Unlike Italy, in absolutist France architecture and art served to glorify the monarch, not the church.
The urban redevelopment carried out in the 17th century in Paris differed from the Roman one in that the squares, as well as the large avenues, were independent of the buildings that were symbols of the city.
French Baroque was most clearly manifested in secular architecture - in the construction of palaces, castles, houses for the bourgeoisie and public buildings. The predominant type of palace is U-shaped, consisting of a central building and side projections. The building is inextricably linked with the park laid out behind it and the honorary courtyard in front of the facade. The courtyard was fenced off from the street with a gilded grille. Often such gratings themselves were wonderful works of art by Baroque bronze casters. Thanks to the architect's innovation J.A.Mansara , which raised the roof and gave the attic space functionality, attics appeared (attic-type living space formed on the top floor of a house with mansard roof). The picturesqueness was added by bright roofs, laid out either with colored checkerboard tiles or with slate and entwined with grapes or ivy that turned red in autumn. Examples of French architecture modeled after Italian are Four Nations College (1662) works Louis Levo .
Church at the Sorbonne (1635) Jacques Lemercier ,
Cathedral of the Invalides (1706) Jules Hardouin-Mansart – examples of Baroque religious buildings.
TO 
Lod Perrault
(1613 – 1688) creates a project for the main eastern facade Louvre
(1667 – 1673) – royal palace in paris
. His work embodied the ideas and moods closest to the French: severity and solemnity, scale and extreme simplicity. The eastern façade of the Louvre became an example of purely French baroque. It is fifteen meters longer than the actual length of the building, divided into tiers, decorated with an order with columns standing in pairs. The central protruding part of the facade is decorated with a portico with a pediment. This three-part composition was typical for the facades of palaces and state villas of the Renaissance. The master managed to show that old traditions still remain a source of beauty.
Question 22. The ensemble of Versailles in Paris (palace and park ensemble)
TO 
One of the outstanding architectural structures of world architecture is the well-known palace and park ensemble at Versailles, built under the auspices of such brilliant masters as Louis Leveau, Jules Hardouin-Mansart and Andre Le Nôtre. The layout of the extensive park and the areas associated with the Palace of Versailles are the pinnacle of French park art, and the palace itself is a first-class architectural monument. They created a complex, complete architectural complex, which included a monumental palace building and a number of park structures of “small forms”, and, most importantly, a park that was exceptional in its compositional integrity.
A 
The architecture of the palace is distinguished by great unity. Strongly stretched horizontally, the palace building harmonizes well with the strict geometrically correct layout of the park and the natural environment. The second, main floor of the palace is divided into a row of columns and pilasters, strict in proportions and details, resting on a heavy rusticated base. The topmost, smaller floor is designed as an attic crowning the building, giving the image of the palace greater monumentality and representativeness.
It is noteworthy that the layout of the park, made by Le Nôtre, is distinguished by classical purity and clarity of lines and shapes. Le Nôtre was the most consistent exponent of the aesthetic and ethical ideal of classicism. He saw the natural environment as an object of intelligent human activity. Le Nôtre transforms the natural landscape into an impeccably clear, complete architectural system based on the principles of rationality and order.
It should be noted that nature took strictly geometric forms in it, as if prescribed to it by the human mind. The park is distinguished by the clear symmetry of alleys and ponds, strictly calibrated rows of trimmed trees and flower beds, and the solemn dignity of the statues located in it.
Construction of the palace began in 1661 and more than 30 thousand builders were involved in the work (to increase the number of workers, Louis banned all private construction in the vicinity of the city, and in peacetime soldiers and sailors were sent to construction). Despite the fact that during construction they saved on literally everything, in the end a huge amount of money was spent - 25 million liras or 19.5 tons of silver (almost 260 billion euros).
IN final version the total area of the palace premises, not including the park, was about 67 thousand square meters. It had 25 thousand windows, 67 staircases, 372 statues.
Grand Trianon. The castle is in a classic style, lined with pink marble. Monarchs were used for a wide variety of purposes: from meetings with favorites to hunting.
M 
scarlet Trianon.
D 
The vortex represents a transition from the Rococo style to classicism and was built on the initiative of one of the favorites of Louis XV, the Marquise de Pompadour. True, she died several years before the completion of construction, and therefore another favorite, Countess DuBarry, lived in it. When Louis XVI became king, he handed over the castle to Marie Antoinette, where she took a break from palace life (even the king had no right to come here without her permission).
Park and gardens. The Palace of Versailles and the park are two inseparable concepts. The gardens of Versailles consist of a huge number of terraces, which gradually decrease as they move away from the castle. They occupy an area of about one hundred hectares, and this entire territory is absolutely flat and it is impossible to find any small hill on it.
There are several palace buildings here, among them the Grand and Petit Trianon, the Empress Theater, the Belvedere, the Temple of Love, the French pavilion, a grotto, as well as observation decks, alleys, sculptures, a system of fountains and canals, which is why the gardens of Versailles are nicknamed “ little Venice."
And in general, looking at the palaces of France, we cannot help but look into the most probably famous palace and park complex in France. Let it be known to everyone, you have heard a lot about it, but let’s take a virtual look there for a couple of minutes.
Versailles- this name is associated throughout the world with the idea of the most significant and magnificent palace, erected by the will of one monarch. The Versailles palace and park ensemble, a recognized masterpiece of world heritage, is quite young - it is only three and a half centuries old. The Palace and Park of Versailles is one of the outstanding architectural ensembles in the history of world architecture. The layout of the vast park, the territory associated with the Palace of Versailles, is the pinnacle of French park art, and the palace itself is a first-class architectural monument. A galaxy of brilliant masters worked on this ensemble. They created a complex, complete architectural complex, which included a monumental palace building and a number of park structures of “small forms”, and, most importantly, a park that was exceptional in its compositional integrity.
The Versailles ensemble represents a highly characteristic and vibrant work of French XVII classicism century. The palace and park ensemble of Versailles is the greatest architectural monument of the 17th century, which had a strong influence on the urban planning thought of the 18th century. Versailles in general became a kind of “ideal city”, which the authors of the Renaissance dreamed and wrote about and which, through the will of Louis XIV, the “Sun King”, and the art of his architects and gardeners, turned out to be realized in reality, and in close proximity to Paris. But let's talk about everything in more detail...
Mention of Versailles first appeared in a charter of 1038 issued by the Abbey of St. Peter. It spoke of a certain lord Hugo of Versailles, the owner of a small castle and the surrounding areas. The emergence of the first settlement - a small village around the castle - is usually dated to the mid-11th century. Another village soon grew up around the Church of St. Julian.
The 13th century (especially the years of the reign of Saint Louis) for Versailles, as well as for the whole of Northern France, became a century of prosperity. However, the subsequent 14th century brought with it a terrible plague epidemic and the Hundred Years' War between England and France. All these misfortunes brought Versailles into a very deplorable state: by the end of the 14th century, its population numbered just over 100 people. It began to recover only in the next 15th century.
Versailles as an architectural and park ensemble did not arise immediately; it was not created by one architect, like many palaces of the 17th-18th centuries that imitated him. At the end of the 16th century, Versailles was a small village in the forest, where he sometimes hunted Henry IV. Ancient chronicles report that at the beginning of the 17th century, Versailles was a village with a population of about 500 people; a mill then stood on the site of the future palace, and fields and endless swamps lay all around. In 1624 it was built on behalf of Louis XIII, by the architect Philibert Le Roy, a small hunting castle near a village called Versailles.
Near it there was a medieval dilapidated castle - the property of the house of Gondi. Saint-Simon in his memoirs calls this ancient Versailles castle a “house of cards.” But soon this castle was rebuilt by the architect Lemercier by order of the king. At the same time, Louis XIII acquired the Gondi site along with the dilapidated archbishop's palace and demolished it to expand his park. The small castle was located 17 kilometers from Paris. It was a U-shaped structure with a moat. In front of the castle there were four buildings made of stone and brick with metal bars on the balconies. The courtyard of the old castle, which later received the name Mramorny, has been preserved until today. The first gardens of the Versailles Park were laid out by Jacques Boisseau and Jacques de Menoir.
In the mid-16th century, the only lord of Versailles was Martial de Lomeny, Minister of Finance under King Charles IX. Charles granted him the right to hold four annual fairs in Versailles and open a weekly market (on Thursdays). The population of Versailles, which was still a small village, at this time was about 500 people. However, the French religious wars between Catholics and Protestants led to a quick change of the seigneurial dynasty. Martial was arrested for his sympathies towards the Huguenots (French Protestants) and thrown into prison. Here he was visited by the Duke de Retz, Albert de Gondi, who had long been nurturing plans to seize the Versailles territories. Through threats, he forced de Lomeny to sign a document according to which the latter ceded Versailles to him at a negligible price.
At the beginning of the 17th century, King Louis XIII began to frequently visit Versailles, who took great pleasure in hunting in the local forests. In 1623, he ordered the construction of a small castle where hunters could stop for a rest. This building became the first royal palace in Versailles. On April 8, 1632, Louis XIII completely bought the seigneury from the last Versailles owner, Jean-François de Gondi, for 66,000 livres. In the same year, the king appointed his valet Arnaud as governor of Versailles. In 1634, the architect Philibert le Roy was commissioned to rebuild the old Versailles castle into a royal palace. However, despite the changes that took place, by the end of the reign of Louis XIII, Versailles did not change its appearance much. It, as before, was a small village.
Everything changed with the accession to the throne of the king - the sun, Louis XIV. It was during the reign of this monarch (1643-1715) that Versailles became a city and a favorite royal residence.
In 1662, Versailles began to be built according to Le Nôtre's plan. Andre Le Nôtre(1613-1700) by this time had already become famous as a builder of country estates with regular parks (in Vaux-le-Vicomte, Saux, Saint-Cloud, etc.). It is interesting that in 1655-1661 N. Fouquet, the largest financier of absolutist France, according to the project of the architect Louis le Vaux rebuilt his country castle. The main thing in the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte was not even the palace itself (at that time quite modest), but the general principle of creating a country residence. The whole of it was turned into a giant park, skillfully designed by the architect-gardener Andre Le Nôtre. The Vaux-le-Vicomte Palace demonstrated the new lifestyle of the French aristocrat - in nature, outside the walls of a cramped, crowded city. I liked the palace and park so much Louis XIV that he could not come to terms with the idea that they were not his property. The French king immediately imprisoned Fouquet and entrusted the construction of his palace at Versailles to the architects Louis le Vau and Andre Le Nôtre. The architecture of the Fouquet estate was adopted as a model for Versailles. Having preserved the Fouquet Palace, the king removed from it everything that could be removed and taken away, right down to the orange trees and marble statues of the park.
Le Nôtre began by building a city that would house the courtiers of Louis XIV and a large staff of palace servants and military guards. The city was designed for thirty thousand inhabitants. Its layout was subject to three radial highways, which diverged from the central part of the palace in three directions: to Seau, Saint-Cloud, and Paris. Despite the direct analogy with the Roman triradius, the Versailles composition differed significantly from its Italian prototype. In Rome, the streets diverged from Piazza del Popolo, but in Versailles they quickly converged on the palace. In Rome, the width of the streets was less than thirty meters, in Versailles - about a hundred. In Rome, the angle formed between the three highways was 24 degrees, and in Versailles 30 degrees. To settle the city as quickly as possible Louis XIV distributed building plots to everyone (of course, nobles) for a reasonable price with the only condition that buildings be built in the same style and not higher than 18.5 meters, that is, the level of the entrance to the palace.
In 1673, a decision was made to demolish the old Versailles buildings, including the church. The new Cathedral of St. Julian was erected in its place in 1681-1682. On May 6, 1682, Louis XIV, along with his entire court, moved from Paris to Versailles. This became a turning point in the history of the city. By the first quarter of the 18th century (i.e. by the end of Louis's reign), Versailles had become a luxurious royal residence, and its population was 30,000 inhabitants.
As a result of the second construction cycle, Versailles developed into an integral palace and park ensemble, which is a wonderful example of the synthesis of arts - architecture, sculpture, and landscape gardening art of French classicism of the 17th century. However, after the death of the cardinal Mazarin, Versailles, created by Levo, began to seem insufficiently majestic to express the idea of an absolute monarchy. Therefore, he was invited to rebuild Versailles Jules Hardouin Mansart, the largest architect of the end of the century, whose name is associated with the third construction period in the history of the creation of this complex, the great-nephew of the famous Francois Mansart. Mansar further enlarged the palace by erecting two wings, each five hundred meters long, at right angles to the southern and northern facades of the palace. In the northern wing he placed a church (1699-1710), the vestibule of which was finished by Robert de Cotte. In addition, Mansart built two more floors above the Levo terrace, creating a Mirror Gallery along the western facade, closing with the halls of War and Peace (1680-1886).
Adam Frans van der Meulen - Construction of the Château de Versailles
On the axis of the palace towards the entrance on the second floor, Mansart placed the royal bedroom with a view of the city and an equestrian statue of the king, which was later placed at the vanishing point of the trident of the roads of Versailles. The king's chambers were located in the northern part of the palace, and the queen's in the southern part. Mansart also built two buildings of Ministers (1671-1681), which formed the third, the so-called “court of the Ministers,” and connected these buildings with a rich gilded lattice. All this completely changed the appearance of the building, although Mansar left the same height of the building. Gone are the contrasts, the freedom of imagination, nothing remains but the extended horizontal of the three-story structure, united in the structure of its facades with the ground, front and attic floors. The impression of grandeur that this brilliant architecture produces is achieved by the large scale of the whole and the simple and calm rhythm of the entire composition.
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Mansart knew how to combine various elements into a single artistic whole. He had an amazing sense of ensemble, striving for rigor in decoration. For example, in the Mirror Gallery he used a single architectural motif - a uniform alternation of walls and openings. This classicist base creates a sense of clear form. Thanks to Mansart, the expansion of the Palace of Versailles acquired a natural character. The extensions received a strong relationship with the central buildings. The ensemble, outstanding in its architectural and artistic qualities, was successfully completed and had a great influence on the development of world architecture.
Each of the inhabitants of the Palace of Versailles left their mark on its architecture and decoration. Louis XV, the great-grandson of Louis XIV, who inherited the throne in 1715, only towards the end of his reign in 1770 decided to make changes to the architecture of the palace. He ordered separate apartments to be equipped in order to protect his life from court etiquette. In turn, Louis XV inherited from his great-grandfather a love of the arts, as evidenced by the decoration of his Inner Chambers; and the penchant for secret political intrigue passed to him from the Italian ancestors of the Medici family and the Savoy dynasty. It was in the Inner Cabinets, far from the curious court, that he who was called "Everyone's Favorite" made some of the most important decisions of the state. At the same time, the king did not neglect either the etiquette established by his predecessor, or the life of the family, of which the queen and his especially beloved daughters reminded him.
After the death of the Sun King, Philip of Orleans, who became regent under the young Louis XV, decided to move the French court back to Paris. This was a notable blow to Versailles, which immediately lost about half of its inhabitants. However, everything returned to its previous state when, in 1722, the matured Louis XV moved to Versailles again. Under his successor Louis XVI, the city had to go through many dramatic moments. By a whim of fate, this luxurious royal residence was to become the cradle of the Great French Revolution. It was here that the Estates General met in 1789, and here, on June 20, 1789, deputies from the Third Estate took a solemn oath not to disperse until their demands for political changes in France were accepted. Here, at the beginning of October 1789, a crowd of heated revolutionaries arrived from Paris, which, having captured the palace, forced the royal family to return to the capital. After this, Versailles again began to rapidly lose population: its population decreased from 50,000 people (in 1789) to 28,000 people (in 1824). During the revolutionary events, almost all the furniture and valuables were removed from the Palace of Versailles, but the building itself was not destroyed. During the reign of the Directory, restoration work was carried out in the palace, after which a museum was located here.
Louis XVI, the heir of Louis XV, whose reign was tragically interrupted by the revolution, inherited enviable heroic strength from his maternal grandfather, the Polish king Augustus of Saxony; on the other hand, his Bourbon ancestors passed on to him not only a true passion for hunting, but also a deep interest in science. His wife Marie Antoinette, daughter of the Duke of Lorraine, who later became Emperor of Austria, left a deep mark on the musical life of Versailles thanks to her love of music, inherited from both the Habsburgs of Austria and Louis XIII. Unlike his ancestors, Louis XVI did not have the ambitions of a creator king. Known for his simple tastes, he lived in the palace out of necessity. During his reign, the interior of the palace was updated, and, above all, the Queen's Small Offices, which were located parallel to his Large Chambers. During the revolution, all the furniture and decorations of the palace were stolen. Napoleon and then Louis XVIII carried out restoration work at Versailles. After the July Revolution of 1830, the palace was supposed to be demolished. This issue was put to a vote in the Chamber of Deputies. The margin of one vote was saved by Versailles. The last of the dynasty, King Louis Philippe ruled France from 1830 to 1848. In 1830, after the July Revolution, which brought him to the throne, the House of Representatives passed a law by which Versailles and Trianon passed into the possession of the new king. Wasting no time, Louis Philippe ordered the creation of a Museum in Versailles in honor of the glorious victories of France, which opened on June 1, 1837. This purpose of the castle has been preserved to this day.
The creators of the palace were not only Louis Le Vaux and Mansart. A significant group of architects worked under their leadership. Lemuet, Dorbay, Pierre Guitard, Bruant, Pierre Cottar and Blondel worked with Le Vaux. Mansart's main assistant was his student and relative Robert de Cotte, who continued to supervise the construction after Mansart's death in 1708. In addition, Charles Davilet and Lassurance worked at Versailles. The interiors were made according to drawings by Beren, Vigarani, as well as Lebrun and Mignard. Due to the participation of many masters, the architecture of Versailles is now of a heterogeneous nature, especially since the construction of Versailles - from the appearance of the hunting castle of Louis XIII to the construction of the battle gallery of Louis Philippe - lasted about two centuries (1624-1830).
During the Napoleonic wars, Versailles was captured twice by Prussian troops (in 1814 and 1815). The Prussian invasion occurred again during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. The occupation lasted 174 days. In the Palace of Versailles, chosen by the Prussian King Wilhelm I as a temporary residence, on January 18, 1871, the creation of the German Empire was announced.
In the 20th century, Versailles also witnessed major international events more than once. It was here that a peace treaty was signed in 1919, ending the First World War and marking the beginning of the Versailles system of international relations.
Main palace complex(Chateau de Versailles) was built in the 17th century by King Louis XIV, who wanted to move here from unsafe Paris. The luxurious rooms are richly decorated with marble, velvet and wood carvings. The main attractions here are the Royal Chapel, the Salon of Venus, the Salon of Apollo and the Hall of Mirrors. The decoration of the state rooms was dedicated to Greek gods. The Salon of Apollo was originally Louis's throne room. The Hall of Mirrors contains 17 huge mirrors reflecting the tall arched windows and crystal candelabra.
Grand Trianon- a beautiful palace made of pink marble was built by Louis XIV for his beloved Madame de Maintenon. Here the monarch loved to spend his free time. The palace was later home to Napoleon and his second wife.
Petit Trianon- another love nest built by King Louis XV for Madame de Pompadour. Later, the Petit Trianon was occupied by Marie Antoinette, and even later by Napoleon's sister. The nearby Temple of Love is said to have been Marie Antoinette's favorite place for parties.
Colonnade- a circle of marble columns and arches, located within the gardens, continues the theme of the gods of Olympus. The place was the king's favorite outdoor dining area.
During the Second World War, Versailles was occupied by German troops. In addition, the city had to endure several brutal bombings, which killed 300 Versailles residents. The liberation of Versailles took place on August 24, 1944, and was carried out by French troops under the command of General Leclerc.
On February 25, 1965, a government decree was issued, according to which Versailles was to be turned into the prefecture of the new department of Yvelines, the official creation of which took place on January 1, 1968.
Today the city retains this status. Being one of the most attractive tourist destinations, Versailles is rightfully proud of its history and architectural monuments. In 1979, the palace and park of Versailles were officially included in the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List.
Pierre-Denis Martin - View of Versailles
Gardens of Versailles with their sculptures, fountains, pools, cascades and grottoes soon became for the Parisian nobility the arena of brilliant court festivities and Baroque entertainment, during which they could enjoy the operas of Lully and the plays of Racine and Moliere.
Parks of Versailles spread over an area of 101 hectares. There are many observation platforms, alleys and promenades, there is even its own Grand Canal, or rather, a whole system of canals, which was called “little Venice”. The Palace of Versailles itself is also striking in its size: the length of its park façade is 640 meters, and the Gallery of Mirrors located in the center is 73 meters long.
Versailles is open to visitors
in May - September from Tuesday to Sunday from 9:00 to 17:30.
the fountains are open on Saturdays from July 1 to September 30 and on Sundays from early April to early October.
How to get there - Versailles
Trains (electric trains) go to Versailles from the Gare Montparnasse station, Montparnasse Bienvenue metro station (metro line 12). The entrance to the station is directly from the metro. Continue to the stop Versailles Chantiers. Travel time is 20 minutes. The cost of a round trip ticket is 5.00 euros.
Exit the station in the direction "Sortie" (exit), then go straight. The road will take you to the palace in 10 - 15 minutes.
L.S. Aleshina
If the 17th century in French architecture was marked by grandiose construction work for the king, the main result of which was the creation of the monumental ensemble of Versailles, where the very style of classicism in its impressive pomp reveals elements of internal connection with Baroque architecture, then the 18th century brings with it new trends.
Construction moved to cities. The new needs of the era posed the problem of creating a type of urban residential mansion house. The development of bourgeois relations, the growth of trade and industry, the strengthening of the role of the third estate in public life put forward the task of constructing new public buildings - exchanges, trading premises, public theaters. The increasing role of cities in the economic and political life of the country, the emergence of new types of private and public buildings pose new requirements for architects in creating an urban ensemble.
Jules Hardouin-Mansart, Robert de Cotte. Chapel in the Palace of Versailles. 1699-1710 Internal view
undergoes changes and architectural style era. Characteristic of the classicism of the last century, the great unity of figurative solutions of the external appearance and internal space by the beginning of the 18th century. disintegrates. This process of disintegration is accompanied by a separation of construction practice and theoretical teachings, a difference in the principles of interior and facade design. Leading architects in their theoretical works still worship antiquity and the rules of the three orders, but in direct architectural practice they move away from the strict requirements of logical clarity and rationalism, subordination of the particular to the whole, and clear constructiveness. The work of Robert de Cotte (1656-1735), the successor of Jules Hardouin-Mansart as royal architect (he completed the construction of the chapel of the Versailles Palace, beautiful in its strict, noble architecture), provides a convincing example of this. In those built by him in the 1710s. In Parisian mansions (Hotel de Toulouse and Hotel d'Estrée), a lighter architectural form and free development of decor are noticeable.
The new style, called Rococo or Rocaille, cannot be viewed from only one side, seeing in it only a reactionary and unpromising product of a decadent class. This style reflected not only the hedonistic aspirations of the aristocracy. Some progressive trends of the era were also refracted in a unique way in Rococo; hence the demands for a freer layout that corresponds to real life, a more natural and lively development, and internal space. The dynamics and lightness of architectural masses and decor contrasted with the ponderous pomp of interior design in the era of the supreme power of French absolutism.
At the beginning of the 18th century. the main construction is still carried out by the aristocracy, but its character is changing significantly. The place of manor castles is taken by city mansions, the so-called hotels. The weakening of absolutism was also reflected in the fact that the nobility left Versailles and settled in the capital. In the green suburbs of Paris - Saint Germain and Saint Opor - one after another, during the first half of the century, luxurious mansion-hotels with extensive gardens and services were built (Fig. on page 258). Unlike the palace buildings of the previous century, which pursued the goals of impressive representativeness and solemn grandeur, in the mansions being created now, much attention is paid to the actual convenience of life. Architects abandon the chain of large halls, stretching out in a solemn enfilade, in favor of smaller rooms, arranged more casually in accordance with the needs of private life and the public representation of the owners. Many tall windows illuminate the interior well.
According to their location in the city, hotels of the first half of the 18th century. represented to a large extent a transitional phenomenon from a country estate to a city house. This is a closed architectural complex, a kind of estate inside a city block, connected to the street only by the front gate. The house itself stands in the back of the plot, facing a vast courtyard lined with low service premises. The opposite facade faces the garden, which maintains a regular layout.
In hotels of the first half of the 18th century. The characteristic contradiction of French architecture of this era was most clearly manifested - the discrepancy between the external architecture and the interior decor. The facade of the building, as a rule, retains traditional order elements, interpreted, however, more freely and lightly. Decor
However, interior spaces often completely break with the laws of tectonics, merging the wall with the ceiling into a complete shell of internal space that has no definite boundaries. It is no coincidence that decorative artists, who were able to decorate the interior with amazing subtlety and perfection, acquired such a large role at this time. The period of early and mature Rococo knows a whole galaxy of masters who created exquisite masterpieces of interior decoration (Gilles Marie Oppenor, 1672-1742; Just Aurèle Meissonnier, 1693-1750, and others). Often a building was built by one architect and designed by another. But even when all the work was carried out by one master, his approach to solving the external appearance of the hotel and its interior was fundamentally different. One of the most prominent Rococo architects, Germain Beaufran (1667-1754), in his treatise “Livre d'Architecture” (1745), directly said that currently interior decor is a completely separate part of architecture, which does not take into account the decor of the exterior of the building. In his practice, he consistently pursued this thesis. In the architecture of the Lunéville castle, in the hotels in Naisy, built in the 1720s, one can feel the adherence to the traditions of classicism - the central part is clearly highlighted, emphasized by a portico with columns or pilasters. Only a few speak about the Rococo style here. molded details and comparative lightness of order elements.
Jean Courton. Hotel Matignon in Paris. Plan.
Pierre Delamere. Hotel Soubise in Paris. 1705-1709 Facade.
Beaufran decides his interiors completely differently. A brilliant example of this is the interior decor of the Soubise Hotel (1735-1740). Regardless of the external appearance of the mansion, which was completed by Delamere in 1705-1709. In the classical tradition, Beaufran gives the hotel rooms the character of graceful bonbonnieres. Carved panels, stucco ornaments, and picturesque panels cover the walls and ceiling like a continuous carpet. The effect of these exquisitely elegant, whimsically light forms should be especially impressive in contrast to the more restrained architecture of the facade.
Religious construction during this period was of incomparably less importance than secular construction. The buildings of the previous century were mostly completed.
Such is the church of Saint Roch in Paris, begun by Robert de Cotte at the end of the 17th century. and completed after the death of this architect by his son J.-R. de Cottom.
Jean Nicola Servandoni. Church of Saint Sulpice in Paris. 1733-1745 Facade.
The more interesting Parisian church of Saint-Sulpice, also begun in the 17th century. By the 20s. 18th century The main façade remained unfinished. It was designed by several architects. The project of the famous decorator Meissonnier (1726), who tried to transfer the principles of Rocaille to outdoor architecture, was rejected. In 1732, another decorator, Jean Nicolas Servandoni (1695-1766), won the competition announced for the design of the facade, turning to classical forms in his decision. His idea formed the basis for further construction. The façade of the church is divided into two tiers, each of which has its own order. Towers rise on both sides of the façade.
From the second quarter of the 18th century. The rich trading cities of the province began to play an increasingly prominent role in French construction. The matter was not limited to the construction of individual buildings. The entire system of the old feudal city with its chaotic buildings, with an intricate grid of streets included in the tight confines of the city fortifications, came into conflict with the new needs of the growing commercial and industrial centers. The retention of many key positions by absolutism led, however, at first to a rather compromise solution to urban planning problems. In many cities, the reconstruction of individual parts of the old the city is coming due to the arrangement of royal squares. The tradition of such squares dates back to the 17th century, when they were created not with the aim of bringing order to the chaos of the medieval city, but as an open place for the installation of a statue of the king. Now the reason remained, as it were, the same - all that arose in the 18th century. During the period of the monarchy, the squares were intended to serve for the installation of a monument to the monarch, but the architects themselves pursued much broader urban planning goals.
One of the first squares of a new type associated with the redevelopment and development of entire city blocks was the square in Bordeaux. Its designer and builder was Jacques Gabriel (1667-1742), a representative of the famous building from the 16th century. dynasty of architects, father of the famous architect Jacques Ange Gabriel.
Work on the planning and development of the square began in 1731. The site for it was allocated on the banks of the wide Garonne. The architect widely and diversifiedly developed the possibilities of creating a new ensemble, covering a significant part of the city and connecting it with the natural environment.
Jacques Gabriel began his work in Bordeaux with the demolition of old, nondescript buildings on the river bank and the construction of a magnificent embankment. The city turned its face to the Garonne - its main decoration. This turn was intended to consolidate both the square, wide open to the river, and the layout of the two streets flowing into the square. Using the planning principle of Versailles, the architect applied it to a new social and artistic organism - the city, solving it on a broader basis. The buildings located on the sides of the square were intended for the trade and economic needs of the city: on the right is the stock exchange, on the left is the tax department building. Their architecture is distinguished by restraint and elegant simplicity. The construction of the exchange and the central pavilion between the two streets was completed after the death of Jacques Gabriel by his son. A number of innovative principles of the Place de Bordeaux - its open character, its facing the river, the connection with the city quarters with the help of ray-streets - Jacques Ange Gabriel soon brilliantly developed in his work on the Place Louis XV in Paris.
Emmanuel Here de Corney. The ensemble of Place Stanislas, Place Carriere and Place de la Government in Nancy. 1752-1755 Aerial photography.
If the ensemble of the square in Bordeaux provided a solution that anticipated many planning principles of subsequent times, then another remarkable ensemble of the mid-18th century - a complex of three squares in Nancy, more closely associated with the past - seems to summarize the methods of organizing space of the Baroque Era.
Emmanuel Here de Corney. Government Square in Nancy. 1752-1755 General form.
Three squares of different shapes - the rectangular Stanislaus Square, the long Carrière Square and the oval Government Square - form a closely united and internally closed organism that exists only in a very relative connection with the city. The oval cour d'honneur of the Government Palace is separated by an arcade from the surrounding city and park. Active movement from it can, in essence, develop only forward through the boulevard-shaped Carrière Square and the Arc de Triomphe, so that, upon entering Stanislav Square, it will immediately be blocked monumental building town halls. One gets the impression of two monumental court d'honneurs, spread out in front of magnificent palaces and connected by a straight alley. It is characteristic that the streets facing Stanislav Square are separated from it by bars. The charm of the ensemble is created by the festive architecture of the palaces, amazing craftsmanship of forged and gilded grilles, fountains on two corners of the square, designed in a single elegant and elegant rococo tone. The planner of the area and the architect of the main buildings was Beaufran's student Emmanuel Eray de Corney (1705-1763), who worked mainly in Lorraine. Built in 1752-1755, this complex in its forms and planning principles already looked somewhat anachronistic in comparison with the new movement in architecture that began at the end of the first half of the 18th century.
This movement, the influence of which had already marked the design of the square in Bordeaux, was expressed in the rejection of the extremes and quirks of Rococo in favor of a more reasonable, ordered architecture, in an increased interest in antiquity. The connection of this movement with the strengthening of the positions of the bourgeoisie is undeniable.
Just at the turn of the first and second half of the century, the speech of the encyclopedists, who put forward the criterion of reason as the only measure of all things, dates back. From these positions, the entire feudal society and its offspring - the Rococo style - are criticized as devoid of logic, rationality, and naturalness. And vice versa, all these qualities are seen in the architecture of the ancients. During these years, exhibitions dedicated to monuments of ancient architecture appeared. In 1752, the famous amateur and philanthropist Count de Caylus began publishing the work “Collection of Egyptian, Etruscan, Greek and Roman Antiquities.” Two years later, the architect David Leroy travels to Greece and then releases the book “Ruins of the Most Beautiful Structures of Greece.” Among the theorists of architecture, Abbé Laugier stands out, whose “Studies on Architecture”, published in 1753, evoked a lively response in wide circles of French society. Speaking from the standpoint of rationalism, he advocates for reasonable, that is, natural architecture. The pressure of educational, ultimately democratic ideas was so great that it also had an impact on official artistic circles. The leaders of the artistic policy of absolutism felt the need to contrast something with the positive program of the encyclopedists, their convincing criticism of the illogicality and unnaturalness of Rococo art. The royal power and the Academy are taking certain steps to wrest the initiative from the hands of the third estate and themselves lead the nascent movement. In 1749, a kind of artistic mission was sent to Italy, led by the brother of the all-powerful favorite of Louis XV, Madame Pompadour, the future Marquis of Marigny, who served as director of royal buildings. He was accompanied by the engraver Cochin and the architect Jacques Germain Soufflot, the future builder of the Parisian Pantheon. The purpose of the trip was to get acquainted with Italian art - this cradle of beauty. They visited the excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii that had recently begun. Soufflo, in addition, studied ancient monuments Paestum. This whole trip was a sign of new phenomena in art, and its consequence was a further turn to classicism and a more acute struggle with the principles of Rocaille, even in various types of decorative art. At the same time, this journey provides clear evidence of how differently the appeal to the ancient heritage was understood and what different conclusions were drawn from this by representatives of the ruling class and the artists themselves. The results of Italian impressions and thoughts were expressed by Marigny in the words: “I don’t want either the current excesses or the severity of the ancients - a little of this, a little of that.” He subsequently adhered to this compromise artistic policy throughout his many years of activity as a director of fine arts.
His travel companions - Cochin and Soufflot - took a much more progressive and active position. The first published upon his return the treatise “Review of the Antiquities of Herculaneum with Several Reflections on the Painting and Sculpture of the Ancients” and then led a very sharp struggle in print against the principles of rocaille art, for the rigor, purity and clarity of architectural and decorative forms. As for Souflo, his very additional trip to Paestum and the on-site study of two remarkable monuments of Greek architecture testify to his deep interest in antiquity. In his construction practice upon his return from Italy, the principles of classicism triumphed completely and uncompromisingly.
During this transitional era, the work of the most captivating master of French architecture, Jacques Ange Gabriel (1699-1782), took shape and flourished. Gabriel's style seems to meet the requirements of Marigny, but this is an extremely original and organic phenomenon generated by the natural, “deep” development of French architecture. The master had never been to Italy, much less Greece. Gabriel's work seemed to continue and develop the line of French architecture that emerged in the later buildings of Jules Hardouin-Mansart (Grand Trianon and the chapel at Versailles), in the eastern facade of the Louvre. At the same time, he also assimilated those progressive trends that were contained in Rococo architecture: its closeness to people, intimacy, as well as the exquisite subtlety of decorative details.
Gabriel's participation in his father's urban planning work in Bordeaux prepared him well for solving ensemble problems that occupied him by the mid-18th century. an increasingly prominent role in architectural practice. Just at this time, the press was intensifying attention to Paris, to the problem of turning it into a city worthy of the name of capital.
Paris had beautiful architectural monuments, a number of squares created in the previous century, but all of these were separate, self-contained, isolated islands of organized development. In the mid-18th century, a square appeared that played a huge role in the formation of the ensemble of the Parisian center - the current Place de la Concorde. It owes its appearance to a whole team of French architects, but its main creator was Jacques Ange Gabriel.
In 1748, on the initiative of the capital's merchants, the idea of erecting a monument to Louis XV was put forward. The Academy announced a competition to create a square for this monument. As you can see, the beginning was completely traditional, in the spirit of the 17th century - the area was intended for a statue of the monarch.
As a result of the first competition, none of the projects were selected, but the location for the square was finally established. After a second competition, held in 1753 only among members of the Academy, the design and construction were entrusted to Gabriel, so that he would take into account other proposals.
The site chosen for the square was a vast wasteland on the banks of the Seine on what was then the outskirts of Paris, between the garden of the Tuileries Palace and the beginning of the road leading to Versailles. Gabriel took unusually fruitful and promising advantage of this open and coastal location. Its area became the axis of further development of Paris. This was possible thanks to her versatile orientation. On the one hand, the square is thought of as the threshold of the palace complexes of the Tuileries and the Louvre: it is not without reason that three rays envisaged by Gabriel lead to it from outside the city - the alleys of the Champs Elysees, the mental intersection point of which is located at the entrance gates of the Tuileries Park. The equestrian monument of Louis XV is oriented in the same direction - facing the palace. At the same time, only one side of the square is architecturally accentuated - parallel to the Seine. The construction of two majestic administrative buildings is planned here, and between them Royal Street is being designed, the axis of which is perpendicular to the Champs-Elysees - Tuileries axis. At the end of it, the Church of the Madeleine by the architect Contan d'Ivry begins to be built very soon, closing the perspective with its portico and dome. On the sides of its buildings, Gabriel designs two more streets parallel to the Royal. This gives something else possible direction movement connecting the square with other quarters of the growing city.
Gabriel solves the boundaries of the square in a very witty and completely new way. By building up only one of its northern sides, putting forward the principle of free development of space, its connection with the natural environment, he at the same time strives to avoid the impression of its amorphousness and uncertainty. On all four sides he designs shallow dry ditches, covered with green lawns, bordered by stone balustrades. The gaps between them give an additional clear emphasis to the rays of the Champs Elysees and the axis of the Royal Street.
Jacques Ange Gabriel. Development of the northern side of the Place de la Concorde (formerly Place Louis XV) in Paris. 1753-1765
The appearance of the two buildings that close the northern side of the Place de la Concorde clearly expresses the characteristic features of Gabriel’s work: a clear, calm harmony of the whole and details, the logic of architectural forms easily perceived by the eye. The lower tier of the building is heavier and more massive, which is emphasized by the large rustication of the wall; it carries two other tiers united by Corinthian columns, a motif that goes back to the classical eastern façade of the Louvre.
But Gabriel’s main merit lies not so much in the masterful design of the facades with their slender fluted columns rising above the powerful arcades of the lower floor, but in the specific ensemble sound of these buildings. Both of these buildings are unthinkable without each other, and without the space of the square, and without a structure located at a considerable distance - without the Church of the Madeleine. It is towards this that both buildings of the Place de la Concorde are oriented - it is no coincidence that each of them does not have an accentuated center and is, as it were, just one of the wings of the whole. Thus, in these buildings, designed in 1753 and began construction in 1757 -1758, Gabriel outlined the principles of volumetric-spatial solutions that would be developed during the period of mature classicism.
Gabriel. Petit Trianon in Versailles. Plan.
Jacques Ange Gabrirl. Petit Trianon in Versailles. 1762-1768
The pearl of French architecture of the 18th century is the Petit Trianon, created by Gabriel at Versailles in 1762-1768. The traditional theme of a country castle is solved here in a completely new way. The small building, square in plan, faces space with all four of its facades. There is no predominant emphasis on the two main facades, which was until recently so characteristic of palaces and estates. Each of the parties has an independent meaning, which is expressed in their different decisions. And at the same time, this difference is not cardinal - these are, as it were, variations of the same theme. The facade facing the open space of the ground floor, perceived from the farthest distance, is interpreted in the most plastic way. Four attached columns connecting both floors form a kind of slightly protruding portico. A similar motif, however in a modified form - the columns are replaced by pilasters - sounds in two adjacent sides, but each time differently, since due to the difference in levels, in one case the building has two floors, in the other - three. The fourth facade, facing the thickets of the landscape park, is completely simple - the wall is dissected only by rectangular windows of different sizes in each of the three tiers. Thus, with meager means, Gabriel achieves amazing richness and richness of impressions. Beauty is derived from the harmony of simple, easily perceived forms, from the clarity of proportional relationships.
The interior layout is also designed with great simplicity and clarity. The palace consists of a number of small rectangular rooms, the decorative decoration of which, built on the use of straight lines, light cold colors, and the parsimony of plastic materials, corresponds to the elegant restraint and noble grace of the external appearance.
Gabriel's work was a transitional link between the architecture of the first and second half of the 18th century.
In buildings of the 1760-1780s. The younger generation of architects is already forming a new stage of classicism. It is characterized by a decisive turn to antiquity, which became not only an inspiration for artists, but also a treasury of the forms they used. The requirements for the reasonableness of an architectural work go as far as the rejection of decorative embellishments. The principle of utilitarianism is put forward, which is linked together with the principle of the naturalness of the building, an example of which are ancient buildings, as natural as utilitarian, all forms of which are dictated by reasonable necessity. The column, entablature, and pediment, which have become the main means of expressing the architectural image, are returned to their constructive, functional meaning. Accordingly, the scale of order divisions is enlarged. Park construction is characterized by the same desire for naturalness. Associated with this is the abandonment of the regular, “artificial” park and the flourishing of the landscape garden.
Soufflo. Pantheon in Paris. Plan.
Jacques Germain Soufflot. Pantheon (formerly the Church of St. Genevieve) in Paris. Started in 1755. General view.
A characteristic phenomenon of the architecture of these pre-revolutionary decades was the predominance in the construction of public buildings. It is in public buildings that the principles of new architecture are most clearly expressed. And it is very significant that one of the outstanding architectural works of this period - the Pantheon - very soon turned from a building of religious purpose into a public monument. Its construction was conceived by Louis XV as the church of the patroness of Paris - St. Genevieve, the place where her relics are kept. The development of the project was entrusted in 1755 to Jacques Germain Soufflot (1713-1780), who had only recently returned from a trip to Italy. The architect understood his task much more broadly than his client. He presented a plan that, in addition to the church, included a vast area with two public buildings - the faculties of law and theology. In his further work, Souflot had to abandon this plan and limit his task to the construction of a church, the whole appearance of which testifies, however, that the architect conceived it as a building of great social significance. The building, cruciform in plan, is topped with a grandiose dome on a drum surrounded by columns. The main facade is emphasized by a powerful, deep six-column portico with a pediment. All other parts of the wall are left completely blank, without openings. The clear logic of architectural forms is clearly perceived at first glance. Nothing mystical or irrational - everything is reasonable, strict and simple. The same clarity and strict consistency are characteristic of the spatial design of the temple interior. The rationalism of the artistic image, expressed so solemnly and monumentally, turned out to be extremely close to the worldview revolutionary years, and the newly completed church was turned in 1791 into a monument to the great people of France.
Of the public buildings built in Paris in the pre-revolutionary decades, the Surgical School of Jacques Gondoin (1737-1818) stands out. The project, on which he began working in 1769, was distinguished by its great breadth of concept, which is generally characteristic feature architecture of these years. Along with this building, Gondoin planned to rebuild the entire quarter. And although Gondoin’s plan was not fully implemented, the building of the Surgical School itself, completed in 1786, was completed on a grand scale. This is an extensive two-story structure with a large courtyard. The center of the building is marked by an impressive yurtik. The most interesting part of the interior is the large semicircular hall of the anatomical theater with raised amphitheater-style benches and a capped vault - a peculiar combination of half of the Roman Pantheon with the Colosseum.
The theater became a new widespread type of public building during this period. Both in the capital and in many provincial cities, theater buildings are rising one after another, designed in their appearance as an important part in the architectural ensemble of the city public center. One of the most beautiful and significant buildings of this kind is the theater in Bordeaux, built in 1775-1780. architect Victor Louis (1731-1807). A massive volume of rectangular outlines is placed on an open area of the square. A twelve-column portico adorns one of the narrow sides of the theater building, imparting a solemn presence to its main entrance façade. The entablature of the portico contains statues of muses and goddesses, defining the purpose of the building. The main staircase of the theatre, at first single-flight, then divided into two arms leading in opposite directions, served as a model for many later French theater buildings. The simple, clear and solemn architecture of the theater in Bordeaux, the clear functional solution of its internal space make this building one of the most valuable monuments of French classicism.
In the years under review, the activities of a number of architects began, whose work as a whole already belongs to the next period of French Architecture, inspired by the ideas of the revolution. In some projects and buildings, those techniques and forms are already outlined that will become characteristic features of the new stage of classicism associated with the revolutionary era.
3.1. General overview of architectural monuments, trends, directions, development
In the formation of French architecture of the 17th century. The following principles, directions and trends can be identified.
1. Closed, fenced castles turn into open, unfortified palaces, which are included in the general structure of the city (and palaces outside the city are associated with an extensive park). The shape of the palace - a closed square - opens and turns into a “U-shaped” or, as later at Versailles, into an even more open one. The separated parts turn into elements of the system.
By order of Richelieu, from 1629 it was forbidden for the nobility to build defensive structures in the castles, moats with water became elements of architecture, walls and fences were of a symbolic nature, and did not perform a defensive function.
2. Orientation towards the architecture of Italy (where most of the French architects studied), the desire of the nobility to imitate the nobility of Italy - the capital of the world - introduces a significant share of Italian Baroque into French architecture.
However, during the formation of a nation, restoration occurs, attention is paid to one’s national roots and artistic traditions.
French architects often came from construction cooperatives, from families of hereditary masons; they were practitioners and technicians rather than theorists.
The pavilion system of castles was popular in medieval France, when a pavilion was built and connected to the rest by a gallery. Initially, pavilions could be built in different time and even little correlation with each other in appearance and structure.
The materials and construction techniques also left their mark on established traditions: well-processed limestone was used in construction - the building’s key points and load-bearing structures were made from it, and the openings between them were filled with bricks or large “French windows” were made. This resulted in the building having a clearly visible frame - paired or even stacked columns or pilasters (arranged in “bundles”).
Excavations in the south of France have produced superb examples of antiquity, with the most common motif being the free-standing column (rather than a pilaster or column in a wall).
3. By the end of the 16th century. The construction intertwined magnificent Gothic, late Renaissance features and Baroque traditions.
Gothic style was preserved in the verticalism of the main forms, in the complex horizon lines of the building (due to convex roofs, with each volume covered by its own roof, numerous pipes and turrets broke through the horizon line), in the load and complexity of the upper part of the building, in the use of individual Gothic forms.
Late Renaissance features were expressed in clear floor divisions of buildings, analyticity, and clear boundaries between parts.
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Representative of synthesis different traditions is the “portico of Delorme” - an architectural element actively used in France since the mid-16th century. It is a three-tier portico with clear horizontal divisions so that the vertical dominates the overall volume, and the horizontal dominates in each of the tiers. The upper tier is heavily loaded with sculpture and decoration, the portico is decorated with a pediment. The influence of the Baroque led to the fact that from the end of the 16th century pediments began to be made curved, with broken lines. Often the line of the entablature of the third tier broke through, creating the energy of upward movement in the upper part of the building. TO mid-17th century century, Delorme's portico became more classical, the upper tier was lightened, and the lines of the entablature and pediment were aligned.
The Luxembourg Palace in Paris (architect Solomon de Brosses, 1611) can be considered a representative of the architecture of the beginning of the century, synthesizing these traditions.
4. On this rich soil of French traditions in architecture, classicism grows.
Classicism of the first half of the century coexists in interaction with Gothic and Baroque features, and is based on the specifics of French national culture.
The facades are freed up, cleared of decor, becoming more open and clear. The laws by which the building is built are unified: one order gradually appears for all facades, one level of floor divisions for all parts of the building. Relieved top part building, it becomes more structurally constructed - below is a heavy base, covered with large rustication, above is a lighter main floor (floors), sometimes an attic. The skyline of the building varies - from the almost flat horizontal of the eastern façade of the Louvre to the picturesque line of Maison-Laffite and Vaux-le-Vicomte.
An example of “pure” classicism, freed from the influences of other styles, is the eastern facade of the Louvre and, after it, the building of the Versailles complex.
However, as a rule, architectural monuments of France of the 17th century. represent an organic living combination of several influences, which allows us to speak about the originality of French classicism of the era in question.
5. Among secular palaces and castles, two directions can be distinguished:
1) castles of nobles, new bourgeois, they represented freedom, the strength of the human personality;
2) official, representative direction, visualizing the ideas of absolutism.
The second direction was just beginning to emerge in the first half of the century (the Palais Royal, the Versailles complex of Louis XIII), but it was formed and fully manifested in the works of mature absolutism in the second half of the century. It is with this direction that _________ Lecture 87 is associated _____________________________________________
the formation of official imperial classicism (primarily the eastern façade of the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles).
The first direction was implemented mainly in the first half of the century (which corresponded to a different situation in the state), the leading architect was Francois Mansart (1598 - 1666).
6. The most striking example of a group of castles of the first direction is the Maisons-Laffite Palace near Paris (architect Francois Mansart, 1642 - 1651). It was built for the President of the Paris Parliament, Rene de Langey, near Paris, on the high bank of the Seine. The building is no longer a closed square, but a U-shaped structure in plan (three pavilions are connected by galleries). The facades have clear floor divisions and are divided into separate volumes. Traditionally, each volume is covered with its own roof, the skyline of the building becomes very picturesque, it is complicated by pipes. The line separating the main volume of the building from the roof is also quite complex and picturesque (at the same time, the divisions between the floors of the building are very clear, clear, straight and are never broken or distorted). The facade as a whole has a planar character, however, the depth of the façade of the central and side projections is quite large, the order either leans against the wall with thin pilasters, or recedes from it with columns - depth appears, the facade becomes open.
The building opens up to the outside world and begins to interact with it - it is visibly connected with the surrounding space of the “regular park”. However, the interaction of the building and the surrounding space differs from how it was realized in Italy in Baroque monuments. In French castles, a space arose around the building, subordinate to architecture; it was not a synthesis, but rather a system in which the main element and subordinates were clearly distinguished. The park was located in accordance with the axis of symmetry of the building; elements closer to the palace repeated the geometric shapes of the palace (parterres and pools had clear geometric shapes). Thus, nature seemed to submit to the building (man).
The center of the facade is marked by the Delorme portico, which combines Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque traditions, however, compared to earlier buildings, the upper tier is not so loaded. The building clearly presents Gothic verticality and aspiration to the sky, but it is already balanced and dissected by clear horizontal lines. It can be seen how the lower part of the building is dominated by horizontality and analyticity, geometricism, clarity and calmness of forms, simplicity of boundaries, but the higher you go, the more complex the boundaries become, and the verticals begin to dominate.
The work is a model of a strong man: at the level of earthly affairs he is strong in mind, rationalistic, strives to be clear, subjugates nature, sets patterns and forms, but in his faith he is emotional, irrational, sublime. A skillful combination of these characteristics is characteristic of the work of Francois Mansart and the masters of the first half of the century.
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The Chateau Maisons-Laffite played a big role in the development of the type of small “intimate palaces”, including the small palaces of Versailles.
The garden and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte (author Louis Leveau, Jules Hardouin Mansart, 1656 - 1661) is interesting. It is the culmination of the line of palaces of the second direction and the basis for the creation of a masterpiece of French architecture - the garden and park ensemble of Versailles.
Louis XIV appreciated the creation and took a team of craftsmen to build the royal country residence of Versailles. However, what they did on his order combines both the experience of Vaux-le-Vicomte and the built eastern façade of the Louvre (a separate section will be devoted to the Versailles ensemble).
The ensemble is built as a large regular space dominated by the palace. The building was built in the traditions of the first half of the century - high roofs over each volume (even a “blown roof” over the central projection), clear, clear floor divisions in the lower part of the building and complexity in the structure of the upper one. The palace contrasts with the surrounding space (even separated by a moat with water), and is not fused with the world into a single organism, as was done at Versailles.
The regular park is a composition of water and grass parterres strung on an axis; the axis is closed by a sculptural image of Hercules standing on a raised platform. The visible limitation, the “finitude” of the park (and, in this sense, the finiteness of the power of the palace and its owner) was also overcome at Versailles. In this sense, Vaux-le-Vicomte continues the second direction - the visualization of the strength of the human personality, which interacts with the world as a hero (confronting the world and subjugating it with visible effort). Versailles synthesizes the experience of both directions.
7. Second half of the century. gave development to the second direction - buildings that visualize the idea of absolutism. First of all, this was manifested in the construction of the Louvre ensemble.
By the end of the 16th century, the ensemble contained the Tuileries palaces (Renaissance buildings with clear floor divisions, with Gothic high roofs, torn pipes) and a small part of the southwestern building, created by the architect Pierre Lescaut.
Jacques Lemercier repeats the image of Levo in the northwestern building, and between them he installs the Clock Pavilion (1624).
The development of the western facade is distinguished by baroque dynamics, the culmination of which is the blown roof of the Clock Pavilion. The building has a loaded high upper tier and a triple pediment. The Delorme porticos are repeated several times along the façade.
In the second half of the 16th century. very little was built in France (due to civil wars); by and large, the western façade is one of the first large buildings after a long break. In a sense, the western façade solved the problem of reconstruction, restoring what had been achieved by French architects and updating it with new material from the 17th century.
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In 1661, Louis Levo began completing the construction of the complex and by 1664 he completed the Louvre square. The southern and northern facades repeat the southern one. The project of the eastern facade was suspended and a competition was announced, participation in which was actively invited to Italian architects, in particular, the famous Bernini (one of his projects has survived to this day).
However, Claude Perrault's project won the competition. The project is surprising - it in no way follows from the development of the three other buildings. The eastern facade of the Louvre is considered an example of official, absolutist classicism of the 17th century.
A sample was selected - paired Corinthian columns, which are carried along the entire facade with variations: in the galleries the columns are far from the wall, rich chiaroscuro appears, the facade is open and transparent. On the central projection, the columns are close to the wall and slightly spaced out on the main axis; on the side projections, the columns turn into pilasters.
The building is extremely analytical - clear, easily distinguishable volumes, straight boundaries between parts. The building is built clearly - from one point you can see the structure of the entire facade. The horizontal of the roof dominates.
The Perrault facade has three risalits, continuing the logic of the pavilion system. In addition, Perrault's order is not arranged in single columns along the facade, as Bernini intended, but in pairs - this is more in line with French national traditions.
An important principle in creating the facade was modularity - all the main volumes are designed in the proportions of the human body. The façade models human society, understanding French citizenship as “ordered”, subordination to the same laws that are held and set by Louis XIV depicted on the axis of the pediment. The façade of the Louvre, like any masterpiece of art, transforms the human recipient standing in front of it. Due to the fact that it is based on the proportion of the human body, a person identifies himself with the colonnade in the emerging illusory world and straightens up, as if becoming one with other citizens, while knowing that the top of everything is the monarch.
It should be noted that in the eastern facade, despite all the severity, there is a lot of baroque: the depth of the facade changes several times, tapering off towards the side facades; the building is decorated, the columns are very elegant and voluminous and are not evenly spaced, but accentuated - in pairs. Another feature: Perrault was not very careful about the fact that three buildings had already been built, and its façade was 15 meters longer than necessary to complete the square. As a solution to this problem, a false wall was built along the southern facade, which, like a screen, blocked the old facade. Thus, the apparent clarity and severity hides deception; the appearance of the building does not correspond to the interior.
The Louvre ensemble was completed by the building of the College of the Four Nations (architect Louis Leveau, 1661 - 1665). A semicircular wall of the facade was placed on the axis of the Louvre square, on the axis of which there is a large domed temple and Lecture 87
A portico jutted out towards the palace. Thus, the ensemble visibly gathers a large space (the Seine flows between the two buildings, there is an embankment, squares).
It must be emphasized that the College building itself is located along the Seine and does not in any way correlate with the semicircular wall - again the technique of the theatrical screen is repeated, which performs an important symbolic, but not constructive function.
The resulting ensemble collects the history of France - from the Renaissance palaces of the Tuileries through the architecture of the turn of the century and to mature classicism. The ensemble also brings together secular France and Catholic, human and natural (river).
8. In 1677, the Academy of Architecture was created, the task was to accumulate architectural experience in order to develop “ideal eternal laws of beauty”, which all further construction should follow. The Academy gave critical assessment Baroque principles, recognizing them as unacceptable for France. The ideals of beauty were based on the image of the eastern façade of the Louvre. The image of the eastern facade with one or another national treatment was reproduced throughout Europe; the Louvre for a long time was a representative of the city palace of the absolutist monarchy.
9. The artistic culture of France was secular in nature, so more palaces were built than temples. However, in order to solve the problem of unifying the country and creating an absolute monarchy, it was necessary to involve the church in solving this problem. Cardinal Richelieu, the ideologist of absolutism and counter-reformation, was especially attentive to the construction of churches.
Small churches were built throughout the country, and a number of large religious buildings were created in Paris: the Church of the Sorbonne (architect Lemercier, 1635 - 1642), the cathedral of the convent of Val-de-Grâce (architect François Mansart, Jacques Lemercier), 1645 - 1665 ). These churches clearly display lush Baroque motifs, but still the general structure of the architecture is far from the Baroque of Italy. The layout of the Sorbonne Church subsequently became traditional: the main volume is cruciform in plan, columned porticoes with pediments at the ends of the branches of the cross, a dome on a drum above the middle cross. Lemercier introduced Gothic flying buttresses into the design of the church, giving them the appearance of small volutes. The domes of the churches of the first half of the century are grandiose, have a significant diameter, and are loaded with decoration. Architects of the first half of the century were looking for a measure between the grandeur and scale of the dome and the balance of the building.
Of the later religious buildings, it should be noted the Cathedral of the Invalides (architect J.A. Mansart, 1676 - 1708), attached to the Invalides House - a strict military building. This building has become one of the verticals of Paris; it is a representative of the “classicism” style in religious buildings. The building is a grandiose rotunda, each of the entrances is marked by a two-tier portico with a triangular pediment.
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The building is extremely symmetrical (square in plan, three identical porticos on the sides, round dome). The interior space is based on a circle, it is emphasized by the fact that the floor in the center of the hall is lowered by 1 meter. The cathedral has three domes - the outer gilded dome “works” for the city, the inner one is broken and in its center you can see the middle one - a parabolic dome. The cathedral has yellow windows, which means there is always sunlight in the room (symbolizing the Sun King).
The cathedral interestingly combines the tradition of church building that arose in France (dominant dome, flying buttresses in the dome in the form of volutes, etc.) and strict classicism. The cathedral almost did not serve as a temple; it soon became a secular building. Apparently, this is due to the fact that it was built not for reasons of providing Catholic worship, but as a symbolic building - the supporting point of the grandiose ensemble of the left bank of the Seine, symbolizing the power of the Sun King.
A large regular space was built around the House and the Cathedral of Invalides, subordinate to the cathedral. The cathedral is the focal point that brings Paris together.
10. Rebuilding Paris
Paris developed rapidly and became the largest city in Europe at that time. This challenged city planners complex tasks: it was necessary to streamline the intricate, spontaneously formed network of streets, provide the city with water and dispose of waste, build a lot of new housing, build clear landmarks and dominant features that would mark the new capital of the world.
It would seem that to solve these problems it is necessary to rebuild the city. But even rich France cannot do this. City planners have found great ways to cope with the difficulties that have arisen.
This was solved by including individual large buildings and squares in the web of medieval streets, building a large space around them in a regular manner. This is, first of all, the large ensemble of the Louvre (which brought together “palace Paris”), the Palais Royal, and the ensemble of the Cathedral of Invalides. The main verticals of Paris were built - the domed churches of the Sorbonne, Val de Graeux, and the Cathedral of the Invalides. They set landmarks in the city, making it clear (although in fact, huge areas continued to be a network of intricate streets, but by setting a coordinate system, a feeling of clarity of a huge city is created). In certain parts of the city, straight avenues were built (rebuilt), offering views of the named landmarks.
Squares were an important means of organizing the city. They locally set the orderliness of space, often hiding the chaos of residential areas behind the building facades. A representative square of the beginning of the century is Place des Vosges (1605 - 1612), of the second half of the century - Place Vendôme (1685 - 1701).
Place Vendôme (J.A. Mansart, 1685 - 1701) is a square with cut corners. The square is arranged with a single front of buildings Lecture 87
palace type (mature classicism) with porticoes. In the center stood an equestrian statue of Louis XIV by Girardon. The entire square was created as a decoration for the statue of the king, this explains its closed character. Two short streets open onto the square, offering a view of the image of the king and blocking other points of view.
It was strictly forbidden in Paris to have large private plots of land and, especially, vegetable gardens. This led to the fact that the monasteries were mostly moved out of the city, hotels from small castles were turned into city houses with small courtyards.
But the famous Parisian boulevards were built - places that combined thoroughfares and green paths for walking. The boulevards were built so that they offered a view of one of the iconic points of absolutist Paris.
The entrances to the city were ordered and marked with triumphal arches (Saint-Denis, architect F. Blondel, 1672). The entrance to Paris from the west was supposed to correspond to the entrance to Versailles; the design of the Paris part was built on the Champs Elysees - an avenue with symmetrical ceremonial buildings. The nearest suburbs were annexed to Paris and in each of them, either due to several open streets, a view of the vertical landmarks of the city was provided, or their own iconic point (a square, a small ensemble) was built, symbolizing a united France and the power of the Sun King.
11. The problem of creating new housing was solved by creating a new type of hotel, which dominated French architecture for two centuries. The hotel was located inside the courtyard (in contrast to the bourgeois mansion, which was built along the street). The courtyard, limited by services, faced the street, and the residential building was located in the back, separating the courtyard from a small garden. This principle was laid down by the architect Lescaut back in the 16th century, and was reproduced by the masters of the 17th century: Hotel Carnavalet (architect F. Mansart rebuilt Lescaut’s creation in 1636), Hotel Sully (architect Andruet-Ducersault, 1600 - 1620) , Hotel Tubef (architect P. Lemuet, 1600 - 1620), and others.
This layout had an inconvenience: the only courtyard was both front and utility. In the further development of this type, the residential and utility parts of the house are separated. In front of the windows of the residential building there is a front courtyard, and on the side of it there is a second, utility courtyard: Hotel Liancourt (architect P. Lemuet, 1620 - 1640).
Francois Mansart built many hotels, introducing many improvements: a clearer layout of the premises, low stone fences on the street side, and the placement of services on the sides of the courtyard. Trying to minimize the number of passage rooms, Mansar introduces a large number of stairs. Lobby and main staircase become a mandatory part of the hotel. Hotel Bacinier (architect F. Mansart, first half of the 17th century), Hotel Carnavale (1655 - 1666).
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Along with the restructuring of the structure, the facades and roofs of hotels also change: the roofs become not so high due to their broken shape (living spaces in the attics were called attics), the separate ceiling of each part of the house is replaced by a common one, the porch and protruding porticos remain only in hotels on squares. There is an emerging trend towards flattening roofs.
Thus, the hotel turns from a small analogue of a country palace into a new type of urban dwelling.
12. Paris XVII century. is a school for European architects. If until the middle of the 17th century. Most of the architects went to study in Italy, then from the 60s, when Perrault won a competition with Bernini himself, Paris could present to architects all over the world magnificent examples of architecture of various types of buildings, principles of urban planning.
Works for review
Luxembourg Palace in Paris (architect Solomon de Brosses, 1611);
Palais Royal (architect Jacques Lemercier, 1624);
Church of the Sorbonne (architect Jacques Lemercier, 1629);
Orleans building of the castle in Blois (architect Francois Mansart, 1635 - 1638);
Palace Maisons-Laffite near Paris (architect Francois Mansart, 16421651);
Church of Val de Grae (architect François Mansart, Jacques Lemercier), 1645 -
College of the Four Nations (architect Louis Levo, 1661 - 1665);
House and Cathedral of the Invalides (architect Liberal Bruant, Jules Hardouin Mansart, 1671 - 1708);
Louvre Ensemble:
Southwestern building (architect Lesko, 16th century);
Western building (continued by the building of architect Lesko, implemented by architect Jacques Lemercier, 1624);
Pavilion of the Clock (architect Jacques Lemercier, 1624);
Northern and southern buildings (architect Louis Levo, 1664);
Eastern building (architect Claude Perrault, 1664);
Place des Vosges (1605 - 1612), Place Vendôme (architect Jules Hardouin Mansart, 1685 - 1701).
Hotels: Hotel Carnavalet (architect F. Mansart rebuilt Lescaut's creation in 1636), Hotel Sully (architect Andruet-Ducerseau, 1600 - 1620), Hotel Tubef (architect P. Lemuet, 1600 - 1620), Hotel Liancourt ( architect P. Lemuet, 1620 - 1640), Hotel Bacinier (architect F. Mansart, first half of the 17th century);
Arc de Triomphe of Saint-Denis, (architect F. Blondel, 1672);
Palace and park ensemble Vaux-le-Vicomte (author Louis Levo, Jules Hardouin Mansart, 1656 - 1661);
The palace and park ensemble of Versailles (designed by Louis Levo, Jules Hardouin Mansart, Andre Le Nôtre, begun in 1664).
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3.2. Analysis of a masterpiece of French architecture of the 17th century. Garden and park ensemble of Versailles
The garden and park ensemble of Versailles is a grandiose structure, representative of the art of the 17th century. The consistency of the ensemble, its grandeur and structure allows us to reveal its essence through the concept of an artistic model. Below it will be shown how this monument functions as art model.
Cognition using a model is based on replacing the modeled object with another object that is isomorphic to the object under study in a number of relevant properties. Due to the fact that the model is more accessible to research than the cognizable object, it allows us to discover new properties and essential connections. The results obtained during the study of the model are extrapolated to the cognizable object.
The operationality of the model makes it possible to perform certain actions with it, to construct experiments in which the essential properties of the model and, therefore, the object under study are manifested. Effective schemes of action can be transferred to the study of a cognizable object. The model concentrates the essential properties of the object being studied and has a large information capacity.
The basis of model substitution is the isomorphism (correspondence) of the cognizable object and the model, therefore the knowledge obtained in the modeling process is true in the classical sense of correspondence to the object under study.
A work of art meets all the principles of the general scientific method of modeling and, therefore, is a model. The specific features of a work of art as a model and the process of artistic modeling itself include the following:
The master, acting as a researcher, models extremely complex objects that reveal the meaning of human existence; he necessarily builds isomorphism between obviously non-isomorphic structures;
The property of visibility acquires an attributive character in artistic models;
Due to the high status of visibility in artistic models, ontology increases (identification of the model with the object under study, model interaction with a real relationship);
A work of art realizes its cognitive essence through special skill. The tempting beginning of the artistic model unfolds in relation to the artist and the artistic material, giving rise to a new quality in the form of a sensually revealed essence. The viewer, in the process of an ideal relationship with a work of art, discovers new knowledge about himself and the world.
The creation and action of an artistic model are carried out only in a relationship when the subject is not eliminated from the relationship, but remains Lecture 87
its necessary element. Therefore, attitude becomes an attributive quality of the artistic model and the modeling process.
The landscape gardening ensemble of Versailles is a system of artistic elements.
The construction of the Versailles ensemble began in 1661, the main buildings were erected during the 17th century, but transformations continued throughout the next century. The garden and park ensemble of Versailles is a gigantic complex of various structures, built on the outskirts of the small town of Versailles, 24 kilometers from Paris. The complex is located along a single axis and includes sequentially:
1) access roads around the city of Versailles,
2) the square in front of the palace,
3) himself Grand Palace with many pavilions,
4) water and grass parterres,
5) Main Alley,
6) Grand Canal,
7) many bosquets,
8) a variety of fountains and grottoes,
9) regular park and irregular,
10) two other palaces - Grand and Small Trianons.
The described multitude of buildings is subject to a strict hierarchy and forms a clear system: the main element of the composition is the King’s Great Bedroom, then, in order of distance from the center, the building of the new palace, a regular park, an irregular park and access roads through the city of Versailles. Each of the named components of the ensemble is a complex system and, on the one hand, is uniquely different from other components, on the other hand, it is included in an integral system and implements patterns and rules common to the entire ensemble.
1. The king's large bedroom is located in the building of the old palace from the time of Louis XIII, it is highlighted from the outside by the “Delorme portico”, a balcony and an ornate pediment. The entire ensemble is systematically organized and subordinated to the Large Bedroom; this is achieved in several ways.
Firstly, it was in the King's Great Bedchamber and the surrounding rooms that the main official life of Louis XIV took place - the bedroom was the most significant place of life at the French court. Secondly, it is located on the axis of symmetry of the ensemble. Thirdly, the figurative symmetry of the façade of the old palace breaks down into subordination to mirror symmetry, further highlighting the elements of the axis. Fourthly, the fragment of the old palace in which the bedroom is located is surrounded by the main building of the palace as a protective wall; it seems to be protected by the main building as something most sacred, like an altar (which is emphasized by the location of the ensemble relative to the cardinal points). Fifthly, the specific architecture of the first half of the 17th century. contrasts with the new building and other parts of the ensemble: the old building has high roofs with lucarnes, curvilinear Lecture 87
an elaborate pediment, the vertical clearly dominates - in contrast to the classicism of the rest of the ensemble. The axis of symmetry above the king's bedroom is marked by the highest point of the pediment.
2. The new palace was built in the style of classicism. It has three floors (rusticated basement, large main floor and attic), arched windows on the first and second floors and rectangular windows on the third, classical Ionic porticoes, on which instead of a pediment there are sculptures, the flat roof is also decorated with sculpture. The building has a clear structure, geometric shapes, clear divisions, powerful figurative and mirror symmetry, a clear dominant horizontal line, it adheres to the principle of modularity and antique proportions. At all times, the palace was painted in yellow, sunny color. On the side of the park facade, on the axis of symmetry, there is the Mirror Gallery - one of the main diplomatic premises of the king.
The new palace plays its role in the overall composition. Firstly, it surrounds the old building with the main element - the Great King's Bedchamber, designating it as the central, dominant element. The new palace is located on the axis of symmetry of the ensemble. Secondly, the building of the palace in the most clear, concentrated way sets the main standards of the ensemble - geometricism of forms, clarity of structure, clarity of divisions, modularity, hierarchy, “solarity”. The palace displays examples that, to one degree or another, correspond to all other elements of the ensemble. Thirdly, the new palace has a large extent, thanks to which it is visible from many points in the park.
3. A regular park is located near the palace in accordance with the same main axis of the ensemble. It combines, on the one hand, the liveliness and organic nature of nature, and on the other, the geometricity and clarity of the building. Thus, the regular park is correlated with the main element of the system, subordinate to it in form and structure, but at the same time filled with a different - natural - content. Many researchers reflect this in the metaphor of “living architecture”.
The regular park, like all elements of the structure, is subordinate to the main axis of the ensemble. In the park, the axis is distinguished by the Main Alley, which then turns into the Grand Canal. On the Main Alley, fountains are located sequentially, also emphasizing and highlighting the main axis.
The regular park is divided into two parts in accordance with the distance from the palace and the erosion of the patterns set by the main building - these are parterres and bosquets.
Water and grass parterres are located in close proximity to the palace and follow its shape. Water fills the rectangular pools, doubling the image of the palace and creating another line of symmetry between water and sky. Grass, flowers, shrubs - everything is planted and trimmed in accordance with the shapes of classical geometry - rectangle, cone, circle. The stalls generally obey the axis of symmetry of the palace. The space of the stalls is open, its structure is clearly readable.
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The sunny atmosphere remains. Just like the palace building, the strict geometric straight boundaries of the parterres are decorated with sculpture.
On the sides of the main axis are the so-called bosquets (baskets) - this is a small open area surrounded by trees. There are sculptures and fountains on the bosquets. The bosquets are no longer symmetrical to the single axis of the palace and are extremely varied; the space of the bosquets is less clear. However, they all have internal symmetry (usually central) and a radial structure. In the direction of one of the alleys emanating from the bosquet, the palace is definitely visible. Bosquets as an element of the system are subordinated to the palace in a different way than the parterres - the exemplary forms are read less clearly, although the general principles are still preserved.
The main alley turns into the Grand Canal. The water spaces are built in the same way as the plant ones: on the axis and near the palace there are water spaces of a clear geometric shape, and the distant pools have a freer shape, a less clear and open structure.
There are many alleys running between the bosquets, but only one of them - the Main Canal Alley - has no visible end - it seems to dissolve in a haze due to its great length. All other alleys end with a grotto, a fountain or just a platform, once again emphasizing the uniqueness - unity of command - of the Main Axis.
4. The so-called irregular park differs from the rest by truly “irregular” curvilinear alleys, asymmetrical plantings and free, untrimmed, seemingly unkempt, untouched greenery. However, in fact, it is extremely thoughtfully connected with the whole of the ensemble, obeying the same rational, but more hidden laws. Firstly, the main axis is never intersected by plantings or buildings - it remains free. Secondly, small architectural forms clearly repeat the motifs of the palace. Thirdly, there are so-called “ah-ah-gaps” in the foliage, through which the palace is visible even at a great distance. Fourthly, fountains, grottoes and small sculptural groups are connected by a single theme and style to each other and to the corresponding elements of the regular park. Fifthly, the connection with the whole is established by maintaining a sunny, open atmosphere.
5. The entrance to the residence is a system of three highways that converge in front of the main palace on the Place d'Armes at the point of the sculptural image of the monarch. Highways lead to Paris (central), as well as to Saint-Cloud and Sceaux, where in the 17th century. Louis' residences were located and from where there were direct exits to the main European states.
Access roads to the ensemble are also an element of the system, since they obey its basic rules. All three highways have buildings that are symmetrical about their axes. The symmetry of the main axis (going to Paris) is especially emphasized: on either side of it are the stables of the royal musketeers and other service buildings, identical in Lecture 87
both sides of the highway. The three axes converge in front of the balcony of the Great Royal Bedroom. Thus, even a space of several kilometers around the ensemble turns out to be subordinate to the system-forming element of the model.
Moreover, the ensemble is built into a large supersystem - Paris and France. From Versailles to Paris in the middle of the 17th century there were arable lands and vineyards (about 20 km), and it was simply impossible to directly build a link between Versailles and Paris. The task of including the model in the supersystem was skillfully solved by the appearance of the Champs Elysees at the exit from Paris - a ceremonial avenue with symmetrical buildings, repeating the structure of the central access thoroughfare in Versailles.
So, the landscape gardening ensemble of Versailles is a strict hierarchical system in which all elements are subordinated a single rule, but at the same time they have their own unique feature. This means that the ensemble of Versailles can claim to be a model, since any model is a well-thought-out system of elements. However, this fact is not enough to reveal the modeling essence of the chosen work; it is also necessary to show that the Versailles ensemble serves as a means of cognition, replacing a certain object under study.
Next, the Versailles ensemble is analyzed as an actual model that implements cognitive functions. To do this, it is necessary to show that the work replaces (models) a certain object, the study of which was relevant for the authors of the model. The creators of this model are several masters. Initially, in 1661, Louis Levo (architect) and André Le Nôtre (master of park art) were involved in the project. Then the circle of authors expanded - Charles Lebrun began work (interiors, art), Jules Hardouin-Mansart (architect). The sculptors Cousevox, Tubi, Leongre, Mazelin, Juvanet, Coisevo and many others participated in the creation of various elements of the complex.
Traditionally, in art historical studies of Versailles, one of the main authors of the ensemble, Louis XIV, remains aside. It is known that the king was not only the customer for the construction of the complex, but also the main ideologist. Louis XIV was well versed in architecture and considered architecture an extremely important symbolic part of state power. He professionally read the drawings and carefully, repeatedly discussed the construction of all his residences with the craftsmen.
The Versailles ensemble was deliberately built by the masters (including Louis XIV, the architect) as the main official royal residence, so it is natural to assume that the object of modeling was the French statehood or certain aspects of it. The creation of the Versailles complex helped its authors understand how a united, powerful France could be structured, how it was possible to gather disparate parts of the country into a single whole, how to unite the nation, Lecture 87
what is the role of the king in creating and maintaining a powerful national state, etc.
The proof of this statement will be carried out in several stages.
1. The Versailles ensemble is the model of the King of France.
in several ways. Firstly, by placing the Large Royal Bedroom in the center of the ensemble.
Secondly, using the traditional lily - the oldest symbol of the king - as an important element. Louis XIV gave new meaning to this ancient symbol. He is known for his statement “I will gather France into a fist!”, while he made a gesture with his hand, as if collecting scattering unruly petals into a fist and repeating the structure of the royal symbol: three diverging petals and a ring that tightens them, which does not allow them to scatter. The “lily” sign is located above the entrance to the residence; its stylized image is repeated many times in various interiors of the palace.
However, the most important thing is that the geometry of the royal symbol “lily” is the basis for the composition of the ensemble. The “lily” composition is realized through three converging thoroughfares in front of the royal balcony, continuing on the park side with alleys, and an isthmus connecting them - the royal part of the palace, including the Great Bedroom of the old castle and the Mirror Gallery of the new building.
Thirdly, the placement of the ensemble in the cardinal directions and its axial structure gives grounds for comparing the complex with a gigantic, universal Catholic church. The most sacred place of the temple - the altar - corresponds to the Great Royal Bedroom. This correlation is reinforced by surrounding the bedroom with stronger modern structures, the shrine is placed inside and protected, even somewhat hidden.
The ensemble thus models the leading role of the king in Versailles and, therefore, in 17th-century France. The role of the king, according to the constructed model, is to decisively, even forcibly, pull together the “stubborn petals” - the provinces and regions of the state. The king's entire life consists of official service to the state (it is not for nothing that the bedroom turns out to be the dominant feature of the ensemble). The king is the absolute ruler, collecting both temporal and spiritual power.
2. The Versailles ensemble is a model of France in the second half of the 17th century.
Louis XIV’s thesis “France is Me” is well known. According to this
According to the thesis, the Versailles complex, modeling the king, simultaneously models France. The strict systematicity and hierarchy of the model is extrapolated to the role and place of the king in the French state of the 17th century, but also to France itself of the period under review. Everything that has been said above about the king can be extrapolated to France.
The Versailles complex as a model of France allows us to clarify the main features of the country's government. First of all, France is one Lecture 87
hierarchical system, assembled by a single law, rule, will. This single law is based on the will of the king - Louis XIV, next to whom the world is built and becomes clear, geometrically clear.
This is superbly visualized by the architect L. Levo in general compositional structure ensemble. The new classicist palace embraces the center - the Great Royal Bedroom - and sets standards of clarity and clarity for the entire structure. Near the palace, nature submits and takes on the forms and patterns of the building (first of all, this is realized in the parterres), then the standards begin to gradually blur, the forms become more free and varied (bosquets and an irregular park). However, even in the far corners (at first glance, free from the power of the king), gazebos, rotundas and other small architectural forms, with their symmetry and clarity of form, remind of the law to which the whole obeys. In addition, through the skillfully trimmed “ah-ah-gaps” in the foliage, every now and then a palace appears in the distance as a symbol of the presence of law throughout France, wherever its subjects are.
The palace sets the norms for the structure of France as a system (clarity, precision, hierarchy, the presence of a single law, etc.), showing the most remote elements of the periphery what they should strive for. The main building of the palace, with its dominant horizontal position, powerful figurative symmetry and Ionic porticoes along the entire length of the façade, models France as a state relying on its citizens. All citizens are equal and subject to the main law - the will of King Louis XIV.
The Versailles complex reveals the principles of an ideal state with a powerful unified government.
3. The Versailles ensemble models the role of France as the capital of Europe and the world.
Louis XIV laid claim not only to the creation of a powerful unified state, but also to a leading role in Europe at that time. The authors of the ensemble realized this idea in various ways, revealing in the process of building the model the essence of France - the capital of the world.
First of all, this is done with the help of the “sun” composition, which, due to the well-known metaphor of the “Sun King,” refers to the leading role of Louis XIV. The composition “lily” turns into the composition “sun”, since the symbolism of the sun has a broader context. We are talking about world domination, because the sun is one for the whole world and shines for everyone. The monument models the role of Louis XIV = France as the luminary of the whole world, the revealer of light, the bringer of wisdom and goodness, laws and life. The rays of the “sun” diverge from the center - the Great Royal Bedroom - throughout the world.
In addition to the indicated symbolism of the sun, it is additionally emphasized:
By creating a general sunny atmosphere of the ensemble - yellow and white in the color of the palace itself, the sunny shine of streams of water, Lecture 87
large windows and mirrors in which the color of the sun multiplies and fills all spaces;
Numerous fountains and sculptural groups correspond to the “solar theme” - ancient mythical heroes associated with the sun god Apollo, allegories of day, night, morning, evening, seasons, etc. For example, the Apollo fountain, located on the central axis, was read by contemporaries as follows: “The sun god Apollo on a chariot, surrounded by trumpeting tritons, jumps out of the water, greeting his elder brother” (Le Trou a);
used a variety of solar symbols, appropriate flowers were selected (for example, the most common flowers in the park are jonquil daffodils);
the bosquets are built according to a radial structure, the circle motif is constantly repeated in the fountains;
The symbol of the sun is located on the altar of the royal chapel, and its ceiling contains an image of the diverging rays of the sun, etc.
In addition to the symbolism of the sun, Versailles modeled the dominant position of France in Europe at the time and, through “direct analogy,” surpassed all the royal residences of Europe at the time in a variety of ways.
First of all, the ensemble in question had the largest dimensions for similar structures - in area (101 hectares), in the length of the main alleys and canals (up to 10 km), in the length of the palace facade (640 m). Versailles also surpassed all the residences of Europe in the variety, splendor, skill of its elements (each of which was a separate work of art), in their rarity and uniqueness, and in the high cost of materials. The multitude of fountains during water shortages in most European capitals of the 17th century was “defiant.”
The superiority of the Versailles royal ensemble corresponded to the historical position of France in Europe in the second half of the 17th century: during the time of Louis XIV, the country gradually annexed its border regions, regions of the Spanish Netherlands, some territories of Spain, Germany, Austria, and expanded colonies in America and Africa; Paris was largest city Europe at that time; France had the largest army, military and merchant fleet, “superior even to England,” the greatest industrial growth, the most thoughtful customs tariff policy, etc. The superlative degree was applicable to the situation of France in the period under review in many respects.
The large area of the park and its “endlessness” created the impression of the boundless possession of France, the center not even of Europe, but of the world. This simulated quality (to be the capital of the world, to own the world) was enhanced by the significant length of the main alley of the park (about 10 km including the irregular part) and the promising optical effect resulting from this. Since parallel lines converge at infinity, the direct visibility of the convergence of parallel lines Lecture 87
lines (alley and canal boundaries) visualizes infinity, makes infinity visible.
The main avenue was clearly visible from the Gallery of Mirrors, one of the most official places in the palace, intended for diplomatic meetings and processions. We can say that “from the windows of the gallery there was a view of infinity,” and this infinity of the world belonged to the park, the sovereign, and France. The astronomical discoveries of the New Age turned the idea of the structure of the Universe upside down and showed that the world is infinite, and man is just a grain of sand in the vast expanse of space. However, the masters (the authors of the ensemble) skillfully “placed infinity within the framework of the royal residence”: yes, the world is infinite, and Louis XIV = France owns this entire world. At the same time, the scale of Europe turned out to be insignificant and was lost, Versailles became the capital of the world. Extrapolating from this statement, any citizen of France and representative of another state understood that France is the capital of the world.
The location of the ensemble along the cardinal points ensured the highest actualization of the simulated position at sunset, when from the windows of the Mirror Gallery it was clear that the sun was setting exactly at the point of infinity of the park (and therefore the world). If we take into account the “Sun King” metaphor, then the extrapolated knowledge about the world turns into the following: the sun at sunset says goodbye to its older brother and, obeying his will (his rule, his park), sets in the place of the world that is intended for him.
The significant complexity and incredible, unprecedented at that time, variety of components of the ensemble, which included, according to contemporaries’ descriptions, “everything in the world,” turned Versailles into a model of the world as a whole.
France's claim to mastery of the world required modeling the entire world known to Europeans. In this regard, palm trees are indicative as a model of Africa - a tree that is unusual for a northern country and specific specifically for the defeated and annexed “southern edge of the world.” The model was integrated into the royal ensemble, thereby demonstrating the inclusion and subordination of the southern continent of France.
France's leading role in Europe was also modeled through cleverly designed access roads. L. Levo brought three highways to the Marble Courtyard, into which the windows of the Great Royal Bedroom open. The highways led to the main residences of Louis - Paris, Saint-Cloud and Sceaux, from where the main routes to the main European states went. The main Paris-Versailles highway at the exit from Paris (Champs-Élysées) repeated in its structure the entrance to the Versailles ensemble, again subordinating Paris to Versailles, despite the distance of tens of kilometers.
Thus, thanks to the modeling capabilities of the Versailles ensemble, all of Europe converged on the square in front of the palace, visualizing the phrase “All roads lead... to Paris.”
An important aspect of French international politics was modeled through the Gallery of Mirrors, which connects two corner pavilions - the Hall of War and the Hall of Peace. Each of the halls is decorated according to the name Lecture 87
and, according to the descriptions of contemporaries, it was even accompanied by appropriate - warlike or peaceful - music. The reliefs in each of the halls model Louis XIV and France, either as a powerful aggressive force or as a merciful force towards those who bow to its will.
The position modeled by the Mirror Gallery corresponded to the complex internal and foreign policy king and state, which combined a powerful, aggressive military strategy with “cunning” actions, rich in intrigue and secret alliances. On the one hand, the country was constantly at war. On the other hand, Louis XIV did not miss a single opportunity to strengthen the influence of France through “peaceful means,” starting from claims to the inheritance of his Spanish wife, ending with bringing all legally inaccurate provisions in his favor and organizing multiple secret and overt alliances.
The plan of the palace reveals a large number of courtyards, the existence of which cannot be guessed when standing in front of the façade of the palace or even walking through its halls. The presence of secret courtyards and passages, false walls and other spaces does not contradict the systematic nature of the work as a whole. On the contrary, in the context of modeling, this fact indicates the real situation in the formation of the French state in the second half of the 17th century: external prosperity and clarity of rules, on the one hand, and the presence of secret intrigues and shadow politics, on the other. In the process of creating the most complex system of Versailles, the authors deliberately introduced secret passages and hidden courtyards, thereby revealing and proving the need for political intrigue and secret conspiracies and alliances in public administration.
Thus, each element of the ensemble has modeling capabilities, and the entire system of elements as a whole represents a model of French statehood, its principles of structure and contradictions.
The authors of the ensemble - Louis XIV, Louis Levo, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, Andre Le Nôtre, Charles Lebrun and others modeled a powerful absolute monarchy as an ideal state. To do this, they selected old means of artistic modeling, came up with new means or changed existing ones.
Using the experience already gained in the history of art in modeling the state structure, the authors acted as users of available artistic models - Ancient Egyptian architectural complexes, Roman forums of the imperial period, national palace ensembles of the early 17th century. and others. However, as a result of collective creative activity, the authors of Versailles created a fundamentally new artistic model, which allows us to call the masters the authors of the model.
Architects, artists, masters of interiors, gardens and parks of subsequent generations mastered the methodological and technical principles and techniques created by the authors of the ensemble. Throughout Europe in subsequent centuries, leading European states built Lecture 87
numerous “Versailles” - royal residences that model the general principles of the structure of the monarchical state of a particular country. These are the garden and park complexes of Caserta in Italy, JIa Gragna in Spain, Drottningholm in Sweden, Hett Loo in Holland, Hamptoncourt in England, Nymphenburg, San Souci, Herrnhausen, Charlottenburg in Germany, Schönbrunn in Sweden, Peterhof in Russia. Each of the creators of such ensembles used certain modeling principles developed by the creators of the Versailles complex.
Architecture in FranceXVIIcentury. The problem of defining style
Introduction
The great geographical discoveries that began in the Renaissance, followed by the colonization of the New World, then the victory of heliocentric cosmogony and the theory of the infinity of worlds were supposed to shake the consciousness of people and change their worldview. Renaissance anthropocentrism and naive faith in the harmony of the world no longer met the spiritual needs of man. If anthropocentrism remains unshakable, then where is this center in the infinity of the Universe? “The entire visible world is just a barely noticeable touch in the vast bosom of nature. Man in infinity - what does he mean? - Pascal wrote in the 17th century, as if in response to the Renaissance idea of man as a “great miracle”, which God placed at the head of the world. In the 17th century, man already understands that he is neither the center of the Universe nor the measure of all things.
The difference in understanding the place, role and capabilities of man is what distinguishes, first of all, the art of the 17th century from the Renaissance. This different attitude towards man is expressed with extraordinary clarity and accuracy by the same great French thinker Pascal: “Man is just a reed, the weakest of nature’s creations, but he is a thinking reed.” Man created the most powerful absolutist states in Europe in the 17th century and shaped the worldview of the bourgeoisie, who was to become one of the main customers and connoisseurs of art in subsequent times. The complexity and inconsistency of the era of intensive formation of absolutist nation-states in Europe determined the nature of the new culture, which is usually associated in the history of art with the Baroque style, but which is not limited to this style. The 17th century is not only Baroque art, but also classicism and realism [Ilyina 2000: 102] .
1. Architectural style in France 17th century
The history of art is sometimes seen as a history of successive styles. The semi-circular arches of the Romanesque style were replaced by Gothic pointed arches, and later the Renaissance, which originated in Italy, spread throughout Europe, defeating the Gothic style. At the end of the Renaissance, a style emerged that was called “Baroque”. However, while previous styles have easily distinguishable characteristics, identifying the characteristics of Baroque is not so easy. The fact is that throughout the historical period from the Renaissance to the 20th century, architects operated with the same forms, drawn from the arsenal of ancient architecture - columns, pilasters, cornices, relief decoration and so on. IN in a certain sense it would be fair to say that the Renaissance style dominated from the beginning of Brunelleschi’s work until our time, and in many works on architecture this entire period is designated by the concept “Renaissance”. Of course, over such a long time, tastes, and with them architectural forms, have undergone significant changes, and to reflect these changes, the need arose for smaller style categories.
It is curious that many concepts denoting styles were at first just abusive, contemptuous nicknames. Thus, the Italians of the Renaissance called “Gothic” a style that they considered barbaric, brought by the Gothic tribes - the destroyers of the Roman Empire. In the word “mannerism” we can still discern the original meaning of mannerism, superficial imitation, which critics of the 17th century accused artists of the previous era of. The word "baroque", meaning "bizarre", "ridiculous", "strange", also arose later as a caustic mockery in the fight against the style of the 17th century. This label was used by those who considered arbitrary combinations of classical forms in architecture unacceptable. With the word “baroque” they branded willful deviations from the strict norms of the classics, which for them was tantamount to bad taste. Nowadays it is no longer so easy to see the differences between these directions in architecture. We are accustomed to structures in which there is both a daring challenge to classical rules and their complete misunderstanding [Gombrich 1998: 289].
Art historians cannot come to a consensus regarding the style in art of that time. The main question is how to distinguish between such concepts as baroque and classicism. Let’s say right away that for different countries works of art that belong to one style or another will have their own characteristics. It is also worth noting that the existence of a style in different parts of Europe has its own duration, which means that the time frame will be blurred. Let us turn to one of the modern dictionaries to identify the main features of the Baroque. Baroque- (from Italian barocco - bizarre, strange), art style, who occupied a leading position in European art from the end of the 16th to the mid-18th centuries. Originated in Italy. The term was introduced at the end of the 19th century by Swiss art historians J. Burckhardt and G. Wölfflin. The style covered all types of creativity: literature, music, theater, but was especially pronounced in architecture, fine and decorative arts. The Renaissance feeling of the clear harmony of the universe was replaced by a dramatic understanding of the conflict of existence, the endless diversity, vastness and constant variability of the surrounding world, and the power of powerful natural elements over man. The expressiveness of Baroque works is often built on contrasts, dramatic collisions of the sublime and the base, the majestic and the insignificant, the beautiful and the ugly, the illusory and the real, light and darkness. A penchant for composing complex and verbose allegories went hand in hand with extreme naturalism. Baroque works of art were distinguished by redundancy of forms, passion and intensity of images. More than ever before, there was a strong feeling of the “theater of life”: fireworks, masquerades, a passion for dressing up, impersonation, all kinds of “deceptions” brought a playful element into a person’s life, unprecedented entertainment and bright festivity [National Historical Encyclopedia: #"667315.files/image001 .gif">
Rice. 9 Place Louis the Great (Place Vendôme)
Rice. 10 Mirror Gallery of the Palace of Versailles
Rice. 11 Versailles. View of the Royal Palace and park from the west. Architects Louis Levo, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, Andre Le Nôtre. Aerial photography