Practical lesson No. 1.
Assignment: Give a meaningful analysis of the architectural monument of your city (village).
ANALYSIS PLAN FOR AN ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENT.
Name.
Location.
Architect(s).
4.Purpose of the building:
a) relief:
In-depth,
Convex: bas-relief; high relief.
b) by purpose: cult; secular.
c) by use:
Independent,
Part of the architectural ensemble,
Part of the building's architectural decor;
d) by genre:
Portrait: bust; in full height; genre scene.
The material from which the work is made.
The degree of thoroughness of elaboration and finishing.
7.What is paid more attention to (features):
similarity,
Decorative,
Displaying the internal state of a person,
Any idea.
Does it correspond to canon, if there was one?
9.Place:
Manufacturing,
Where is it now?
The style, direction or period of development of sculpture and its manifestation in a given work.
11.Your attitude towards the monument. Justify your opinion.
Algorithm for analyzing a work of architecture.
1. What is known about the history of the creation of the architectural structure and its author?
2. Indicate whether this work belongs to a cultural and historical era, artistic style, or movement.
3. What embodiment was found in this work of Vitruvius’ formula: strength, benefit, beauty?
4. Point to artistic media and techniques for creating an architectural image (symmetry, rhythm, proportions, light and shade and color modeling, scale), on tectonic systems (post-beam, pointed-arch, arched-dome).
5. Indicate the type of architecture: volumetric structures (public: residential, industrial); landscape (gardening or small forms); urban planning.
6. Point out the connection between the external and internal appearance of an architectural structure, the connection between the building and the relief, the nature of the landscape.
7. How are other forms of art used in the design of its architectural appearance?
8. What impression did the work have on you?
10. Where is the architectural structure located?
Sample for this assignment: see Appendix 1.
Practical lesson No. 2.
Assignment: Give a meaningful analysis of a painting by an artist from your city (village).
Plan for analyzing a work of painting:
1. Title.
2. Belonging to a cultural and historical era, style.
4. History of the creation of the work.
5. The meaning of the name. Features of the plot. Genre affiliation.
6. Composition (what is depicted, how the elements of the picture are arranged, dynamics, rhythm).
7. Basic means of artistic expression (color, line, chiaroscuro, texture, brushwork).
8. Your personal impressions.
Algorithm for analyzing works of painting.
2. Belonging to an artistic era.
3. The meaning of the title of the painting.
4. Genre affiliation.
5. Features of the plot of the picture. Reasons for painting. Searching for an answer to the question: did the author convey his idea to the viewer?
6. Features of the painting’s composition.
7. Basic means of artistic image: color, drawing, texture, chiaroscuro, brushwork.
8. What effect did this work of art have on your feelings and mood?
9. What associations does the artistic image evoke and why?
10. Where is this work of art located?
Sample for this assignment: see Appendix 2.
ANNEX 1.
Analysis of the architectural monument - St. Isaac's Cathedral.
St. Isaac's Cathedral is an outstanding monument of Russian architecture of the 19th century and one of the world's greatest domed structures, second in size only to St. Peter's in Rome, St. Paul's in London and Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence.
The grandeur of this temple is determined by its dimensions: height 101.5 m; length 111.2 m; width 97.6 m.
The cathedral is one of the dominant landmarks of St. Petersburg and the second tallest building after the Peter and Paul Cathedral. Its monumental and majestic image creates a unique accent in the city silhouette and serves as the same calling card of the northern capital as the spire of the Peter and Paul Fortress Cathedral and the golden ship of the Admiralty.
Church of St. Isaac of Dalmatia is one of the largest, most complex and interesting structures that completed the development of classicism - architectural style, which dominated in Russia in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries.
The time of design of the cathedral coincided with the heyday of Russian classicism, which was characterized by monumentality, grandeur, strict proportions, and connection with the surrounding buildings. Architects often turned to the traditions of antiquity, using motifs from Ancient Greece and Rome, and the Italian Renaissance. However, by the middle of the 19th century, there was a gradual decline of this style, manifested in the violation of its purity and refusal to preserve the unity and integrity of the architectural and artistic image, in excessive decoration not related to the design features of the buildings. These features marked the beginning of an eclectic trend in architecture, which coincided with the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral. Therefore, features of eclecticism appear in individual details of its facades, and especially in the interior.
The prototype of the cathedral was a type of centric, square, five-domed church with facades decorated with porticos, developed at the end of the 18th century. While maintaining the traditional scheme, Montferrand took a different approach to the architectural and artistic decoration of the building.
In plan, St. Isaac's Cathedral is a rectangle slightly elongated along the east-west axis, in the middle part of which there is a square protruding from general outline to the north and south sides. As a result of this layout, the middle part of the building acquired dominant importance.
The building itself is designed as a solid, compact cubic volume, above which rises a tall cylindrical drum, cut through by arched windows and surrounded by an elegant colonnade. The drum is topped with a gilded dome with a light octagonal light lantern.
At the corners of the protruding main volume of the building there are four small bell towers, successfully complementing the silhouette of the temple. They are completed with light gilded domes, the size of which is dictated by the scale of the bell towers themselves, so they turned out to be much smaller than the main dome. Due to the pyramidal structure of the cathedral, a feeling of dynamism and upward movement of the massive drum with the main dome is created, as well as the connection of the entire building with the surrounding space.
The facades are decorated with porticoes with granite columns 17 m high and weighing 114 tons each. The columns are installed on granite stylobates, in which the steps leading to the temple are located. St. Isaac's Cathedral is the only monument of Russian classicism (with the exception of the Marble Palace of A. Rinaldi), the exterior decoration of which uses polished granite columns and marble. The spectacular combination of dark red columns of the porticoes, the colonnade of the main dome and the building's base with gray marble wall cladding and gilded domes gives the entire structure a ceremonial appearance.
The portico of the cathedral amazes with its grandeur and nobility of forms. One sixteen-column portico faces north, towards the Neva and the Bronze Horseman, the other - towards St. Isaac's Square. Thus, both entrances to the temple turned out to be lateral in relation to the altar, which was due to urban planning features. The outside altar of the temple is marked by an eight-column portico, which is symmetrically repeated on the western side.
The smooth planes of the cathedral walls are cut through by large arched windows with massive platbands and volutes at the top. In an effort to enhance the impression of the grandeur of this structure, Montferrand exorbitantly increased the size of the windows and doors, which distorted the idea of the true size of the temple.
St. Isaac's Cathedral is a high example of unity, both monumental and decorative arts; its architecture is in direct artistic relationship with painting and sculpture. The nature of the decorative design of facades is determined, first of all, by sculpture - one of the most widespread types of fine art of the first third of the 19th century associated with architecture.
The location of the decorative sculpture corresponds to the main divisions of the building, uniting the individual architectural masses, visually softening the transitions from one part to another, thereby enhancing the role and significance of the individual elements of the structure. The sculptural decoration of the temple was created by famous sculptors of that time - I. Vitali, P. Klodt, N. Pimenov, L. Loganovsky, F. Lemer and I. German.
Sculptural decoration not only enriches the plasticity of the building, but also carries the main ideological and thematic load, specifying the functional purpose of the temple. Its porticoes are decorated with multi-figure reliefs dedicated to the lives of Jesus Christ and Isaac of Dalmatia.
Such an abundance of sculpture in the exterior decoration was caused by the fact that by the middle of the 19th century the idea of the monumentality of the structure had changed; The ways of standing out among urban buildings are also changing.
The rigor and noble simplicity of the buildings of the early 19th century is being replaced by a desire for pomp and effect, which leads to increased plasticity of the walls, filling the smooth field of the pediment with bas-reliefs of complex composition, and the use of expensive finishing materials. All this was fully reflected in the exterior decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedral, and was especially clearly expressed in the interior of the temple.
Thanks to the vertical orientation of its composition, St. Isaac's Cathedral has become one of the dominant features of the central part of the city and has important urban planning significance. The temple organically entered the ensemble of two squares - St. Isaac's and Senate (Dekabristov) squares, compositionally uniting and defining their appearance.
Senate Square was created in the middle of the 18th century, and its formation was completed in the first half of the next century. Widely open to the Neva, this square is part of the artistic decoration of the uniquely beautiful embankments.
If for Senate Square St. Isaac's Cathedral is the last chord, the missing link of the ensemble, then for St. Isaac's Square it became the beginning of its transformation into a single architectural organism.
From the south, St. Isaac's Square is completed by the Mariinsky Palace of the architect A. I. Stackenschneider (built in 1839 - 1844 in the style of classicism), which successfully fits into the composition of the building. On both sides of the square are two buildings of the Ministry of State Property by architect N. E. Efimov (created in 1844 - 1853), reminiscent of Italian palazzos of the 17th century.
In 1911, on the site of houses built at the beginning of the 18th century, the architect F.I. Lidval erected the building of the Astoria Hotel - an interesting example of civil construction of the early 20th century in St. Petersburg. Next to it there was a non-residential building, adapted at the end of the 19th century as the Angleterre hotel. In the center of the square is Montferrand's last work, a monument to Emperor Nicholas I, made by the sculptor P. K. Klodt.
The internal layout of St. Isaac's Cathedral is typical of Orthodox religious buildings of the 18th century. Interior with an area of more than 4,000 sq. m is divided into three naves by two rows of pylons. The main dome, supported by four massive pylons, reaches a height of 69 m, the height of the side naves is 28 m. The entrance to the temple is provided by three large doors on the south, north and west sides of the building.
In the eastern part there is the main altar and iconostasis, rising, like the altar barriers of ancient Russian churches, to the level with the vaults.
The slender Corinthian portico of the iconostasis of ten malachite columns supports the attic, the divisions of which continue the vertical orientation of the columns and emphasize the severity of its architecture. In front of the iconostasis is a solea, fenced with a white marble balustrade with gilded balusters.
Three large arches in the iconostasis serve as entrances to the altar part of the temple. The central arch is decorated with two lapis lazuli columns and the royal doors, behind which is the main altar of St. Isaac of Dalmatia. The altar window has one of the largest stained glass windows in Europe with an area of 28 square meters. m, made at the Munich manufactory by master Einmiller. The altarpiece of Jesus Christ is distinguished by its bright colors and depth of color.
Despite the fact that stained glass is an uncharacteristic detail of the decoration of an Orthodox church, in St. Isaac's Cathedral it organically fits into the interior and gives the altar a unique, solemn look.
Cutting through the main iconostasis, the side arches open for viewing the side chapels with small iconostases. The left nave leads to the chapel of St. Alexander Nevsky, right - in the chapel of St. Catherine.
In the magnificent decoration of the temple, the design of the drum of the main dome is important. 12 statues of caryatid angels protruding from the plane of the walls, together with marble pilasters, form a single vertical and contribute to the clear division of the drum. Between the sculptures, made by electroplating, there are picturesque images of the 12 apostles.
Well lit by the drum's windows, the gilded figures of angels stand out like a bright spot against the background of the walls and, together with the paintings, create a rich decorative effect.
The interior decor of the cathedral is crowned with a painted ceiling with an area of 816 square meters. m, created by an outstanding artist XIX century by K. P. Bryullov. The circular composition of this canvas is dictated by the architecture of the temple. A balustrade painted along the very edge of the ceiling allows a soft and natural transition from architectural forms to picturesque ones. It illusoryly enlarges the entablature of the drum, and the center of the ceiling, free of images, evokes a feeling of the depth of the air space and the infinity of the vault of heaven. The composition of the ceiling is completed by a sculpture of a dove hovering under the arch - a symbol of the Holy Spirit.
The design of the drum of the main dome from the point of view of the synthesis of various types of art is the most successful in St. Isaac's Cathedral.
An important detail in the interior decoration of the temple is gilded details, cast bronze, with relief ornaments, bases and capitals of columns, medallions, caissons, garlands, as well as openwork gilded chandeliers weighing about 3 tons each. In total, 300 kg of gold was spent on gilding the cathedral, and another 100 kg on gilding the domes.
St. Isaac's Cathedral is a striking example of the synthesis of architecture with various types of decorative and applied arts.
Its many scenic paintings, mosaics, sculptures, a spectacular combination of colored stone and gilding create a rich, saturated color scheme.
Continuity in the decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedrals
One of the features of St. Isaac's Cathedral is its style interior decoration. In comparison with other Russian churches of the 19th century, it differs not only in its program and artistic execution of the interior decoration, but also in the structure of the iconostasis, the arrangement of icons, and the color scheme.
This cannot be explained only by the religion of the chief architect, the Catholic Montferrand, since the observance of Orthodox canons during the construction and design of the temple was strictly monitored by a special commission of the Holy Synod. According to the protocols of the Construction Commission, you can see how the holy fathers ordered academicians and professors to change the details of the composition, the size of the figures, and even the color shades of the sketches of future paintings.
Meanwhile, an analysis of archival materials suggests that the interior features of this cathedral are determined by the traditions established during the design of the first St. Isaac's churches.
In the files of the Naval Ministry it is reported about St. Isaac's Church: "... in it there are images of the Savior, the Mother of God, Nicholas, John Chrysostom, Isaac of Dalmatia, Alexander Nevsky, St. Andrew the First-Called... Above the royal doors there is an image of the Savior with a cross in his hand, written on lemon damask , on the sides of the Savior there are cherubs on blue taffeta, the frames are gilded. Under the icons there are stands painted on grass cloth... The curtains on the doors are red...". And one more thing: “five felt pieces (gray-black) were added to the floor near the doors...”.
If, in accordance with these descriptions, we imagine the iconostasis of the first St. Isaac's Church, then its dominant colors will be yellow-gold and green with two blue vertical stripes along the royal doors. By virtue of architectural features drawing barn, rebuilt into the first St. Isaac's Church, its iconostasis up to 4 m high and more than 6 m wide did not need horizontal power structures, and for the visual effect of greater height it was divided by vertical green stripes starting from the floor.
It is known that Emperor Peter I gave his icons for the arrangement of the first St. Isaac's Cathedral, and they were also transferred to the iconostasis of the second St. Isaac's Cathedral.
Judging by the places allocated for them in the design of the iconostasis, the size of the images was no more than 100 x 60 cm and 80 x 50 cm. In four projects of the iconostasis of St. Isaac's Cathedral by various authors, these dimensions are preserved.
The size of these icons and the mention of the placement on the iconostasis of the first St. Isaac's Cathedral of images of the Savior and archangels painted on canvas suggest that it was difficult to place any other icons there.
In turn, the horizontal structure of the iconostasis did not allow creating a multi-row (4- or 5-tier) iconostasis for this temple. Therefore, some of the icons - the “twelfth holidays” - were transferred to the walls of the temple or its pillars. This is also confirmed by the designs for the iconostasis of the second St. Isaac's Cathedral, which provided for the placement of no more than eight icons and three sculptural groups above the royal doors.
Despite the fact that the iconostasis of the second St. Isaac's Church, about 8 m wide and more than 12 m high, made it possible to place additional tiers of icons, this did not happen. The structure of the iconostasis remained the same, as vertical as in the first church. The design of the iconostasis included several groups of columns, the height of which exceeded half the height of the iconostasis itself.
The same trends in the design of the iconostasis were preserved in the third St. Isaac's Cathedral (designed by the architect A. Rinaldi).
Its iconostasis consisted mainly of vertical structures, the color scheme was white, gold and green. Unfortunately, the main altar of this cathedral has not survived, but it most likely did not violate the vertical division. The iconostasis contained no more than 10 - 12 icons of significant size. The previously mentioned small icons, transferred from the first to subsequent St. Isaac's churches, were located in the interior.
It is interesting to note that when Montferrand began to build the fourth cathedral, next to the third temple that was being dismantled, a special extension was made for its icons, and services were held in it. After 1828, due to intense construction work By Imperial decree and at the request of parishioners, the most revered icons of St. Isaac's Cathedral were moved to a room on the second floor of the western wing of the Admiralty, where temporary chapels of St. Isaac of Dalmatia, St. Alexander Nevsky and St. Andrew the First-Called.
After the opening and consecration of the fourth St. Isaac's Cathedral in 1858, some of the icons from the Admiralty were returned to the newly consecrated church, while others (for example, the image of St. Andrew the First-Called) were left in the Admiralty.
On the iconostasis of the current St. Isaac's Cathedral, the traditional design, starting from the first wooden St. Isaac's Church, is clearly visible.
So, despite the significant area of the iconostasis, there is limited quantity icons, moreover, the same ones as in the first church of St. Isaac of Dalmatia (images of the Savior, the Mother of God, St. Nicholas of Myra, St. Isaac of Dalmatia, St. Alexander Nevsky). Only the faces of saints named after the kings and queens were added, under whom the four St. Isaac's churches were built.
The "twelfth" holiday icons are placed in the interior of the cathedral, which corresponds to their location in the previous St. Isaac's churches. The background of the images (lemon damask - yellow) was replaced with a gold mosaic cantorel. The vertical columns have been preserved and are made of malachite, as if reproducing the “grassy” (green) pedestals of the first St. Isaac’s Church painted on the canvas.
The blue background near the royal doors was replaced by columns made of Afghan lapis lazuli, and the painted figures above the royal doors are reproduced by the sculptural group “Christ in Glory.” The curtains over the doors were preserved in red, and even the marble slabs of the inlaid floor repeat the gray tone of the felts of the first St. Isaac's Church.
These features of the color and compositional design of the interior of St. Isaac's Cathedral suggest that the traditions in its decoration, established under Emperor Peter I, were preserved and were one of the criteria for the construction of all churches of St. Isaac of Dalmatia in St. Petersburg.
Stained glass
Everyone, approaching the main iconostasis of the cathedral, will be delighted by the splendor and richness of its decorative decoration: the gilded sculpture, the beauty of the malachite and lapis lazuli columns, the mysterious shimmer of the golden cantoral background of the mosaic images.
But if at the same time the royal doors of the main altar are open, then attention will focus, first of all, on the stained glass altarpiece of the Risen Lord.
He is depicted against a background of yellow-blue sky, wearing a purple cloak with gold embroidery, decorated with green emeralds and pale purple amethysts.
The figure of Jesus Christ occupies almost the entire space of the altar window; it seems to be cramped within these frames, and one gets the impression that in a moment the Lord will enter the temple.
The effect of presence is emphasized by the blurred, but quite definite dynamics of the composition. The lower part of the window is occupied by a cloud, as if subtly floating towards the viewer, and thanks to this, the figure of Christ seems elevated. In His hands is a fluttering scarlet banner with a white cross.
The grandiose dimensions of the Risen Lord indicate the significance of the image and its dominant position. The upper part of the window in the form of a semicircular arch emphasizes the dynamics of the rays of the halo. The face of Jesus Christ is highlighted by brighter lighting due to lighter colors.
This element of decoration is traditional for a Catholic church, but perhaps the only one in the Orthodox Church.
The appearance of a stained glass window with an area of 28.5 square meters. m in St. Isaac's Cathedral is caused by romantic moods inspired by images of the Middle Ages.
The painting is made in the style of the Italian Renaissance. This is one of the largest stained glass windows in Europe, and the largest in Russia.
The placement of a stained glass window in the altar window of St. Isaac's Cathedral was recommended by the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze, the author of the original (not accepted) design for the interior decoration of the temple. This was approved by Emperor Nicholas I, the Holy Synod and supported by O. Montferrand, since this detail of decoration did not contradict his own decorative plan.
The production of the stained glass window was supervised by von Klenze himself, who developed a frame of a special design for it. The Bavarian architect personally turned to his patron, King Ludwig I, for permission to make stained glass in Munich, and received his consent.
In 1841, Klenze and a messenger handed over his drawings to the Chairman of the Commission for the Construction of the Cathedral, His Serene Highness Prince P. M. Volkonsky.
Soon the prince, on behalf of the Highest Name, informed the architect that he could place an order at the Munich Royal Factory. From that moment on, Klenze's role was reduced to mediation between the German stained glass artists and the head of the Commission.
The design drawing of the stained glass window was redone several times, final version was developed by the artist G. M. von Hess and mainly followed academic traditions: the so-called “academic tricolor” predominates in the painting - red, blue and yellow-white tones.
In many ways, the extraordinary beauty, richness, subtlety and freshness of color is the merit of the masters of the Munich factory, and, mainly, one of the best stained glass artists in Europe, M.-E. Einmiller.
This amazing master had at his disposal glass of more than 100 different colors and shades. He used laminated glass and glass painted with special paints.
For example, Christ's purple robe is made of two layers of red and yellow glass. Gems on the stained glass window there are apparently convex prisms inserted with lead. The color effect of the halo is based on the fact that individual layers in the three-layer glass have been partially removed, and thus the yellow color has acquired a greenish tint.
Masters from Munich also skillfully used single-color glass. The clouds in the picture are made of solid smoky gray glass, the banner of the cross is made of ruby, the cross on the banner is made of white.
Some stained glass parts were painted with special paints, fired in a muffle furnace and then machined.
Stained glass was produced at a factory in the town of Benediktbeuern, which first belonged to M. Z. Frank, and then became the property of Einmiller, who came up with a method for producing glass with the finest transitions of tones. In order to reliably convey people’s faces and exposed parts of the human body on stained glass, he invented the so-called “parchment” glass.
By the end of 1843, work on the stained glass window was completed. In the summer of 1844, boxes with the disassembled painting were delivered to St. Petersburg by sea. Master G. Kühl assembled the stained glass window and installed it for demonstration to the king.
After the Highest approval, the painting was again dismantled and installed in the main altar after finishing work in the cathedral was completed.
A stained glass window consists of two metal frames connected by rods. Thick mirror glass is inserted into the outer frame; the stained glass window itself is mounted in the inner frame from elements of colored translucent glass, held together with lead soldering. It is held in the window frame by metal fasteners.
The altarpiece "The Risen Christ" organically entered into the structure of the decorative and artistic decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedral. The fact that he appeared in an Orthodox church did not contradict the spirit of the times of the heyday of Russian romanticism.
References: Internet resource: http://www.liveinternet.ru/users/tantana/post219557930
APPENDIX 2.
Analysis of the painting by V. Surikov “Boyaryna Morozova”
The history of the creation of this painting is richest in materials that tell about the mysteries of Vasily Surikov’s artistic work. Almost all stages of her compositional search have been preserved, recorded in various sketches - from the very first sketches to watercolors, sometimes covered with a graphene grid (that is, designed to be transferred to canvas).
The first oil sketch of the painting “Boyaryna Morozova” was made by Surikov in 1881. The idea for the painting had not yet fully matured, but V. Surikov had already imagined the entire scene quite specifically. But another artistic plan delayed work on this painting for a long time: from 1881 to 1883, Surikov worked on “Menshikov in Berezovo”, and then went abroad.
There, far from his homeland, peering intently at the immortal paintings of the Renaissance masters, Surikov continued to nurture images of his new great creation - folk drama"Boyaryna Morozova". Having returned to Russia in the summer of 1884, he was finally able to get to work on implementing his long-standing grandiose plan, but it was only in the spring of 1887 that “Boyarina Morozova” was completed by him. The new work was named after central character paintings of noblewoman Morozova, one of the prominent participants in the “schism”.
The moment he chose for the picture did not change: a crowd of people and a sleigh with a frantic noblewoman as she passed through the Moscow streets - “the shame of following the noblewoman Fedosya Prokopyevna Morozova for interrogation in the Kremlin for her adherence to the schism during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich.”
The external reason for the schism was, as is known, the church reforms begun by Patriarch Nikon in 1655: correction of liturgical books and changes in rituals (in particular, the dispute was about how to be baptized - with two or three fingers).
The schism became widespread among the serf peasantry and townspeople. The people had little understanding of the theological debates about two-fingered and three-fingered people, but two-fingered people were their own, and three-fingered people were alien and imposed from above. In the minds of the broad masses, defending the “old faith” was a unique form of protest against the state, which, while introducing the “new faith” by force, at the same time strengthened serfdom. The split clearly reflected the features of the class anti-feudal struggle. In the ranks of the supporters of the schism, there were also individual boyar families, but, as Soviet historical science notes, these were only isolated cases, explained by the fact that the government’s desire to centralize Russia ran into stubborn opposition from the reactionary boyars. The schism as a whole retained a living connection with the popular movement until the end of the 17th century and served as an outer shell for the spontaneous protest of the masses. Therefore, the tsarist government suppressed the schismatic movement in every possible way. The noblewoman Morozova was also subjected to severe persecution.
What did V. Surikov know about the boyar Morozova in those years? The general outline of her sad story, which you heard as a child in Siberia? What was written about her in the novel by D.L. Mordovtsev's "The Great Schism"? Perhaps I also read N.S.’s article. Tikhonravov in the "Russian Bulletin" for 1865 and the book by I.E. Zabelin "Home life of Russian queens". But in none of these books, in none of the articles was there a word about the crowd of people who saw off the noblewoman Morozova, about her black half-monastic, half-prisoner's robe, about the black board on her chest.
Seventeen-year-old Fedosya Sokovnina, the daughter of one of the tsar’s close associates, was married to the elderly boyar G.I. Morozova. Well-read, self-willed, energetic, even under her husband she openly performed old church rituals, distinguished by her intransigence towards the new “official” church.
This church was legalized in 1654, when a church council meeting in Moscow adopted the ritual reform prepared by Patriarch Nikon. Of course, the meaning of the reforms carried out was much deeper than just new rules for inscribing the name of Jesus Christ or an instruction to be baptized with three fingers instead of two.
The new rituals caused protest among a significant part of the clergy, especially the lower clergy, who saw in them a foreign influence, a threat to the purity of the true Orthodox faith. Soon purely church feuds acquired quite a large influence among the people. One of the documents from those years says: “The fire of rage against the leaders, at insults, taxes, oppression and injustice multiplied more and more, and anger and ferocity inflamed.”
Boyarina F.P. Morozova closely linked her fate with the zealots of the old faith, supported the frantic archpriest Avvakum, the main enemy of the Nikonians, and upon the latter’s return from exile in 1662, she settled him with her. By this time, she was widowed and remained the only manager of her husband’s enormous wealth. Her house began to look more and more like a refuge for Old Believers; in fact, it became a kind of schismatic monastery.
Widowed at the age of thirty, this “ardent-hearted” woman led a harsh ascetic life, distributed her wealth to the poor, and in 1668 secretly took monastic vows from a schismatic elder.
Events soon followed that became the prologue to the episode chosen by V. Surikov as the plot for his film.
In the fall of 1671, the wrath of the Quiet Tsar Alexei fell on the rebellious noblewoman. At first, however, they tried to “convince” her, but she refused all persuasion to submit to the royal will and accept new church regulations. In addition, it turned out that she also persuaded her sister, Princess Urusova, to the old faith.
They were shackled in “horse irons” and placed under guard. Two days later, having removed the shackles from the women, they were taken for interrogation to the Chudov Monastery. But Metropolitan Pavel could not achieve anything from either F.P. Morozova, nor from her sister. They flatly refused to take communion according to the new missals, stood firmly on two fingers and announced that they only recognized old printed books.
More than once they took women for interrogation, and when they were tortured, F.P. Morozova screamed on the rack: “This is what is great and truly wonderful for me: if I am worthy of being burned with fire in a log house on Bolot (On Bolotnaya Square in Moscow they executed “enemies of the fatherland”), this is glorious to me, because I have never experienced this honor.”
Neither persuasion, nor threats, nor painful torture could break Morozova’s spirit.
The friend and mentor of the noblewoman Morozova, a devout defender of the old faith, Archpriest Avvakum wrote about her like this: “The fingers of your hands are subtle, and your eyes are lightning fast. You rush at the enemy like a lion.”
But they were not executed. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was afraid of too much publicity and decided to get rid of the rebellious women quietly. By his order, both sisters were deprived of the rights of their estate and imprisoned in a monastery dungeon in Borovsky. There they died of hunger and cold.
The bright and strong character of the noblewoman F.P. Morozova was in the spirit of Vasily Surikov. He was fascinated by the image of a fiery Russian woman, her spiritual invincibility and will. If before the spring of 1881 the artist was only thinking about the plot, now it was F.P. Morozova took possession of all his thoughts. V. Surikov had the only goal - to show his heroine not lost in the crowd, but to highlight the strong traits of her character with the utmost artistic persuasiveness.
It was necessary to find the only composition that could express the thoughts that overwhelmed V. Surikov, could express the sad fate of the noblewoman F.P. Morozova into a story about a national tragedy. He was not particularly interested in the church-dogmatic side of the schism and the dramatic feuds between the noblewoman and the Nikonians. Not in lonely tragic reflection, not in the throes of mental struggle, the artist wanted to show it, but with the people and in front of the people.
Vasily Surikov understood well that history is not made without the people, and even the most outstanding historical figure is helpless without the people. Where there are no people, there is no hero. And the tragedy of F.P. Morozova (as V. Surikov saw her) is not so much the tragedy of one woman, albeit one of such extraordinary strength of character. This is a tragedy of time, a tragedy of the entire people.
“I don’t understand the actions of individual historical figures without people, without a crowd, I need to drag them out into the street,” said Surikov. The people, their thoughts and feelings in the era of the split - this is the main thing that attracted Surikov in the historical plot he chose and what he brilliantly revealed in his film.
In the blue haze of a winter morning, the dissenter Boyarina Morozova, chained in chains, is being transported through loose, wet snow. The woodsmen are having difficulty making their way through the dense crowd that has filled the narrow street with low houses and golden and blue-domed churches. Morozova raised her hand, bound in a heavy chain, with thin fingers folded into two fingers. She addresses the people with a passionate appeal to stand firmly for her cause. The fiery gaze of her deeply sunken eyes on her haggard, deathly pale face is terrifying. She is ready to accept any torment, to go to death.
The exceptionally powerful image of Morozova dominates the picture, but does not overshadow the crowd. Moreover, he is inextricably linked with her: he unites her with himself and at the same time, thanks to her, he acquires special expressiveness and special meaning. Morozov is the source that excites a complex range of different experiences in the crowd, and the center to which the eyes, thoughts and feelings of all the characters in this scene are directed. Showing a historical event as a people's tragedy, Surikov brilliantly solved the most difficult problem of combining “hero and crowd.” This unity is supported in particular by the fact that the female faces in the popular crowd are related in type to the face of Morozova herself. The human mass is united, but not a single face dissolves in it; the artist achieves amazing harmony in the depiction of the mass and the individual human personality: everyone in the crowd perceives the event in their own way, each face is a new voice in a single tragic chorus. We see the gloating of the priest, who bared his toothless mouth, and the sympathy of the townspeople and the “beggar brethren” - the holy fool repeating Morozova’s pathetic gesture, the wanderer who bared his head and froze in deep thought, the beggar woman kneeling before the schismatic persecuted by the tsar... Clenching her hands tightly, as if trying not to succumb to weakness, to preserve courage and strength, Morozova’s sister, Princess Urusova, hurries after the sleigh. A young city woman in a blue fur coat and a golden scarf bowed respectfully from the waist...
Depicting the masses on the street, Surikov had to solve the most complex compositional problems, which he did with remarkable skill. The canvas is perceived as a living piece of reality. The crowd lives and worries on it; moving, crashing like a wedge into the crowd, a wretched sleigh. Deep traces left by the runners, straw dragging in the snow, a boy running after the sleigh - everything makes the viewer believe that the sleigh, tilting to the left, is really moving on loose snow. The impression of the movement of the sleigh is also supported by the increase in movement in the figures - from the right edge to the center: on the right is the holy fool sitting in the snow, then the beggar woman kneeling and reaching out to Morozova and, finally, walking next to Urusov’s sleigh. The dynamism of the entire scene is enhanced by the diagonal construction of the picture. Equally amazing is the color scheme of the painting, its pictorial “orchestration”, its color range - from black to white, using the entire gamut of the palette. Fascinated by the colorfulness of ancient Russian life, Surikov creates exceptionally sonorous color spots - blue, yellow, crimson, black... But even the most sonorous colorful spots do not fall out of the picture and do not turn it into a decorative canvas; they are subordinated to general harmony, they are softened and united by soft diffused light, a bluish haze of moist air. Blue tones, echoing golden ones, are scattered everywhere: in the snow, as if woven from reflections of color, and in the gray sky, and in the patterns of folk clothes... The psychological center of the picture is also highlighted with color - the figure of Morozova; the black spot of her clothes sounds tragically like a heavy bell against the background white snow. But the bright colors and multicoloredness of the people’s crowd give the picture a major, life-affirming sound, expressing faith in the people, in their strength, in the final victory of the people’s mind over prejudice, light over darkness.
It took V. Surikov three years to paint his picture. Sketch followed sketch; the artist was tireless in his search for nature. Wherever he visited during this time, looking for the most characteristic characters, in the thick of life itself, drawing the future heroes of his picture. He rejected two canvases with sketches already made, and only the third, made according to his special order (a rectangle placed on a large edge) satisfied the master.
The composition “Boyaryna Morozova” was created after a long and difficult search. Surikov himself said: “The main thing for me is composition. There is some kind of firm, inexorable law here, which can only be guessed by instinct, but which is so immutable that every added or subtracted inch of the canvas, or an extra point placed, immediately changes the entire composition.”
Another time Surikov said: “In movement there are living points, and there are dead ones. This is real math. Figures sitting in the sleigh hold it in place. It was necessary to find the distance from the frame to the sleigh in order to launch them. A little less distance - the sleigh is standing still. And Tolstoy and his wife, when they watched Morozov, said: “The bottom needs to be cut, the bottom is not needed, it’s in the way.” But you can’t reduce anything there - the sleigh won’t move.”
The artist “searched” for images of his heroes with particular persistence. To collect required material, find the most characteristic types people who could serve as models for the characters in the picture, Vasily Surikov settled in Mytishchi. Here, along the Yaroslavl highway, “for centuries, continuous lines of pilgrims walked all year round, especially in summer, heading to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra. V. Surikov wrote, chokingly, of all the wanderers who passed by his hut, interesting to him by type.”
He always and everywhere eagerly peered into human faces, trying to discover among them the social or psychological type, close to the images of those historical characters, which were drawn to his creative imagination. “The girl in the crowd, I wrote it with Speranskaya,” she was then preparing to become a nun. And those who bow are all Old Believers from Preobrazhensky,” said Surikov. The artist’s memories of the past, captured by his powerful visual memory, also helped: “Do you remember the priest in my crowd? This is a whole type I created. This is when they sent me from Buzim to study, since I was traveling with the sexton - Barsanuphius, I was eight years old. He has his pigtails tied up here. We are entering the village of Pogoreloye... He bought himself a green damask, and there he already took a bite... He will drink from the damask and look at the light... He drank without taking a bite...”
Gradually, the characters in the picture were found. Here is a pilgrim pilgrim - a typical figure Ancient Rus', preserved almost unchanged for centuries. Such wanderers paced the vast expanses of Russia from year to year. Traveling pilgrims were both preachers and bearers of news for the people; with their walking pilgrimages they connected remote corners of the country, and were eyewitnesses of popular riots, executions, and repentances.
Facing various aspects of Russian life, coming into contact with various segments of the population, traveling the length and breadth of Russian expanses, they accumulated rich material for reflection and stories. This was the wanderer in V. Surikov’s painting. It is clear that he came from afar, his strong, stocky figure is belted with a wide belt, ropes tied on his chest support a large knapsack, in his hands he holds a tall staff with an intricate handle - an integral companion of his wanderings.
This wandering philosopher is full of deep sympathy for the chained boyar F.P. Morozova. Behind his wide belt hangs the same Old Believer “lestovka” (leather rosary), like the one hanging from the noblewoman’s hand. He looks at her with compassion and at the same time is immersed in himself, as if following his sorrowful thought. Of the entire diverse crowd, he more than others expresses his thoughts about the ongoing event, so important in the tragic fate of the schism.
And the artist found the holy fool, this folk soothsayer, in one of the Moscow markets.
Deciding the painting as an outdoor scene, Surikov strove to paint sketches in the same conditions. “If I painted hell, then I myself would sit in the fire and force people to pose in the fire,” the artist once remarked jokingly.
“And I found the holy fool at a flea market. He sold cucumbers there. I see him. Such people have such a skull. I say let's go. I barely persuaded him. He follows me, jumps over the curbstones. I look around, and he shakes his head - I won’t deceive you. It was at the beginning of winter. The snow is melting. That’s how I wrote it in the snow. I gave him vodka and rubbed his feet with vodka... He sat barefoot in the snow in my canvas shirt. His legs even turned blue... That’s how he painted it in the snow,” Surikov said cheerfully.
He was delighted with this drunkard selling cucumbers. V. Surikov brings this drunkard and mischief-maker, who is popularly called a “reckless head,” to his home, rubs his bare feet with vodka and hurries to capture him in the snow, observing the pink and purple play of spots. “If I painted hell,” the artist later said, “then I myself would sit in the fire and force people to pose in the fire.”
Before the artist had time to deal with the holy fool, a new character was needed. And he comically and touchingly chases after the old praying mantis, involuntarily frightening her, and with boundless greed he grabs the staff she threw away in order to immediately “insert” it into the hands of the wanderer, who is already written in the picture.
Then a beautiful girl in a blue fur coat and a golden scarf bowed reverently; soon a nun and a girl with arms crossed on her chest were painted; and archers with berdysh, and a boy in a tanned sheepskin coat; and a gaping toothless mouth, a triumphantly laughing priest in a fur coat and a high hat; and secret Old Believers.
The artist also worked with enthusiasm on the landscape of the painting. Such a Russian winter, such “multi-colored” snow, such “blue” moist winter air had never been seen in painting before Surikov. Again, close observation, an avid study of life, and the keen vision of the painter had an effect. Surikov worked tirelessly on location.
For the painting, deep snow was needed, for which noblewoman F.P. Morozova had to be carried on the sledge. The rollers leave traces of furrows in the loose snow, but when they roll, a very special trail is created, and V. Surikov is looking forward to the snowfall. And then he runs out into the street and walks for a long time after the first convoy he comes across.
“Writing in the snow turns out differently,” said Surikov. - There they write in the snow with silhouettes. And in the snow everything is saturated with light. Everything is in purple and pink reflexes, just like the clothes of the noblewoman Morozova - outer, black; and a shirt in the crowd... He painted everything from life: both the sleigh and the firewood. We lived on Dolgorukovskaya (at that time it was called Novaya Sloboda)... There in the alley there were always deep snowdrifts, potholes, and a lot of sledges. I kept following the sledges, watching how they left a mark, especially during the rumbles. As soon as the snow falls deeply, you ask them to drive on the sledges in the yard so that the snow falls apart, and then you start making ruts. And you feel all the poverty of colors here!”
From then on, he often went after the sledges, wherever he found them, turned them into his yard, forced them to drive through the snow, and immediately sat down to write the rut, like a jewel, protecting it from random passers-by. He painted a sketch of a snow-covered Moscow boulevard with the figure of a man dressed in black sitting on a bench; he painted dark trunks and branches of bare trees that bend over snowdrifts; he wrote the tracks of the runners on the clean, loose snow.
But Surikov set himself the task of reproducing not only the winter landscape, but also recreating on canvas a Moscow street of the late 17th century. Therefore, in his words, “... I kept looking for alleys and looking; and where the roofs are high. And the church in the depths of the picture is St. Nicholas, on Dolgorukovskaya.”
Every detail of the picture was carefully searched for, selected, and lovingly painted. “I loved beauty everywhere,” admitted Surikov. - There is such beauty in the firewood: in the saplings, in the elms, in the sanitation drains. And in the bends of the runners, how they sway and shine, what twists they have. After all, Russian woods need to be sung... "Avidly studying nature, Surikov never became her slave. His inherent deep realistic feeling invariably guided him in the selection and generalization of impressions of reality.
The domes of the churches, the street itself, the houses, and the snow had already been painted, but V. Surikov continued to search for the main thing - the image of the noblewoman herself.
He himself later told his biographer and writer Voloshin: “...I first painted the crowd in the picture, and then they came after.”
Surikov searched for Morozova for a long time: “In the type of noblewoman Morozova - here is one of my aunts, Avdotya Vasilievna, who was behind Uncle Stepan Fedorovich, an archer with a black beard. She began to lean towards the old faith. My mother, I remember, was always indignant: all of her were pilgrims and pilgrims. She reminded me of the type of Nastasya Filippovna from Dostoevsky. Only I painted the crowd in the picture first, and then later. And no matter how I paint her face, the crowd hits. It was very difficult to find her face. After all, how long have I been looking for him? The whole face was small. I got lost in the crowd. In the village of Preobrazhenskoye, at the Old Believer cemetery - that’s where I found her. I had an old friend, Stepanida Varfolomeevna, from the Old Believers. They lived in Bear Lane - they had a prayer house there. And then they were evicted to the Preobrazhenskoe cemetery. There in Preobrazhenskoye everyone knew me. Even the old ladies and the narrated girls allowed me to draw themselves. They liked that I was a Cossack and didn’t smoke. And then a reader from the Urals, Anastasia Mikhailovna, came to them. I wrote a sketch of it in kindergarten at two o’clock. And when I inserted her into the picture, she conquered everyone.”
But this sketch did not complete the work. He also tried to paint his wife’s face, and then one day he saw a reader from the Urals. “And when I put it in the picture, she defeated everyone.” From it he wrote a sketch, signed in 1886 and called “The Head of the Boyarina Morozova.”
This work, the end of a persistent search, was kept for a long time in the collection of the artist’s family and was one of the “cherished” works that were not subject to sale. She was especially dear to the artist. They say that one of the Russian Grand Dukes expressed a desire to buy Morozova’s “cherished” head. “You don’t have enough money, prince,” the artist answered boldly and decisively. Now “The Head of Boyarina Morozova” is in the Tretyakov Gallery.
Deathly pale, emaciated, with burning eyes, fluttering nostrils and nervous lips, the noblewoman’s face is full of such passionate conviction, will and fire that it is difficult to tear yourself away from it. In the thin figure of F.P. Morozova, in the thin long fingers of her hands, in the way she sits, frantically clutching the sleigh with one hand, and the other hand raised in a two-fingered sign - V. Surikov conveyed her passionate life and sad fate.
Why can you stand in front of this painting for hours, all the time discovering something new in it, looking at it and experiencing it, wondering and admiring its deep psychological authenticity and admiring the wonderful play of colors? Perhaps because martyrdom has an invincible power over the Russian soul? She bows before him, and it is precisely in the “charming power of other people’s torment” (according to the subtle remark of the writer V. Nikolsky) that one of the reasons for the attractiveness of “Boyaryna Morozova”, before which the Surikov crowd still bows.
Avidly studying nature, Surikov never became her slave. His inherent deep realistic feeling invariably guided him in the selection and generalization of impressions of reality. Surikov’s artistic concept was fully manifested in “Boyaryna Morozova,” a work from the period of his creative maturity, the highest flowering of his creative powers. “Boyaryna Morozova” is deeply and brightly national both in content, and in the images created by the artist, and in the characters revealed here, and in its pictorial solution, in the “music” of color itself. This is a work that could only arise on Russian soil, especially close and understandable to the Russian people. And at the same time, the universal human, global significance of “Boyaryna Morozova” is undeniable. The tragic, heroic principle contained in it, its picturesque harmony excite any heart sensitive to art.
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Analysis of the architectural work Pashkov House
“The artist’s task is to destroy the material with the help of form,” F. Schiller, from the book by B.R. Whipper, Introduction to the Historical Study of Art. Indeed, the main task of architecture is to reincarnate the material, modify it and subordinate it to its artistic goals. And, as a result, create a single composition based on an expressive combination of volume and space. Architects are also called upon to link three sides in the harmonious composition of a building: on the one hand, convenience and benefit (functional task); on the other hand, strength and efficiency (structural and technical and economic problems); on the third - the beauty of forms (an aesthetic task). And as a result, the goal of the composition becomes to achieve unity of form and content. And achieving this is not so easy. Let's take a look at one of the most outstanding houses in Moscow. What properties, what architectural techniques determined the high assessment of this building?
Pashkov house architectural
Pashkov House was built in 1784-1786. in the second half of the 18th century. Vasily Bazhenov, commissioned by the wealthy landowner Pashkov. It was a time when the noble simplicity and restraint of classicism broke with the rich generosity of baroque. The recognized master of that time, Vasily Bazhenov, managed to create the style of Moscow classicism, organically combining the principles of Baroque and classicism. This is confirmed by the favorite methods of these styles. For example, the long facade facing Mokhovaya Street is made in classic style, which is characterized by uniformity, consistency and emphasis correct order. Its composition clearly symmetrically unfolds relative to the axis of the central building. To the right and left of it are two one-story galleries, which end in two-story identical wings. Pashkov's house has two main facades - one looks at the roadway and has a palace, solemn character, the other is oriented towards the courtyard and has a more comfortable, estate look. A cylindrical belvedere rises upward (Bazhenov made it as a through rotunda, surrounded by paired columns with a dome, topped with a sculpture of the Greek goddess Minerva) in combination with the two lower ones, it formed a clear isosceles triangle. These are techniques of the classicism style, which translated from Latin literally means “exemplary”. Baroque shades are clearly visible in the design of the architectural decor, in particular the order system of the facade of the central building, on the one hand, strict classical, on the other hand, executed in its details (vases on balustrades, sculptures, stucco decorative details) with greater freedom and originality compared to the usual classical canons.
The house has not survived to this day in its original form; it was rebuilt several times. In particular, in 1812 the house was destroyed by fire. The architects tried to restore the house according to 18th-century images, as it was originally created.
View of the building's architectural typology
The Pashkov House is a palace type of architecture, a type that especially emphasizes a certain way (type) of life. In this case, Bazhenov develops the type of Russian urban noble estate and builds the Pashkov House as an architectural complex consisting of a three-story main building topped with a rotunda-belvedere, and two-story outbuildings connected to it by one-story galleries.
At first, looking closely at the building, it seems that the house is small. But it seems larger than it is, thanks to the galleries and outbuildings stretching along the street in one straight line, adjacent to the main building. They seem to complete the overall architectural composition at the edges. Such a three-part composition, consisting of a central building, passage galleries and outbuildings, is not a whim of the architect - it is justified by the life of that time. The main house housed the owner's living rooms and state rooms. The outbuildings contained a kitchen, servants lived and guests stayed. The gallery passages made it possible to pass from the outbuildings into the house without going outside, which was especially important in inclement weather or in winter.
Place in space
The architectural space of the House composition is organized. Its location is clearly thought out. And not only in the city ensemble, but also within the composition itself. The impressive appearance of the building is due in part to its location. Pashkov's house stands on the high Vagankovsky Hill, as if continuing the line of its ascent, on the open corner of two descending streets.
The urban architectural ensemble of the house can be described as panoramic. The elevated position of the site and its visibility from all sides contributed to a better identification of the volumetric and high-rise nature of the composition of the structure, which organically entered into the ensemble of the Kremlin surroundings.
The mass of a building in visual perception depends on the visual assessment of the amount of material of the overall architectural form. The mass here is dissected with a rather free arrangement. The slender pyramidal silhouette of the Pashkov House, emphasized by the side wings, the upward tendency of its middle building, as well as its relief thanks to the rotunda-belvedere - all this, rather, goes back to the traditions of folk architecture of Ancient Rus'. The so-called organic growth of the mass of Bazhenov’s building here reaches a high level of expression.
Construction type
The structure is post-and-beam. The building is distinguished by a clear layout and organized tectonic scale.
Architectural decor
In general, the architectural decor of the House can be called plastic. But it is so rich that it is necessary to dwell on it in more detail.
a) the principle of arrangement of arch.decor
The arrangement of architectural decoration at Pashkov’s house is based on the principle of proximity; this principle is precisely characteristic of palace architecture. Order elements and elements of architectural decor alternate and follow in orderly rows.
The gallery on the ground floor seems to balance the main building with the wings and, following the law of juxtaposition, extends the entire length of the façade.
The location of the architectural decor determines the composition of the building.
b) composition
The solemnly light and rich composition of the Pashkov House is a wonderful example of Bazhenov’s compositional skill and his broad urban planning approach to a separate building as part of the urban ensemble.
The entire architectural complex can be characterized as a deep-spatial type of composition, since it includes the main house, outbuildings, a front entrance yard, a garden and various service buildings. Which requires moving deeper, entering. But if we consider the Pashkov House separately, then its length and the predominance of height dimensions over depth dimensions tell us that the composition of the house is clearly frontal. The construction is solved mainly in the facade planes, and here is the main semantic and aesthetic architectural load. Moreover, the dominance of symmetry is evident. The two-story wings seem to balance the building relative to the central axis of the main facade. There is also a version that the façade from the Kremlin is not a front façade at all, but a park one, and on the reverse side there is a vast courtyard, conceived by Bazhenov just as a front door.
c) order system
The House's order system is very rich; it is presupposed by its design. In contrast to the horizontal, rusticated ground floor are the two main floors of the central front building. The Corinthian composite order is used in the projecting portico, which unites both floors and visually increases the scale of the building. The same order decorates the pilasters on the walls of the central building.
On the sides of the four-column portico there are statues placed on the bases of the columns. The columns and pilasters of the wings use a complex Ionic order with four-sided diagonal capitals. They emphasize artistic independence and the role of wings in the composition of the facade.
The balustrade framing the roof of the central building carries lush vases on pillars, softening the transition from the frieze and cornice to the rotunda that completes the central volume. It uses the applied Ionic order (restored later as a replacement for the previous Corinthian order). Thus, the architects seemed to have made the house heavier by placing a heavier order over a lighter one. But the rotunda-belvedere in general is not such a static form and emphasizes the upward aspiration of the entire composition, facilitating the overall impression of the building.
As in other forms of art, rhythm plays a vital role in architecture. It is its primacy that allows us to talk about architecture as the art of carefully rhythmic space. That’s why architecture is often called “frozen music.” Indeed, in the art of music, rhythm is also the most important compositional means.
Elements of the rhythm of the Pashkov House can be called: the colonnade, the arcade, the rustication of the ground floor, the frieze, and numerous rhythmically repeating decorative elements.
However, the rhythm of any work of art is not a simple alternation. This is a kind of unity in which many rhythmic series are merged. So here, too, the rhythmic pulsation of the colonnade, grouped into three completely identical in size and number of columns of the portico, the precisely calibrated rhythm of the parts of the column vertically (the difference is only in the order), the whimsical rhythms of the design of the frieze, the dynamic rustication, pilasters - all this is carefully thought out and merged by the architect into a single harmony.
With the help of architectural rhythm, Bazhenov builds the viewer’s perception both in space and in time. Rhythm is very important. After all, the viewer can remain motionless relative to the structure, and then spatial rhythms play the main role in his perception. But as soon as the viewer begins to walk around the building or, even more so, enter it, he experiences the rhythm in time. Thus, the perception of architectural ensembles is reminiscent in nature of the perception of a musical or literary work, where the form unfolds sequentially, fragment by fragment. Moreover, architecture today is usually defined as the art of building the space of human existence. And the architect, building the space itself, makes it rhythmically pulsate in the viewer’s perception
Fundamental purpose of the building
The fundamental purpose of the building is administrative. Initially conceived as an illusion of harmony and rationality of the monarchy, the policy of enlightened absolutism, over time it turns into a public building.
Today the Pashkov House is one of the buildings of the Russian State Library named after V. I. Lenin. It is protected by the state and remains one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. Unfortunately, recently it has been practically closed from the eyes of casual visitors; we can only admire its grandeur from Mokhovaya Street.
Conclusion
From the point of view of form-creating fantasy, the superiority of architecture over other areas of art is obvious. What is this phenomenon? And the fact is that architectural forms have no direct analogies in nature, it does not reproduce or imitate someone else’s language, but speaks its own. Thus, we can once again say that architecture is a kind of synthesis of arts, embodied in space. Monumentality, decorativeness, and applied art, so characteristic of both sculpture and painting, are called architecture.
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ARTISTIC ANALYSIS OF WORKS OF FINE ARTS
The main method of introducing schoolchildren to the fine arts is an art history story from an adult. The choice is determined by the content and structure of the work. The structure of an art history story might be something like this:
Message of the title of the painting and the name of the artist;
What is the picture about?
What is the most important thing in the picture (highlight the compositional center, how it is depicted (color, construction, location);
What is depicted around the main thing in the work and how the details are connected to it (this is how one goes deeper into the content of the picture, while establishing a connection between the content of the work and the means of its expression);
What the artist beautifully showed with his work;
What do you think about, what do you remember when you look at this picture?
Using this story structure is possible until children begin to independently and in detail answer questions posed after the story about the content of the picture and acquire the skill of monologue speech when answering the question of what the picture is about.
After this technique, it is legitimate to offer specific questions aimed at listing what is surprising in the picture, at examining it in detail, in order to lead the child to an understanding of the content of the work. For example: “What is shown in the picture? What do you think is the most important thing in the picture? Etc.” These techniques can be used after the children have independently examined the work. Then ask them questions in order to consolidate their understanding of the content of the picture and develop the ability to isolate the means of expression used by the artist.
When analyzing a work of art, it is important for a teacher to take into account one of the laws of artistic creativity and a necessary condition for artistry: masterpieces of art are an organic connection between artistic form and content. Content and form are inseparable from each other - both in the creative process and in the completed work. In this case, you can use the following technique: the story is an example of an adult’s personal attitude towards the picture he liked. After this story, children's speech is significantly enriched. After children have mastered the skill of art historical storytelling and analysis of paintings, we begin examining paintings with questions of a higher level. “What is the picture about? What would you call the picture? Why did you call it that?” Thus, we direct the children’s attention to establishing and explaining the connection between the content and means of expression. Which contributes to the development of the ability to reason, prove, analyze, and draw conclusions. If the child finds it difficult to immediately answer what the picture is about, then we use the technique of precise settings. Before answering the question of what the picture is about, look carefully at what is depicted on it. What is most important is how the artist showed it, and then answer the question of what the picture is about.
This allows them to learn to think logically and opens the way to independently finding the answer. The choice of visual means and the formation of an artistic form depend on the characteristics of the life material that forms the basis of the work of art; on the nature of the ideological and aesthetic understanding of the material, i.e. the content. It is important to convey to children that an idea may remain unrealized if the artist does not find an expressive form for it. The organic unity of content and form is a necessary condition for aesthetic pleasure in the process of perceiving a work of art. The use of compositional and coloristic options helps to solve the difficulties of understanding in unity the content of the picture and the form of its expression. In this case, the adult shows verbally or visually how the content of the picture, the feelings, the mood expressed in it changes depending on the change in composition (a certain order in the relationship of the elements of the work) or color (color combination) in the picture.
The color in the painting from the very beginning early age causes vivid emotional reactions in children. In order for the color to become “speaking”, the technique of coloristic variations is used in the work. The essence is to change the color of the picture by verbal description. Thus, it is very important that a work of art acquires a personal meaning for the child, so that he can express his attitude towards the work. The content of the picture is revealed taking into account perception and based on an analysis of the idea of the work, plot, characters. The completeness of understanding of his image as a means of reflecting reality in art depends on the completeness of perception of artistic content, which is often associated with the eloquence of the teacher.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR ANALYZING A WORK OF ART
Emotional level:
What impression does the work make?
What sensations might the viewer experience?
What is the nature of the work?
How do its scale, format, horizontal, vertical or diagonal arrangement of parts, the use of certain architectural forms, the use of certain colors in a painting and the distribution of light in an architectural monument contribute to the emotional impression of a work?
Subject level:
What (or who) is shown in the picture?
What does the viewer see when standing in front of the façade? In interiors?
Who do you see in the sculpture?
Highlight the main thing from what you saw.
Try to explain why exactly this seems important to you?
By what means does an artist (architect, composer) highlight the main thing?
How are objects arranged in the work (subject composition)?
How are the main lines drawn in the work (linear composition)?
How are volumes and spaces compared in an architectural structure (architectural composition)?
Story level:
Try to retell the plot of the picture.
Try to imagine what events can occur more often in this architectural structure.
What can this sculpture do (or say) if it comes to life?
Symbolic level:
Are there objects in the work that symbolize something?
Are the composition of the work and its main elements symbolic in nature: horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circle, oval, color, cube, dome, arch, vault, wall, tower, spire, gesture, pose, clothing, rhythm, timbre, etc. .?
What is the title of the work? How does it relate to its plot and symbolism?
PLAN FOR ANALYSIS OF A PAINTING WORK
2.Style, direction.
3.Type of painting: easel, monumental (fresco, tempera, mosaic).
4.Selection of material (for easel painting): oil paints, watercolor, gouache, pastel. Characteristics of the use of this material for the artist.
5. Genre of painting (portrait, landscape, still life, historical painting, panorama, diorama, icon painting, marina, mythological genre, everyday genre). Characteristics of the genre for the artist’s works.
6. Picturesque plot. Symbolic content (if any).
7.Pictorial characteristics of the work:
Flatness;
Color;
Artistic space (space transformed by the artist);
9. Personal impression received while viewing the work.
PLAN FOR ANALYSIS OF A SCULPTURE WORK
2.Style, direction.
3.Type of sculpture: round sculpture, monumental sculpture, small sculpture, relief and its variety (bas-relief, high relief), sculptural portrait, herma, etc.
4.Choice of a model (a real person, an animal, an artist’s fantasy, an allegorical image).
5.Plastic (body language), black and white modeling.
6.Interaction with the environment: sculpture color
(coloring book) and color background environment, lighting effects (backlight); sculpture as an element of architecture, free-standing statue, etc.
7. Selection of material and its conditioning (marble, granite, wood, bronze, clay, etc.).
8.National characteristics.
9.Personal perception of the monument.
ARCHITECTURAL WORK ANALYSIS PLAN
2. Style, direction. Architecture of large or small forms.
3. Place in the architectural ensemble (inclusion, isolation,
correlation with the landscape, the role of organic detail, etc.). Tectonics: wall systems, masonry, post-valve
structure, frame structure, vaulted structure, modern
spatial design (folded, screw, etc.).
4. The material used and its participation in creating a special architectural appearance. The nature of his work is in the design (pillars - carry, vaults - spring, cornices - rest, arches - rise, domes - crown, etc.).
5. The originality of the architectural language in a particular work,
expressed through:
Symmetry, dissymmetry, asymmetry;
Rhythm of parts, details;
Volume (flat out, vertically narrowed, cubic, etc.);
Proportions (harmony of details and parts);
Contrast (opposition of forms);
Silhouette (external contours);
Scale (relationship with a person);
Surface color and texture.
7. National features of the structure.
8. The presence of a synthesis of arts (the connection between architecture and sculpture and painting).
Another technique for analyzing a picture, which was proposed by A. Melik-Pashayev. In my lessons, I use it most often when studying historical and everyday genres. I invite the children to look carefully at the picture, while I name its author, but do not indicate the title. Then I propose to answer the proposed questions in writing. Children do not answer question No. 3 in writing; we discuss it all together. I think through leading questions in advance that will help children more fully reveal the plot of the picture and give deep answers to other questions.
Questions for the painting:
1.What would you call this picture?
2. Do you like the picture or not?
3.Tell about this picture so that a person who does not know it can get an idea about it.
4.What feelings and mood does this picture evoke in you?
7. Would you like to add or change anything in your answer to the first question?
8.Return to the answer to the second question. Has your assessment remained the same or has it changed? Why do you rate the picture this way?
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Principles of analysis of works of fine art
Basic principles of analysis and description of works of fine art
An approximate amount of what you need to know is
- –Introduction to the study of the discipline “Description and analysis of a work of art.”
Key concepts of the discipline: art, artistic image; morphology of art; type, genus, genre of art; plastic temporary, synthetic types of art; tectonic and figurative; style, the “language” of art; semiotics, hermeneutics, literary text; formal method, stylistic analysis, iconography, iconology; attribution, connoisseurship; aesthetic assessment, reviewing, quantitative methods in art criticism.
- – Aesthetic theory of art: artistic image is a universal form of art and artistic thinking; the structure of a work of art; space and time in art; historical dynamics of art forms; synthesis of arts in the historical and cultural process.
- – Morphology of art: classification of types of art; genre as a category of artistic morphology.
- – Specific Features plastic arts as types: architecture, sculpture, graphics, painting.
- – Semiotics and hermeneutics of art in the context of description and analysis of a work of art: languages of art, a sign approach to the study of art, a work of art as a text, hermeneutic understanding of the text.
- – Methodological basis analysis literary text: formal-stylistic, iconographic, iconology.
Like any science, the theory of art history has its own methods. Let's name the main ones: the iconographic method, the Wölfflin method, or the method of formal stylistic analysis, the iconological method, the method of hermeneutics.
The founders of the iconographic method were the Russian scientist N.P. Kondakov and the Frenchman E. Mal. Both scientists studied the art of the Middle Ages (Kondakov was a Byzantineist, Mal studied the Western Middle Ages). This method is based on the “history of the image”, the study of the plot. The meaning and content of the works can be understood by studying what is depicted. You can understand the ancient Russian icon only by deeply studying the history of the appearance and development of images.
The famous German scientist G. Wölfflin studied the problem not of what is depicted, but how it is depicted. Wölfflin entered the history of art as a “formalist”, for whom understanding art comes down to the study of its formal structure. He proposed conducting a formal stylistic analysis, approaching the study of a work of art as an “objective fact”, which should be understood primarily from itself.
The iconological method of analyzing a work of art was developed by the American historian and art theorist E. Panofsky (1892-1968). This method is based on a “cultural” approach to revealing the meaning of a work. To comprehend the image, according to the scientist, it is necessary not only to use iconographic and formal-stylistic methods, creating a synthesis from them, but also to be familiar with the significant trends in the spiritual life of a person, i.e. the worldview of the era and personality, philosophy, religion, social situation - all that is called “symbols of the time.” Here, an art critic is required to have enormous knowledge in the field of culture. This is not so much the ability to analyze as a requirement for synthesizing intuition, for in one work of art an entire era is, as it were, synthesized. Thus, Panofsky brilliantly revealed the meaning of some of Durer’s engravings, Titian’s works, etc. All these three methods, with all their pros and cons, can be used to understand classical art.
It is difficult to understand the art of the 20th century. and especially the second half of the 20th century, the art of postmodernism, which a priori is not designed for our understanding: in it the absence of meaning is the meaning of the work. The art of postmodernism is based on a total playful principle, where the viewer acts as a kind of co-author in the process of creating a work. Hermeneutics is understanding through interpretation. But I. Kant also said that any interpretation is an explanation of what is not obvious, and that it is based on a violent act. Yes it is. In order to understand contemporary art, we are forced to engage in this “game without rules,” and modern art theorists create parallel images, interpreting what they see.
Thus, having considered these four methods of understanding art, it should be noted that every scientist dealing with one or another period in the history of art always tries to find his own approach to revealing the meaning and content of a work. And this is the main feature of the theory of art.
- – Factual study of art. Attribution of a work of art: attribution and connoisseurship, the theory of attribution and the history of its formation, principles and methods of attribution work.
The history of connoisseurship is vividly and in detail described by domestic art scientists V.N. Lazarev (1897-1976) (“History of nobility”), B.R. Whipper (1888-1967) (“On the problem of attribution”). In the middle of the 19th century. a new type of “connoisseur” of art appears, whose goal is attribution, i.e. establishing the authenticity of the work, time, place of creation and authorship. The connoisseur has phenomenal memory and knowledge, impeccable taste. He has seen many museum collections and, as a rule, has his own method for attributing a work. The leading role in the development of knowledge as a method belonged to the Italian Giovanni Morelli (1816-1891), who for the first time tried to deduce some regularities in the construction of a work of painting, to create a “grammar of artistic language”, which was supposed to become (and became) the basis of the attribution method. Morelli made a number of most valuable discoveries in the history of Italian art. Morelli's follower was Bernard Bernson (1865-1959), who argued that the only true source of judgment is the work itself. Bernson lived a long and colorful life. V.N. Lazarev, in a publication about the history of knowledge, enthusiastically described the scientist’s entire creative path. No less interesting in the history of nobility is the German scientist Max Friedlander (1867-1958). Friedlander considered the basis of the attribution method to be the first impression received from a work of art seen. Only after this can we begin scientific analysis, in which the smallest detail can matter. He admitted that any research can confirm and complement the first impression or, conversely, reject it. But it will never replace it. A connoisseur, according to Friedlander, must have artistic flair and intuition, which “like a compass arrow, despite fluctuations, show us the way.” In Russian art history, many scientists and museum workers were engaged in attribution work and were known as experts. B.R. Whipper distinguished three main cases of attribution: intuitive, random, and the third - the main path in attribution - when the researcher, using various techniques, approaches the establishment of the author of the work. The defining criterion of Vipper's method is the texture and emotional rhythm of the picture. Texture refers to paint, the nature of the stroke, etc. Emotional rhythm is the dynamics of sensory and spiritual expression in a painting or any other form of fine art. The ability to understand rhythm and texture is the essence of correct understanding and appreciation of artistic quality. Thus, numerous attributions and discoveries made by experts museum workers, made an undeniable contribution to the history of art: without their discoveries, we would not have recognized the true authors of the works, mistaking fakes for originals. There have always been few real experts; they were known in the art world and their work was highly valued. The role of the connoisseur-expert especially increased in the 20th century, when the art market, due to the enormous demand for works of fine art, was filled with fakes. No museum or collector will buy a work without a thorough examination. If the first experts made their conclusions on the basis of knowledge and subjective perception, then the modern expert relies on objective data from technical and technological analysis, namely: x-ray scanning of the painting, determining the chemical composition of the paint, determining the age of the canvas, wood, and soil. This way you can avoid mistakes. Thus, the opening of museums and the activities of experts were of great importance for the formation of art history as an independent humanities science.
- – Emotional and aesthetic assessment of a work of art. Genre forms, methods of art historical research.
Primitive analysis algorithm:
Algorithm for analyzing works of painting
- The meaning of the painting's title.
- Genre affiliation.
- Features of the plot of the picture. Reasons for painting. Searching for an answer to the question: did the author convey his idea to the viewer?
- Features of the painting's composition.
- The main means of artistic image: color, drawing, texture, chiaroscuro, brushwork.
- What effect did this work of art have on your feelings and mood?
- Where is this work of art located?
Algorithm for analyzing works of architecture
- What is known about the history of the creation of the architectural structure and its author?
- Indicate whether this work belongs to a cultural-historical era, artistic style, or movement.
- What embodiment was found in this work of Vitruvius’ formula: strength, benefit, beauty?
- Point out artistic means and techniques for creating an architectural image (symmetry, rhythm, proportions, light and shadow and color modeling, scale), tectonic systems (post-beam, pointed-arch, arched-dome).
- Indicate the type of architecture: volumetric structures (public: residential, industrial); landscape (gardening or small forms); urban planning.
- Point out the connection between the external and internal appearance of an architectural structure, the connection between the building and the relief, the nature of the landscape.
- How are other forms of art used in the design of its architectural appearance?
- What impression did the work have on you?
- What associations does the artistic image evoke and why?
- Where is the architectural structure located?
Algorithm for analyzing works of sculpture
- History of the creation of the work.
- About the author. What place does this work occupy in his work?
- Belonging to an artistic era.
- The meaning of the title of the work.
- Belonging to the types of sculpture (monumental, memorial, easel).
- Use of material and processing technology.
- Dimensions of the sculpture (if it is important to know).
- Shape and size of the pedestal.
- Where is this sculpture located?
- What impression did this work have on you?
- What associations does the artistic image evoke and why?
More details:
Sample Questions for Analyzing a Work of Art
Emotional level:
- What impression does the work make?
- What mood is the author trying to convey?
- What sensations might the viewer experience?
- What is the nature of the work?
- How do its scale, format, horizontal, vertical or diagonal arrangement of parts, the use of certain architectural forms, the use of certain colors in a painting and the distribution of light in an architectural monument contribute to the emotional impression of a work?
Subject level:
- What (or who) is shown in the picture?
- What does the viewer see when standing in front of the façade? In interiors?
- Who do you see in the sculpture?
- Highlight the main thing from what you saw.
- Try to explain why exactly this seems important to you?
- By what means does an artist (architect, composer) highlight the main thing?
- How are objects arranged in the work (subject composition)?
- How are the main lines drawn in the work (linear composition)?
- How are volumes and spaces compared in an architectural structure (architectural composition)?
- Story level:
- Try to retell the plot of the picture.
- Try to imagine what events can occur more often in this architectural structure.
- What can this sculpture do (or say) if it comes to life?
Symbolic level:
- Are there objects in the work that symbolize something?
- Are the composition of the work and its main elements symbolic in nature: horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circle, oval, color, cube, dome, arch, vault, wall, tower, spire, gesture, pose, clothing, rhythm, timbre, etc. .?
- What is the title of the work? How does it relate to its plot and symbolism?
- What do you think the author of the work wanted to convey to people?
Analysis plan for a painting
- 1. Author, title of the work, time and place of creation, history of the idea and its implementation. Model selection.
- 2.Style, direction.
- 3.Type of painting: easel, monumental (fresco, tempera, mosaic).
- 4.Selection of material (for easel painting): oil paints, watercolor, gouache, pastel. Characteristics of the use of this material for the artist.
- 5. Genre of painting (portrait, landscape, still life, historical painting, panorama, diorama, icon painting, marina, mythological genre, everyday genre). Characteristics of the genre for the artist’s works.
- 6. Picturesque plot. Symbolic content (if any).
- 7.Pictorial characteristics of the work:
- color;
- light;
- volume;
- flatness;
- color;
- artistic space (space transformed by the artist);
- line.
9. Personal impression received while viewing the work.
Specifics:
- Composition scheme and its functions
- size
- format (vertically and horizontally elongated, square, oval, round, image-to-format ratio)
- geometric schemes
- main compositional lines
- balance, the relationship of parts of the image with each other and with the whole,
- viewing sequence
- Space and its functions.
- Perspective, vanishing points
- flatness and depth
- spatial plans
- the distance between the viewer and the work, the viewer’s place in the space of the picture or outside it
- point of view and presence of angles, horizon line
- Chiaroscuro, volume and their role.
- volume and plane
- line, silhouette
- light sources, time of day, lighting effects
- emotional impact of light and shadow
- Color, coloring and its functions
- predominance of tonal or local coloring
- warm or cold color
- linearity or picturesqueness
- main color spots, their relationships and their role in the composition
- tone, values
- reflexes
- emotional impact of color
- Surface texture (Stroke).
- character of the stroke (open texture, smooth texture)
- direction of strokes
- stroke size
- glazing
Description and analysis of architectural monuments
Topic 1. The artistic language of architecture.
Architecture as a form of art. The concept of “artistic architecture”. Artistic image in architecture. The artistic language of architecture: the concept of such means of artistic expression as line, plane, space, mass, rhythm (arrhythmia), symmetry (asymmetry). Canonical and symbolic elements in architecture. Concept of building plan, exterior, interior. Style in architecture.
Topic 2. Main types of architectural structures
Monuments of urban planning art: historical cities, their parts, areas of ancient planning; architectural complexes, ensembles. Monuments of residential architecture (merchant, noble, peasant estates, apartment buildings, etc.) Monuments of civil public architecture: theaters, libraries, hospitals, educational buildings, administrative buildings, train stations, etc. Religious monuments: temples, chapels, monasteries. Defense architecture: forts, fortress towers, etc. Monuments of industrial architecture: factory complexes, buildings, forges, etc.
Landscape monuments, gardening and landscape art: gardens and parks.
Topic 3. Description and analysis of an architectural monument
Building plan, building material, composition of the external volume. Description of the street and courtyard facade, door and window openings, balconies, decorative decoration of the exterior and interior. Conclusion about the style and artistic merits of an architectural monument, its place in the historical and architectural heritage of the city, village, region.
METHODS OF MONOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF AN ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENT
1. Analysis of structural and tectonic systems assumes:
a) graphical identification of its structural basis on perspective or orthogonal projections of the monument (for example, dotted outlines of vaults and domes, “manifestation” of the internal structure on the facade, a kind of “combination” of the facade with a section, shading of surfaces on sections in order to clarify the structure of the interior etc.)
b) elucidation of the degree of proximity and interconnectedness of structural elements and corresponding tectonic architectural forms (for example, highlighting girth arches, vaults in sections and determining their influence on the shapes of zakomars, kokoshniks, three-lobed arches, etc.)
c) drawing up certain tectonic diagrams of the monument (for example, a diagram of the vaulted grass cover of a Gothic cathedral or a “cast” diagram of the internal space of a pillarless temple - in axonometry, etc.);
2. Analysis of proportions and proportions is carried out, as a rule, in orthogonal projections and consists of two points:
a) searches for multiple ratios (for example, 2:3, 4:5, etc.) between the main dimensional parameters of the monument, taking into account the fact that these proportions at one time could be used during construction to lay down the required quantities in kind. At the same time, the dimensional values (modules) that appear repeatedly in the monument should be compared with historical measures of length (feet, fathoms, etc.);
b) the search for a more or less constant geometric connection between the sizes of the main forms and divisions of the monument based on the natural relationships of the elements of the simplest geometric figures (square, double square, equilateral triangle, etc.) and their derivatives. The revealed proportional relationships should not contradict the logic of constructing the tectonic forms of the monument and the obvious sequence of construction of its individual parts. The analysis can be completed by linking the dimensions of the original geometric figure (for example, a square) with the module and with historical measures of length.
In a training exercise, one should not strive to identify too many relationships; it is much more important to pay attention to the quality of the identified proportions and proportions, i.e., their compositional significance, their connection with the dimensional relationships of the main tectonic divisions of volumes and the possibility of using them in the process erection of a monument.
3. Analysis of metro-rhythmic patterns can be carried out both on orthogonal drawings and on perspective images of the monument (drawings, photographs, slides, etc.). The essence of the method comes down to graphic underlining (with a line, tone, shading or color) on any image of a monument of metric and rhythmic series of forms, both vertically and horizontally. The metric rows identified in this way (for example, colonnades, window openings, cornice bracing, etc.) and rhythmic rows (for example, tiers decreasing in height, changing spans of arches, etc.) make it possible to identify “static” or “dynamic” architectural composition of this monument. At the same time, elucidating the pattern of changes in the members of the rhythmic series of forms is closely related to the analysis of proportions. As a result of the study, conditional diagrams are drawn up that reflect the construction features of the metro-rhythmic series of forms of a given architectural monument.
4. Graphic reconstruction allows you to recreate the lost appearance of a monument at any stage of its historical existence. Reconstruction is carried out either in the form of an orthogonal drawing (plan, facade), when there is an appropriate underlying basis, or in the form of a perspective image made from a drawing from life or a photograph (slide). As a source for reconstruction, you should use published ancient images of the monument, various kinds of historical descriptions, as well as materials on similar monuments of the same era.
For educational purposes, the student is asked to make only a sketch reconstruction, only in general terms conveying the nature of the original or changed appearance of the monument.
In some cases, a student may limit himself to comparing variants of reconstruction of the same monument made by different researchers. But then it is necessary to give these options a reasonable assessment and highlight the most likely one. The student must graphically justify his choice with images of similar monuments or their fragments.
A special type of reconstruction - the reconstruction of the original and subsequently lost coloring of the monument - is carried out on the basis of orthogonal facades or perspective images with the possible inclusion of the historical urban surroundings.
When completing a graphic reconstruction task, the method of finishing drawings and photomontage can be widely used.
5. Construction of architectural paintings - a technique for analyzing monuments with a developed volumetric composition, designed for gradual perception over time, such as the Erechtheion in Athens or the Intercession Cathedral in Moscow. When walking around such a monument, the viewer, due to the covering of some volumes by others, perceives a multitude of perspective images flowing into one another, which are called architectural paintings.
The student’s task is to identify qualitatively different groups of architectural paintings, designate on the plan the zones of perception of these groups of paintings and illustrate each group with one, characteristic one, in the form of a perspective drawing or photograph (slide).
The number of qualitatively different paintings usually does not exceed five or six.
6. Analysis of scale and scale consists of identifying the large-scale role of the divisions of the architectural volume and graphically highlighting characteristic details on orthogonal or perspective images of the monument - “scale indicators”, such as steps, balustrades, etc. Particular attention should be paid to the role of the order as a universal tool architectural scale.
METHODS OF COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS
1. A comparison of the volumetric composition of two monuments is carried out by comparing plans, facades or sections brought to a common scale. The technique of superimposing or combining plans, elevations and sections is very effective; sometimes, when combining the projections of two monuments, it is useful to bring them to some common size, for example, to the same height or width (in this case, the proportions of the monuments are also compared).
It is also possible to compare perspective images of monuments in the form of drawings from life or photographs. In this case, drawings or photographs should be taken from similar angles and from points from which the characteristic features of the volumetric-spatial composition of the monuments are revealed. It should be ensured that, in terms of their relative sizes, the images of monuments approximately correspond to the ratios of their sizes in kind.
In all cases of comparative comparisons, the differences between monuments usually appear more clearly than their similarities. Therefore, it is necessary to graphically emphasize what brings the compared objects together, for example, identity compositional techniques, analogy in the combination of volumes, similar nature of divisions, location of openings, etc.
Description and analysis of sculpture monuments
The artistic language of sculpture
When analyzing works of sculpture, it is necessary to take into account the own parameters of sculpture as an art form. Sculpture is an art form in which a real three-dimensional volume interacts with the three-dimensional space surrounding it. The main thing in analyzing a sculpture is volume, space and how they interact. Sculpture materials. Types of sculpture. Genres of sculpture.
Description and analysis of a work of sculpture.
Sample plan:
1. What is the size of this sculpture? Sculpture can be monumental, easel or miniature. Size affects how it interacts with space.
2. In what space was the analyzed work located (in a temple, in a square, in a house, etc.)? What point of view was it intended for (from afar, from below, close up)? Is it part of an architectural or sculptural ensemble or is it an independent work?
3. To what extent does the work in question cover three-dimensional space (round sculpture and sculpture related to architecture; architectural-sculptural form, high relief; relief; bas-relief; pictorial relief; counter-relief)
4. What material is it made of? What are the features of this material? Even if you are analyzing casts, it is important to remember what material the original was made of. Go to the halls of originals, see what a sculpture made in the material that interests you looks like. What features of the sculpture are dictated by its material (why was this particular material chosen for this work)?
5. Is the sculpture designed for fixed points of view, or does it fully reveal itself when walked around? How many completed expressive silhouettes does this sculpture have? What are these silhouettes (closed, compact, geometrically regular or picturesque, open)? How are the silhouettes related to each other?
6. What are the proportions (ratios of parts and the whole) in this sculpture or sculptural group? What are the proportions of the human figure?
7. What is the design of the sculpture (development and complication of relationships between large compositional blocks, the rhythm of internal divisions and the nature of surface development)? If we are talking about relief, how does the whole change when the angle of view changes? How does the depth of the relief vary and how are spatial plans built? How many are there?
8. What is the texture of the sculptural surface? Uniform or different in different parts? Smooth or “sketch”, traces of the touch of tools are visible, natural-like, conventional. How is this texture related to the properties of the material? How does texture affect the perception of the silhouette and volume of a sculptural form?
9. What is the role of color in sculpture? How do volume and color interact, how do they influence each other?
10. What genre does this sculpture belong to? What was it intended for?
11. What is the interpretation of the motif (naturalistic, conventional, dictated by the canon, dictated by the place occupied by the sculpture in its architectural environment, or some other way).
12. Do you feel the influence of any other types of art in the work: architecture, painting?
Description and analysis of paintings
Artistic language of painting
The concept of painting. Means of artistic expression: artistic space, composition, color, rhythm, character of the colorful stroke. Painting materials and techniques: oil, tempera, gouache, watercolor, mixed media, etc. Easel and monumental painting. Types of monumental painting: fresco, mosaic, stained glass, etc. Genres of painting: portrait, landscape, everyday life, still life, animal painting, historical, etc.
Description of paintings
Determination of the basic parameters of the work: author, date of creation, size of the painting, format of the painting: a rectangle elongated horizontally or vertically (possibly with a rounded end), square, circle (tondo), oval. Technique (tempera, oil, watercolor, etc.) and on what basis (wood, canvas, etc.) the painting was made, etc.
Analysis of paintings
Sample analysis plan:
- Does the film have a plot? What is shown? In what environment are the depicted characters and objects located?
- Based on image analysis, you can draw a conclusion about the genre. What genre: portrait, landscape, still life, nude, everyday, mythological, religious, historical, animalistic, does the painting belong to?
- What do you think the artist solves – a visual problem? expressive? What is the degree of conventionality or naturalism of the image? Does convention tend towards idealization or expressive distortion? As a rule, the composition of the picture is associated with the genre.
- What components make up the composition? What is the relationship between the subject of the image and the background/space on the painting canvas?
- How close to the picture plane are the objects in the image?
- What angle of view did the artist choose - from above, below, level with the depicted objects?
- How is the position of the viewer determined - is he involved in interaction with what is depicted in the picture, or is he assigned the role of a detached contemplator?
- Can the composition be called balanced, static, or dynamic? If there is movement, how is it directed?
- How is the picture space constructed (flat, indefinite, the spatial layer is fenced off, deep space is created)? How is the illusion of spatial depth achieved (differences in the size of the depicted figures, showing the volume of objects or architecture, using color gradations)? The composition is developed by means of drawing.
- How pronounced is the linear beginning in the painting?
- Are the contours that delimit individual objects emphasized or hidden? By what means is this effect achieved?
- To what extent is the volume of objects expressed? What techniques create the illusion of volume?
- What role does light play in a painting? What is it like (even, neutral; contrasting, sculpting volume; mystical). Is the light source/direction legible?
- Are the silhouettes of the depicted figures/objects legible? How expressive and valuable are they in themselves?
- How detailed (or vice versa generalized) is the image?
- Is the variety of textures of the depicted surfaces (leather, fabric, metal, etc.) conveyed? Color.
- What role does color play in the picture (is it subordinate to the pattern and volume, or, on the contrary, subordinates the pattern to itself and builds the composition itself).
- Is color simply a coloration of volume or something more? Is it optically faithful or expressive?
- Do local colors or tonal coloring predominate in the painting?
- Are the boundaries of the color spots visible? Do they coincide with the boundaries of volumes and objects?
- Does the artist operate with large masses of color or small spots-strokes?
- How are warm and cool colors written, does the artist use a combination of complementary colors? Why is he doing this? How are the most illuminated and shaded areas conveyed?
- Are there glares or reflexes? How are the shadows written (deep or transparent, are they colored)?
- Is it possible to identify rhythmic repetitions in the use of any color or combination of shades, is it possible to trace the development of any color? Is there a dominant color/color combination?
- What is the texture of the painting surface - smooth or impasto? Are individual strokes distinguishable? If so, what are they - small or long, applied with liquid, thick or almost dry paint?
Description and analysis of graphic works
Artistic language of graphics
Graphics as a form of fine art. Basic means of artistic expressiveness of graphics: line, stroke, spot, etc. Linear and black-and-white drawing. Engraving, types of engraving: woodcut, lithography, linocut, etching, monotype, aquatint, etc. Easel graphics. Book graphics. The art of posters, posters. Applied graphics.
Description of graphic works
Determination of the basic parameters of the work: author, date of creation, sheet size, format, technique.
Analysis of graphic works
Sample analysis plan:
- General definition of the spatial situation, characteristics of the depicted space. Space - deep or not, closed or open, on what plane the emphasis is concentrated. The predominant (most essential for this work) means of constructing depth and their use. For example: the nature of linear or aerial perspective (if used). Characteristics of the depicted space. Integrity/dismemberment of space. Division into plans, distribution of attention (salience of certain plans or uniformity of perception). Point of view. Interaction between the viewer and the depicted space (this point is necessary even if there is no image of deep space).
- Location, relationship, relationships of elements on the plane and in space.
Determining the type of composition - if possible. Further clarification: how exactly this type of composition is embodied in this graphic work, what are the nuances of its use. Format characteristics (proportion size). The relationship between format and composition: the image and its borders. Distribution of masses within a leaf. Compositional accent and its location; its relationship with other elements; dominant directions: dynamics and statics. Interaction of the main elements of the composition with the spatial structure, placement of accents.
- Analysis of graphic technology.
- The result of the analysis is the identification of the principles of form construction, its expressive qualities and impact. Based on the formal and expressive qualities of the work, one can raise the question of its meaning (content, idea), i.e. move on to its interpretation. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the plot (how is the plot interpreted in this work?), the specifics of the depiction of characters (in a plot painting and portrait - poses, gestures, facial expressions, gaze), symbolism (if any), etc., but at the same time time is the means of representation and therefore the impact of the picture. It is also possible to correlate the identified individual characteristics a work with the requirements of the type and genre to which it belongs, with a broader artistic context (the author’s work as a whole: the art of the era, school, etc.). From this a conclusion can follow about the value and significance of the work, its place in the history of art.
Description and analysis of works of decorative, applied and folk art
Types of decorative, applied and folk art
Painting on wood, metal, etc. Embroidery. Carpet weaving. Jewelry Art. Wood carving, bones. Ceramics. Artistic varnishes, etc.
Description of monuments of decorative, applied and folk art
A type of decorative and applied art. Material. Features of its processing. Dimensions. Purpose. Characteristics of color, texture. The degree of correlation between the utilitarian and artistic-aesthetic functions of an object.
Analysis of monuments of decorative, applied and folk art
Sample analysis plan
- What is such an item intended for?
- What are its dimensions?
- How is the decoration of the item located? Where are the figurative and ornamental decoration areas located? How is the placement of images related to the shape of the object?
- What types of ornaments are used? On what parts of the object are they located?
- Where are figurative images located? Do they take up more space than ornamental ones or are they simply one of the ornamental registers?
- How is a register built with figurative images? Can we say that free composition techniques are used here or the principle of juxtaposition is used (figures in identical poses, minimal movement, repeating each other)?
- How are the figures depicted? Are they moving, frozen, stylized?
- How are the details of the figures conveyed? Do they look more natural or ornamental? What techniques are used to convey figures?
- Look inside the item if possible. Are there images and ornaments there? Describe them according to the above diagram.
- What primary and additional colors are used in the construction of ornaments and figures? What is the tone of the clay itself? How does this affect the character of the image - does it make it more ornamental or, conversely, more natural?
Lyrics:
Analyzing a work is a complex work of the intellect, requiring a lot of knowledge and skills.
There are many approaches, techniques, and methods of analysis, but they all fit into several complex actions:
- 1) decoding the information contained in the fabric of the work itself,
- 2) an analytical study of the process and circumstances of creating a work of art, helping to deepen and enrich its understanding,
- 3) study of the historical dynamics of the artistic image of a work in individual and collective perception.
In the first case, we work with the work as an intrinsic value - a “text”; in the second, we examine the text in context, identifying traces of the influence of external impulses in the artistic image; in the third, we study changes in the artistic image depending on how its perception changes in different eras.
Each work of art, due to its originality, dictates its own path, its own logic, its own methods of analysis.
Nevertheless, I would like to draw your attention to several general principles of practical analytical work with a work of art and give some advice.
"Eureka!" (intrigue of analysis). First and most importantly: the work of art itself suggests which path one can take to penetrate into the depths of the meaning of the artistic image. There is a kind of “clue” that captures the consciousness with a suddenly arising question. Finding an answer to it - whether in an internal monologue, or in communication with employees or students - often leads to insight (Eureka!). That’s why conversations of this kind—you must learn to conduct them with a group—are called heuristic. Analytical work in a museum or architectural environment usually begins with such questions—“decoding” the information embedded in an artistic “text.”
Asking a question is often much more difficult than finding the answer.
— Why does “The Naked Boy” by Alexander Ivanov have such a tragic face?
— Why is the figure of the young man lifting the paralytic in the painting “The Appearance of the Messiah” by the same Ivanov dressed in the clothes of Christ?
— Why is the icon case empty in K.S.’s picture? Petrov-Vodkin's "Mother" of 1915?
— Why P.D. Fedotov in the second version of the painting “Major’s Matchmaking” removes the chandelier - a detail that he had been looking for for so long?
— Why in the sculptural bust of Sh.I. Makhelson, by Shubin, marble is polished to a rich gloss, while in most cases the “skin” of faces in his own portraits seems matte?
There are many such questions that can be recalled, all of them are evidence of the unique, personal vision inherent in each person. I purposely do not give answers here - try to find them yourself.
In analytical work with a work of art, you will be helped not only by the ability to see it with a fresh eye, to perceive it directly, but also by the ability to abstract, isolating certain moments of perception and elements of form and content.
If we are talking about plastic arts, these are compositional, diagrams, analytical sketches, coloristic “layouts”, analysis of spatial construction, “playing” of accessories, etc. All these and other means can be used in work. But one thing should be remembered: any analytical technique is, first of all, a way of interpreting the elements of form and understanding them. Measure, lay out, draw diagrams, but not for the sake of these diagrams themselves, but in the name of understanding their meaning, because in a truly artistic image there are no “voids” - the material itself, and the size, and format, right down to the texture, i.e. the surface of the object art is full of meaning. In other words, we are talking about the language of art.
Despite their originality and uniqueness, works of art lend themselves to typology; they can be grouped, naturally, primarily by type of art.
The problem of typologization will be the subject of study for you in courses on the theory of art and aesthetics, and at the beginning of training we would like to draw attention to those aspects of it that play an important role in analysis, especially the interpretation of art. In addition, we get the opportunity to clarify the meaning of fundamental concepts (the significance of this work was mentioned above).
So, a work of art may belong to one of the types, which are divided into: single-component (monostructural), synthetic and technical.
- One-component - painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture, literature, music, decorative and applied arts.
- Synthetic - theatrical and entertainment arts.
- Technical - cinema, television, computer graphics.
Single-component arts are divided, in turn, into:
- spatial (architecture, painting, graphics, decorative and applied arts)
- temporary (literature, music),
as well as fine (painting, graphics, sculpture) and non-fine (architecture, arts and crafts, literature, music).
Since there are different points of view in the classification of arts and since all these definitions are not absolute, but relative, we will specify them, and first of all we will dwell - very briefly - on the problem of space and time in art, for it is not as simple as it may seem at first glance, and is very significant when analyzing the work.
First of all, we note that the division of arts into spatial and temporal is very arbitrary and is based on the peculiarities of the work’s existence: the material carriers of spatial arts are truly objective, occupy a place in space, and only age and collapse in time. But the material carriers of musical and literary works also take up space in space (sheet music, records, cassettes, and finally, performers and their instruments; manuscripts, books, magazines). If we talk about artistic images, then they “occupy” a certain spiritual space and in all arts they develop over time.
Therefore, we will try, noting the existence of these categories as classification ones, to talk about them from analytical positions, which for us - in this case - are more important.
We noted above that every work of art, as a material-ideal phenomenon, exists in space and time, and its material basis is in one way or another connected primarily with space, and its ideal basis with time.
However, a work of art relates to space in other aspects as well. Natural space and its experience by man have a huge influence on the artistic image, giving rise, for example, in painting and graphics to various systems of spatial constructions, determining the features of solving spatial problems in architecture, and the depiction of space in literature. In all arts, “the space of a thing”, “the space of man”, “the space of society”, natural - earthly and cosmic - space are distinguished, and finally, the space of the highest spiritual reality - the Absolute, God.
The vision of the world changes, followed by the system of artistic thinking; this movement from the old system to the new is marked by changes in the spatial concept. Thus, the transfer of the center of attention from the highest spiritual reality - God, the Heavenly World in the 17th century to man in Russian art of the 17th century seemed to narrow the artist’s horizon, and the infinity of the reverse perspective was replaced by the limitations of the direct one.
Time is also flexible and multifaceted.
This is the real time of a material carrier, when notes turn yellow, films are demagnetized, oiled boards turn black, and the time of an artistic image, endlessly developing, almost immortal. This is also an illusory time that exists inside an artistic image, a time in which the depicted thing and person, society, and humanity as a whole live. This is the time of creation of the work, the historical era and period of life, and finally, the age of the author, this is the length of the action and the time of “pauses” - breaks between the depicted episodes. Finally, this is the time of preparation for perception, perception in contact with the work, experiencing and understanding the perceived artistic image.
In each of the arts, space and time are displayed differently, and this is discussed in subsequent chapters, each of which is devoted to a special type of art with its inherent structure of the artistic image.
It is not by chance that I wrote “displayed” and not “depicted”, because we need to separate these concepts.
To display means to find a figurative equivalent to a phenomenon of reality, to weave it into the fabric of an artistic image, to depict - to create a visual - visible, verbal - verbal or sound - auditory analogue of a thing. The arts are divided, as stated above, into figurative and non-figurative, not because it is impossible to depict in music, for example, the noise of a train or the crow of a rooster (or even a whole poultry yard), and in literature - to describe almost any visible or audible object. This is possible both in music and in literature: in the first case we are dealing with onomatopoeia, in the second - with description. Moreover, a talented author, who has deeply experienced contact with a work of painting, sculpture, or music, can find such words that its description will become a full-fledged and highly artistic verbal (verbal) analogue of a work of fine or musical art.
Architectural works (not to mention their parts: lotus-shaped columns of Egyptian temples, kors, atlases, relief and other decorative sculptural elements) can also be images: for example, in the 1930s in the Soviet Union it was fashionable to build houses in the shape of cars or other items. In Leningrad, a school was even built in the shape of a hammer and sickle, although this can only be seen from a bird's eye view. And various vessels in the shape of birds, fish, human figures, etc. in non-figurative - decorative and applied arts!
In contrast, works of fine art often “represent nothing,” like abstract painting and sculpture.
So this classification feature turns out to be relative. And yet it exists: there are visually, that is, visually perceived “fine arts”, which are based on the image of world phenomena, and non-visual, verbal and musical ones.
Art is always conditional and cannot (not to mention the fact that it should not) create a complete likeness of this or that phenomenon of living life. The artist does not double the existing reality, he creates artistic and imaginative models of the world or its elements, simplifying and transforming them. Even painting, the most “illusory” of the arts, seemingly capable of capturing and conveying on canvas all the richness of the world’s many colors, has extremely limited possibilities for imitating the breed.
I really love KS. Petrova-Vodkina. At one of the exhibitions, his “Our Lady - Tenderness of Evil Hearts” - a radiance of pure scarlet, blue and gold - was placed in the hall of the Russian Museum on the wall next to the window.
For many years the painting was hidden in storage, and now that it was in the hall, one could sit and look at it, it seemed, forever. The background shone with a cosmically deep, piercingly pure light of the heavenly depths, shading together with the scarlet maforium the beautiful meek face of the Mother of God...
I sat for a long time, it got dark outside, the winter evening was glowing in the window - and what a shock for me was the quiet glow of the modest winter St. Petersburg twilight in the window - they looked next to the blue in the painting by Petrov-Vodkin, like a shining sapphire next to the blue piece of paper used to paste over matchboxes. That’s when I had the opportunity not to find out, but to see and feel how truly limited the possibilities of art are in imitating life, if we judge it based on the favorite criterion of the naive viewer: whether the image is similar or not similar to the original. And its strength does not lie in reproducing the phenomena of life as closely as possible, in an extremely mimetic way.
An artistic image is not a simple repetition of life, and its verisimilitude - verbal or visual - is not at all the main quality. Art is one of the ways of mastering the world: its knowledge, evaluation, transformation by man. And every time in an artistic image - differently in different types of art and in different artistic systems - there is a correlation between the phenomenon (what is perceived by a person’s senses, revealed to him) and the essence (the essence of the phenomenon, the totality of its essential properties), which art is recognized to depict .
Each system of artistic thinking forms its own method of cognition of the essence - a creative method. At school, you have already become acquainted with such specific European creative methods as baroque, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, modernism, socialist realism, surrealism, etc. You, of course, remember that each method was created in the name of understanding, appreciation, transformation of man and the world as a whole and their individual qualities. Remember how knowledge about a person is consistently “collected”: baroque studies and reflects the world of stormy, unbridled human feelings; classicism is his balanced mind that measures everything; sentimentalism asserts the human right to privacy and sublime, but purely personal feelings; romanticism - the beauty of the free development of personality “for good or bad”, its manifestation in the “fatal moments” of the world; realism reflects the social foundations of human formation and life; symbolism again rushes into mysterious depths human soul, and surrealism tries to penetrate the depths of the subconscious, etc. So each of the named creative systems has its own subject of depiction, isolated in a single object - a person. And its functions: affirmation of the ideal, study, exposure, etc.
In accordance with this, a method of transforming an object is also being developed, making it possible to reveal its actual content: this is the idealization of the object - transformation, artistic liberation of “imperfect reality from its imperfections”, assimilation to its ideal (Brief Philosophical Encyclopedia. M., 1994) in methods such as Baroque, classicism, romanticism, which differ from each other in that the ideal itself is understood differently; This is typification, characteristic of realism, and symbolization, which were used by humanity at different stages of the artistic exploration of the world.
Looking at the history of the development of art at a very high level of generalization, we can say that it develops between two poles of artistic and figurative modeling of the world: from the desire to create it to the limit, to the illusion of a plausible reproduction to the utmost generalization. These two methods can be correlated with the work of two hemispheres of the brain: the left analytical, dividing a phenomenon into parts in the name of its knowledge, and the right - generalizing, imaginary, creating holistic images (not necessarily artistic) for the same purpose.
There are zones on Earth in which people with a noticeable advantage in the development of one of the hemispheres predominate. One can even, of course, very conditionally, say that the concepts of “East”, “man of the East” are associated with right-hemisphere - imaginative (imaginative) thinking, while “West”, “man of the West” with left-hemisphere, analytical, scientific.
And here we are faced with a visible paradox.
Let's remember: left hemisphere supervises abstract-logical, verbal, analytical thinking; right - concrete, figurative, non-verbal, generalizing.
At first glance, it is easy to determine what is more specific: a portrait that conveys the appearance and character of a certain person or, say, a little man on a traffic light - an extremely generalized designation of a person, a bunch of grapes painted in a Dutch still life, or an endless vine in an oriental ornament, consisting of many conventional elements of leaves and grapes ornamentation, brought to the level of ornamentation.
The answer is obvious: mimetic images - portraits, still lifes - are concrete, ornamental generalizations are more abstract. In the first case, the concepts “this person”, “this bunch” are needed, in the second case, “man”, “bunch” are sufficient.
It is somewhat more difficult to understand that portraits and still lifes, being artistic images, are at the same time more analytical - “left-hemisphere” - than elements of ornament. In fact, imagine how many words will be needed to describe the portrait - the verbal “translation” of this image will be quite long and more or less boring, while the vine in the ornament is defined by one, at most three words: the ornament of a climbing vine. But, having sketched a vine from life, the author of the ornament repeated this image more than once, achieving the ultimate generalization, allowing him to reach the level of a symbol containing not one, but many meanings.
If you want to learn more about Western analytical (mimetic, imitative) and Eastern generalized (ornamental) methods of creating a visual image, read the excellent book by L.A. Lelekov “The Art of Ancient Rus' and the East” (Moscow, 1978). Talking about two systems of artistic and figurative thinking, the author contrasts two series of statements.
The first belongs to Socrates: “Painting is an image of what we see.”
The second is to Buddha: “The artist prepared paints in order to create a picture that cannot be seen in color.”
An ancient legend about a competition between two skilled painters - Zeuxis and Parrhasius - tells how one of them painted a grape branch and how birds flew to this picture to peck the berries depicted on it - so great was the illusion of the life filling it. The second deceived the eye of his brother by depicting on the canvas the curtain with which the painting was supposedly covered, with such skill that he asked to quickly pull it back. Creating an illusion - imitation of the visible - was the highest goal for each of the rivals.
Buddha speaks of a completely different goal: a visible image painted with paints is only a carrier of the image that is born in the human soul. The Christian philosopher John of Damascus echoes Buddha: “Every image is a revelation and a demonstration of what is hidden.”
In fact, the vine that adorns the pillars of the iconostasis is a symbol of life and fertility, the Garden of Eden (the helicity of Christ), a symbol of eternity.
This is how L.A. writes. Lelekov about another ornament: the interweaving of alternating fruit and flower, very common in the ornaments of the East, denote “the concepts of the unity of cause and effect and the eternity of being, the theme of creation and the constant renewal of life, the relationship of the past and the future, the collision of opposites” (Ibid. P. 39).
But just as between the relatively few groups of pronounced “left-hemispheres” - scientists and “right-hemispheres” - artists, there is a predominant number of transitional types, so between the naturalistic - equal to itself, valuable in itself and not having hidden meanings, an illusory image of appearance (phenomenon) and pure An ornament containing many meanings lies in the vast space occupied by images of a mixed type - we talked about them above.
Perhaps the most harmonious among them is a realistic image, when the artist strives to embody the essence of a phenomenon, to symbolize the visible. Yes, Al. Ivanov, discovering the laws of plein air and developing a method for embodying the internal properties and qualities of a person in his external appearance, filled his creations with a deep symbolic meaning.
Abstractionist artists of the 20th century, dematerializing, distributing their paintings, refusing to create a “second”, illusory reality on the canvas, turned to the sphere of human superconsciousness, tried to capture the image in its primordial state, in the depths of the human soul, or, on the contrary, constructed it.
Therefore, in the analysis, you will have to, following the intrigue of the question that arose first, think about what the “space-time continuum” of the artistic image of the work is, the subject of the image, the method and means of transforming the object. And another important question arises before you: what is the elemental composition and connection - the structure of the artistic image.
The artistic image of a work is integrity, and how any integrity can be presented, described as a system consisting of elements (each of which, in turn, is also integral and can be presented as a system) and their connections with each other. Structure and a sufficient number of elements ensure the functioning of the artistic image as an integrity, just as the presence of the necessary parts and their correct assembly - connection, structure - ensure the progress and timely ringing of an alarm clock.
What can be designated as elements of an artistic image? Rhyme, harmony, color, volume, etc.? These are form elements. Subject of the image, object, essence, phenomenon? These are content elements. Reasoning logically, it should obviously be recognized that the elements of the artistic image of a work are also images: of a person in the entire range from the simplest iconic image in petroglyphs to a psychological portrait; the material-objective world in the innumerable variety of man-made things, the totality of which is often called civilization or “second nature”; social connections, from family to universal; nature not made by human hands in all its manifestations and forms: the animate world of animals, the inanimate world - near, planetary and cosmic; finally, of that highest spiritual order, which is present in all artistic systems and which is called differently by the sages of different eras: Higher intelligence, Absolute, God.
Each of these images is realized differently in different arts and has a supraspecific, generic character.
Gaining concreteness within a work of art, such an image can be included as a component in the system of a more complex whole (for example, images of nature occupy an important place in the novels of Turgenev, and in the operas of Rimsky-Korsakov, and in the paintings of Repin). One of the images can take a central place, subordinating the others (these are monostructural genres of fine art - portraits, landscapes, etc.), or can form a vast layer of artistic works - from series in the work of one master (for example, “Petriad” by V. .A. Serov) I to such gigantic formations as “Leniniana” in Soviet art.
So in the process of analyzing a work, it is possible to identify figurative elements and establish connections between them. Often, such work helps to understand more deeply the author’s intentions, and to be aware of the feelings experienced in communicating with the work, to better understand and interpret the artistic image.
To summarize this short section on analysis of a work of art as a self-sufficient integrity of “text”, let's note the most important:
- 1) analysis is only one of the operations included in the system of working with a work of art. One of critical issues, to which you must answer in the process of analytical work, sounds like this: how, in what way and by what means was the artist able to achieve exactly the impression that you experienced and realized in pre-analytic communication with the artistic image?
- 2) analysis as an operation of separating a whole into parts (although it presupposes elements of synthesis) is not an end in itself, but a way of deeper penetration into the semantic core of an artistic image;
- 3) each work of art is unique, inimitable, therefore it is methodically correct - and for the teacher it is very important - to find the “intrigue of analysis” - a key question that will entail, especially in collective work, a chain, or rather, a system of questions, the answers to which develop into a holistic picture of the analysis;
- 4) every work of art is an artistic and figurative model of the world, which reflects actual facets, parts, aspects
the world and its basic elements: man, society, civilization, nature, God. These facets, parts, aspects of Being constitute a meaningful basis - the subject of the image, which, on the one hand, is already objective reality, since it constitutes only a part of it, and on the other hand, it is initially richer, because it carries the author’s attitude, is enriched in the creative process, gives an increase in knowledge about the world in an objectified form, in a work of art, and finally, is actualized in the creative process. In analytical work, you must answer the questions: what is the object of the image in this work? what is the subject of the image? What new do we learn about the world by assimilating the artistic image of a work? - 5) each work of art belongs to one of the types of art, in accordance with which a method of transforming the subject of the image, forming an artistic image, and a specific language of art is formed.
- 6) art as a whole and an individual work as a phenomenon of the material world exist in space and time. Each era, each aesthetic system develops its own artistic concept of time and space in accordance with its understanding of these realities and its goals. Therefore, analysis of the features of the embodiment of space and time in a work is a necessary analytical operation;
- 7) the artistic-figurative model of the world can be figurative (visual) or non-figurative (auditory, verbal or visual-constructive). Imitation of life (even to the point of the desire to create a “false” illusion) or, on the contrary, complete “disobjectification” of the image, as well as all intermediate forms, is not an end in itself, it is always meaningful, serves as the embodiment of goal-setting revealed in analysis. In this case, a relationship is established between phenomenon and essence, the comprehension and mastery of which ultimately constitutes one of the main functions of art. So in the process of analysis, it is necessary to understand what phenomenon underlies the artistic image (the object of the image), what properties, qualities, aspects of the object were of interest to the artist (the subject of the image), how, in what way the transformation of the object took place and what is the structure - the elemental composition and the structure of the resulting artistic image. By answering these questions, one can understand quite well the meaning of a work of art, what is the essence that shines through the fabric of the artistic image.
Before we finish talking about analysis and its place in working with a work of art, let me give you two pieces of advice.
The first concerns the meaning of the analysis. Regardless of whether this or that work of art is close or internally alien to you, analysis and interpretation will help you understand the author, and in a conversation about the work, justify your assessment. In relations with art, “like or dislike” is better replaced with other formulations:
“I understand and accept” or “I understand, but I do not accept!” And at the same time, always be ready to justify your opinion.
The second tip will be especially useful to you if you have to work at a contemporary art exhibition or visiting an artist in his studio.
For any normal person, the presence of the author is a restraining factor, so at a contemporary art exhibition, always work as if the author were standing nearby - this is a very real possibility.
But the main thing: once and for all, give up the idea that there is “right” and “wrong” art, “good” and “bad”. A work of art is subject to evaluation: after all, its creator can be a master, or he can also be a swaggering amateur, a super-adaptive opportunist, a speculator.
But in the exhibition hall you should not rush to act as a prosecutor; it is better to first try to understand why the work caused such irritation in you instead of the expected joy: is it that you intuitively felt the disharmony of the image, its general destructive power, the waves of negative energy coming from it, or that, due to the characteristics of your personality, you did not fall into “resonance” with those, figuratively speaking, vibrations that the artistic image caused.
How differently we all perceive art - both in its elements and in general - I felt quite unexpectedly near the TV screen. ...I love Kolomenskoye very much - with its calm white church of the Kazan Mother of God, the slender tent of the Church of the Ascension of Christ rapidly rising above the Moscow River, the gilded domes of the Cathedral of John the Baptist in Dyakovo on the mountain behind the ravine, with clumps of trees, ancient pillars and treasured stones in the thick green grass. For many years, in art history courses, I have been telling students about these wonderful creations of the 16th-17th centuries. But the little segment on TV in The Travelers Club was a revelation for me. The leading priest showed and proved that the metrically formed ensemble embodied in natural and architectural forms the image of the icon of Sophia - the Wisdom of God. Never would I, a person with an established rational consciousness, be able to see this miracle like that. But now, of course, with references to the original source, I will offer students this interpretation, among others.
Literatures:
Wölflin
Janson H.V., Janson E.F. Fundamentals of art history - find. Found. Post it. And Gombrich too.
QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN ANALYZING A WORK OF PAINTING
In order to abstract from the perception of the plot and everyday life, remember that a painting is not a window into the world, but a plane on which the illusion of space can be created by pictorial means. Therefore, first analyze the basic parameters of the work:
1) What is the size of the painting (monumental, easel, miniature?
2) What is the format of the painting: a rectangle elongated horizontally or vertically (possibly with a rounded end), square, circle (tondo), oval?
3) In what technique (tempera, oil, watercolor, etc.) and on what basis (wood, canvas, etc.) was the painting made?
4) From what distance is it best perceived?
I. Image analysis.
4. Does the film have a plot? What is shown? In what environment are the depicted characters and objects located?
5. Based on image analysis, you can draw a conclusion about the genre. What genre: portrait, landscape, still life, nude, everyday, mythological, religious, historical, animalistic, does the painting belong to?
6. What problem do you think the artist solves – visual? expressive? What is the degree of conventionality or naturalism of the image? Does convention tend towards idealization or expressive distortion? As a rule, the composition of the picture is associated with the genre.
7) What components does the composition consist of? What is the relationship between the subject of the image and the background/space on the painting canvas?
8) How close to the picture plane are the objects in the image?
9) What angle of view did the artist choose - from above, below, level with the depicted objects?
10) How is the position of the viewer determined - is he involved in interaction with what is depicted in the picture, or is he assigned the role of a detached contemplator?
11) Can the composition be called balanced, static, or dynamic? If there is movement, how is it directed?
12) How is the picture space constructed (flat, indefinite, the spatial layer is fenced off, deep space is created)? How is the illusion of spatial depth achieved (differences in the size of the depicted figures, showing the volume of objects or architecture, using color gradations)? The composition is developed by means of drawing.
13) How pronounced is the linear beginning in the picture?
14) Are the contours delimiting individual objects emphasized or hidden? By what means is this effect achieved?
15) To what extent is the volume of objects expressed? What techniques create the illusion of volume?
16) What role does light play in the picture? What is it like (even, neutral; contrasting, sculpting volume; mystical). Is the light source/direction legible?
17) Are the silhouettes of the depicted figures/objects legible? How expressive and valuable are they in themselves?
18) How detailed (or vice versa generalized) is the image?
19) Is the variety of textures of the depicted surfaces (leather, fabric, metal, etc.) conveyed? Color.
20) What role does color play in the picture (is it subordinate to the drawing and volume, or, on the contrary, subordinates the drawing to itself and builds the composition itself).
21) Is color simply a coloration of volume or something more? Is it optically faithful or expressive?
22) Do local colors or tonal coloring predominate in the picture?
23) Are the boundaries of the color spots visible? Do they coincide with the boundaries of volumes and objects?
24) Does the artist operate with large masses of color or small spots-strokes?
25) How are warm and cold colors painted, does the artist use a combination of complementary colors? Why is he doing this? How are the most illuminated and shaded areas conveyed?
26) Are there glares or reflexes? How are the shadows written (deep or transparent, are they colored)?
27) Is it possible to identify rhythmic repetitions in the use of any color or combination of shades, is it possible to trace the development of any color? Is there a dominant color/color combination?
28) What is the texture of the painting surface - smooth or impasto? Are individual strokes distinguishable? If so, what are they - small or long, applied with liquid, thick or almost dry paint?
06.08.2013