of fabrics, furniture, dishes, etc.

Training in workshops (in 1927 transformed into the VKHUTEIN All-Union Art and Technical Institute) was conducted in the faculties: architecture, ceramics, textiles, etc. At the faculty of wood and metal processing under the direction of A. Rodchenko, D. . Lisitsky, V. Tatlin and other masters searched for new forms and designs of various objects. All activities of VKHUTEMAS were aimed at developing in students the skills of an integrated approach to designing the subject environment of everyday life and production.

In the 1920s, a movement of “industrial art” emerged, developing the principles of functionalism and constructivism, which sought to establish in the minds of artists the aesthetic ideal of rationally organized material production. Any previous forms of art were declared bourgeois “productionists” and unacceptable for the proletariat. Hence their rejection of not only “practically useless” fine art, but also all purely decorative creativity, for example jewelry. In the 20s, the technical and economic conditions in our country were not yet ripe for the implementation of their ideas.

VKHUTEMAS and the “production workers” of the 1920s were ideologically and aesthetically closely connected with the Bauhaus and in a number of important moments represented with it essentially a single movement in the artistic design of that time. Within the framework of this new movement, the aesthetics of modern design was formed, overcoming the contradictions in the applied art of the previous period. The practical artistic activity of the founders of design was also the development of an arsenal of artistic and expressive means of the art of creating things. In their works (furniture, lamps, dishes, fabrics, etc.), the closest attention was paid to such properties of materials and form as texture, color, plastic expressiveness, rhythmic structure, silhouette, etc., which acquired decisive importance in the composition products, without conflicting with the requirements of constructive logic and manufacturability of the form. Another direction that successfully developed in our country in the 20s was engineering design. In 1925, in Moscow, according to the design of the outstanding engineer V. Shukhov, the famous radio tower was erected, the openwork silhouette of which became a symbol of Soviet radio for a long time. A year earlier, J. Gakkel created, based on the latest technological advances, the first Soviet diesel locomotive, the shape of which even today looks quite modern. In the 1920s, the need for scientific research into the patterns of human activity in an artificially created environment was realized. The Central Institute of Labor is being organized, within its walls research is being conducted on issues of scientific organization of labor and production culture. The attention of scientists and designers is drawn to issues of biomechanics, organoleptics, etc. Among the notable works of those years is the design of a tram driver's workplace (N. Bernstein).

Ya. Gakkel. Locomotive. Early 1930s