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Protection of water resources in Russia


    Introduction 3

    Water supply to the population 4

    1. Water resources of the earth. 4

      Users and consumers of water resources. 7

    Water protection 9

    1. Protection of waters and prevention of harmful effects on them. 9

      Rational use of natural waters. 9

    Conclusion 12

1. Introduction

You can't say that you

necessary for life:

you are life itself...

You greatest wealth in the world...

Antoine de Saint-Exupéry.

Water is a very common substance on Earth. It provides life to all organisms, and is the only source of oxygen in the main life process on Earth - photosynthesis. All living things are 80-90% water. Loss of 10-20% According to modern ideas, the very origin of life is associated with the sea. In any organism, water is the medium in which chemical processes take place that ensure the life of the organism; in addition, it itself takes part in a number of biochemical reactions.

Not a single sphere of human activity can do without the use of water, because it is life itself. The mass of fresh water on the globe is 31 million km 3, the main amount of which (96%) is concentrated in the glaciers of Greenland, Antarctica, mountain ranges, icebergs and the permafrost zone. Of the total amount of fresh water, only about 1% is used by humanity to meet its needs.

Each inhabitant of the Earth consumes on average 650 m 3 of water per year (1780 liters per day). However, to satisfy physiological needs, 2.5 liters per day is sufficient, i.e. about 1 m 3 per year. A large amount of water is required by agriculture (69%) mainly for irrigation; 23% of water is consumed by industry; 6% is spent at home.

Now the question arises: why is high-quality water so necessary for humans? Once upon a time, people were content with the water they found in rivers, lakes, streams and wells. But with the development of industry and population growth, it became necessary to manage the water supply much more carefully in order to avoid harm to human health and damage environment. All categories of water are subject to pollution: oceanic, continental, underground, although to varying degrees.

Water quality (this is a set of physical, chemical, biological and bacteriological indicators that satisfy consumer requirements), especially fresh water, has become one of the most important factors in public health. The World Health Organization (WHO) notes that about 5 million people (mostly children) die annually on the planet from poor water quality, and from 500 million to 1 billion people suffer from varying degrees of poisoning or illness, which is 80% of the diseases on the planet caused by consumption of poor quality drinking water. The problem of clean water faces many countries.

By depleting or polluting water, a person not only deprives himself of this resource, but also destroys the living environment of many organisms and disrupts their inherent connections.

2. Water supply to the population

2.1 Water resources of the earth.

Water is the most abundant substance in nature. It is in a free state (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, glaciers), found in minerals, rocks, soil and is part of living organisms (50–90% of their mass, and in the body of a jellyfish and cucumber – about 98%) . Planet Earth contains about 16 billion km 3 of water, which is 0.25% of its mass. Most of the water is found in the deep zones (mantle) of the Earth. Based on its location, water is divided into atmospheric, surface and underground.

All water sources (oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, glaciers, swamps, atmospheric and groundwater) are part of the World Ocean and form the hydrosphere of planet Earth. Most of the planet's surface (about 71%) is covered by the waters of the World Ocean. The total volume of water in it is 1,370,323 thousand km 3 - about 94% of all the water on the planet. The upper boundary of the hydrosphere passes at the height of the lower layers of the stratosphere to the height of the ozone screen (approximately at an altitude of 20 km). Water in the atmosphere is in a vapor state and moves. The lower boundary of the hydrosphere lies in the lithosphere at a depth of 3 - 3.5 km from the earth's surface.

In addition to the waters of the World Ocean, the largest amount of water is found in the lithosphere - underground waters of the hydrosphere (ground, subground, interstratal free-flow and pressure waters, waters of cracks in karst voids). Groundwater makes up 60 million km 3, or 4.12% of the total volume, and is located at various depths (up to several hundred meters). However, in the active water exchange zone they are contained in less than 4 million km 3 . There are 24 million km 3 of water in glaciers, 280 thousand km 3 in lakes and reservoirs, 85 thousand km 3 in soils, and 14 thousand km 3 in the atmosphere. The water found in river beds is only 1.2 thousand km 3 (Table 2.1).

Table 1.1 Distribution of water mass in the hydrosphere.

Surface waters include the waters of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, swamps, streams and small lakes. Oceans, seas and some lakes are salty. Rivers, most lakes, ponds, reservoirs, swamps and streams contain fresh water. The latter is usually used for domestic water supply. So, on Earth, most waters (almost 1.5 billion km 3) contain a significant amount of dissolved salts. These include the waters of oceans, seas, some lakes and most groundwater outside the zone of active water exchange.

Fresh water makes up a small part of the hydrosphere (less than 4%). The bulk of fresh water (up to 77%) is located in the snow and ice cover. The distribution of water in the hydrosphere is quite uneven, as evidenced by the data in Table 1.1.

The largest reserves of fresh water are concentrated in the snow and ice sheets of Antarctica, Greenland and the Arctic. The water in glaciers is in a solid state and is characterized by the lowest salt content among known water sources in nature. The maximum mineralization of glacial water is 3 mg/l. Humanity, considering the water balance of the future, looks with hope at this huge “storehouse” of fresh water, where up to 77% of all fresh water reserves of our planet are concentrated. There are already projects to tow icebergs from the glaciers of Antarctica to Australia, South America and other regions. The cost of water from glaciers will not exceed the cost of groundwater or fresh water.

In the depths of the Earth, water can exist in a liquid state to a depth of 5 km from the surface, and in some cases up to a depth of 10 km. At greater depths at high temperatures, water turns into a steam-water mixture. Under critical conditions at a temperature of 374ºC for fresh water and 425ºC for saline saturated solutions and a pressure of 21.8 MPa, it forms a kind of water plasma, that is, the differences between steam and liquid water disappear. Under these conditions, liquid water molecules acquire the speed of gas molecules, and its density approaches the density of liquid water.

Groundwater can exist in a free, vaporous and physically coherent state. Physically coherent water usually includes tightly cohesive hygroscopic water, which is held by molecular forces on the surface of rock particles. At great depths at high pressure, which reaches hundreds of megapascals, water is squeezed out of the rock and goes into a free state. Physically connected water also includes capillary water, which, under the action of capillary forces, moves in thin pores and cracks.

In the world's fresh water reserves, groundwater and groundwater account for about 22.4%.

Groundwater fills pores, cracks and voids, and is in close contact with the soil and rocks of the earth's crust. They are characterized by layered arrangement of aquifers (Figure 1), which are separated by waterproof rock layers, weak connection with the atmosphere, insignificant development of biological processes, poverty of life forms, elevated temperature and pressure. All this contributes to less contamination of water with sewage and microorganisms, due to which the quality is close to drinking water. Being at significant and varying depths, they are characterized by stable chemical composition, contain more substances beneficial to human health (Calcium compounds, Iodine, etc.). however, groundwater can also become polluted if the filter layer of rocks is insufficient.

Fig.1 Layout of occurrence

groundwater:

1 – perched water;

2 – interlayer free-flow water;

3 – groundwater;

4 – interlayer pressure waters

Based on their depth, groundwater is divided into three zones. The upper zone, the depth of which in most cases is 2–6 m (see Figure 2.1), but can reach 20–60 and even 300 m, has active water exchange and is exposed to filtration precipitation and, to some extent, atmospheric air.

For domestic and drinking purposes, predominantly water from the upper zone is used. The quality of water depends on the types of soils and rocks located below. The soils of the peat-tundra zone enrich the water with organic compounds of plant origin. This also applies to swamp waters. Chernozems, chestnut and saline soils cause the appearance of predominantly mineral substances in the water. As the depth of water increases, the number of microorganisms decreases and at a depth of 6 m or more it is zero. A layer of soil 3.5 - 4 m thick on the filtration fields retains up to 90% of microorganisms.

Human economic activities contribute to groundwater pollution. The chemical composition of these waters is most affected by the intensive development of industrial cities and the chemicalization of agriculture, which is accompanied by the appearance of a significant amount of wastewater and gas emissions. At the same time, various organic and inorganic substances enter the atmosphere, soil and surface waters. Biological pollution of groundwater is caused by various microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, etc.). The least safe is water contamination by pathogenic microorganisms that can enter groundwater from filtration fields, barnyards, cesspools, etc.

Swamps are an intermediate link in the biosphere between lakes and groundwater. A significant number of them are located in temperate and high-altitude latitudes. They contain swamp peat, which contains carbon. Swamps include waterlogged soils, which are mostly found in tropical areas. Peat does not accumulate in them, since organic matter decomposes completely. The total area of ​​swamps and waterlogged soils is about 3 million km 2. In coastal marine areas, the water in swamps is salty or brackish.

Groundwater is similar in intensity of exchange with surface water and the atmosphere to surface water, in the action of capillary forces - to groundwater, and in terms of the content of various substances (gases, organic compounds and organisms) - this is an environment in which biogeochemical processes intensively occur. The latter ensure soil fertility. The mass of fresh lake and swamp water is estimated at 0.35% of the total fresh water on Earth.

Rivers and streams are sources of fresh water, which is renewed most quickly in comparison with other components of the biosphere. Having a small instantaneous mass (about 1.2∙10 12 tons), during the year they deliver 37-38 times more water (about 4.5∙10 13 tons) than the reservoirs themselves. The average mineralization of these waters is ~ 90 mg/l. Salty rivers are very rare. These are mostly rivers that are fed by salty groundwater or have salt deposits in their beds. The chemical composition of river waters is determined primarily by the characteristics of soils, vegetation, and climate of the areas through which they flow, and is characterized by average indicators

2.2 Users and consumers of water resources.

Many areas of human activity use water to one degree or another. Moreover, what is primarily needed is not just any water, but clean fresh water with a mineral salt content of up to 1 g/l. Generalized data on water reserves in the Earth's biosphere indicate that fresh water resources are quite large and can fully meet the needs of humanity, subject to their rational use. In addition, this natural resource, without which life is impossible, is continuously renewed.

Nowadays, humanity's annual need for water is more than 4 thousand km 3 . Due to the uneven distribution of water resources on the planet and the development of industry, agriculture and public utilities, and the unequal demographic situation in many countries, the problem of fresh water use is most acute.

The main consumers of water are industry, agriculture and municipal services. In agriculture, it is used for watering plants, watering and preparing food for domestic animals, in public utilities - for drinking and cooking, meeting sanitary and hygienic needs, as a coolant for heating household and utility rooms, etc. Development of industry and agriculture economy, the accelerated pace of housing and communal construction in our country has led to increased use of water resources and led to increased consumption of water resources and contributed to increased attention to the area water management. The main task of this area is the systematic provision of the population and the region’s economy with water of appropriate quality and required quantity. The main subareas of the water management complex are water supply to populated areas, industry, agricultural production, including land irrigation and watering of dry areas, hydropower, fisheries, water transport and recreation.

In relation to water resources, all sectors of the economy are divided into users and consumers. Users use water as a medium or source of energy and do not remove it from sources (fishing, hydroelectric power stations, tourism, water transport, sports, etc.). Consumers remove water from sources and use it for its intended purpose (for drinking and cooking, growing agricultural products, for carrying out technological processes in production, heating premises, removing waste, etc.).

In many cases, water after use is partially or completely returned to the sources, but of a completely different quality. The largest amount (up to 75%) of fresh water is consumed by agriculture. A particularly large amount of it is used in irrigated agriculture. Currently, more than 15% of the total agricultural land area is irrigated. According to some forecasts, irrigated areas will soon increase to 120 million hectares. Specific water consumption depends on the type of crops, the physical and geographical conditions of the area, the technical composition of irrigation systems and the method of irrigation. Thus, to irrigate grain crops, 1500 – 3500 m 3 /ha of water is required, sugar beets – 2500 – 6000, perennial grasses – 2000 – 8000, rice – 8000 – 1500 m 3 /ha of water.

The volume of water consumption in industry is estimated water intensity of production– the amount of water required to produce 1 ton of finished product. The water intensity of the production of various types of products varies within a very wide range, m 3 /t: steel, cast iron - 15 - 20, synthetic fiber - 500, copper - 500, plastics - 500 - 1000, synthetic rubber - 2000 - 3000. for the operation of thermal power plants with the capacity 3 MW requires about 300 km 3 of water per year. An average chemical plant consumes 1–2 million m3 of water daily.

Water consumption by the population is characterized by specific water consumption– the daily volume of water in liters necessary to satisfy all the needs of one resident of a city or village. Specific water consumption in cities is greater than in villages, and largely depends on the degree of improvement (availability of water supply, sewerage, central water heating, etc.). Thus, the specific water consumption for some cities is, l/day: New York - 600, Paris - 500, Moscow - 400, Kyiv - 300, London - 263. In large cities with a population of more than 3 million people, daily water consumption reaches 2 million m 3, and annual - about 1 km 3. In this case, high quality water is used, which requires complex technological water treatment. The amount of water used by one village resident ranges from 20 to 80 l/day, and fresh underground water is used here without any water treatment, even the simplest.

The choice of water supply source is carried out taking into account the consumer’s requirements for water quality. For industrial purposes, it is allowed to use only surface waters, including waters of the seas and oceans. Groundwater is used only when necessary to carry out technological processes at temperatures up to 15°C and when the reserves of this water are naive, which is sufficient to ensure domestic drinking and industrial water supply. In some cases, the use of geothermal waters is allowed.

3. Protect water resources

3.1 Protection of water resources and prevention of harmful effects on them.

Establishing legal norms for the protection of water bodies from clogging, pollution and depletion, as well as preventing the harmful effects of water, is one of the main tasks of water legislation. The need for such standards is due to the development of industry, agriculture and urban construction. They cause a sharp increase in the need for water use and lead to a noticeable increase in waste and drainage water contaminated with various substances.

In the fundamentals of water legislation, all waters require protection from pollution and depletion, which can cause harm to public health and other undesirable consequences due to changes in the physical, chemical and biological qualities of water, deterioration of its ability to natural self-purification, disruption of the hydrological and hydrogeological regime. In addition to strictly limiting the use of water bodies for wastewater discharge, other restrictions are also established. The discharge of industrial and household waste into water bodies is completely prohibited. Pollution and clogging of the surface of water intakes and the ice cover of reservoirs with waste and discharges, the discharge of which can lead to a deterioration in the quality of surface and groundwater, is not allowed.

To protect waters that are used for domestic water supply, medical, recreational and resort needs of the population, special sanitary protection zones are established. It is important to prevent depletion of surface and underground water supplies. Irrational use of natural waters can disrupt the process of renewal of their resources in individual river and underground basins. Particularly unacceptable is the depletion of groundwater resources due to excessive pumping, which exceeds the possibility of natural renewal of reserves.

To maintain a favorable water regime of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater and other water bodies, to prevent water erosion of soil and siltation of reservoirs, to reduce losses and sharp fluctuations in river and underground flow, water legislation provides for the establishment of water protection zones for forests, the mandatory implementation of forest reclamation, hydraulic engineering and other events. The main measure against the depletion of water resources is the implementation of a rational regime for the operation of water management systems and structures. The result of human irrational use of surface and ground water, underestimation of the laws of nature or neglect of them is water erosion of soils, gully formation, swamping and salinization of lands, periodic flooding and flooding of populated areas, etc.

3.2 Rational use of natural waters.

In the process of regulating relations between water users, great importance is attached to the rational and integrated use of water. Rational use of water should provide an optimally beneficial effect for society during this period and a sustainable future with mandatory compliance with the law. Issues of rational use of water are considered during the placement and design, construction and commissioning of enterprises, structures and other facilities. Requirements for the rational use of water are also established for types of water use.

Rational water use involves complexity, that is, the use of water in such a way as to know the economically justifiable use of all the beneficial qualities of a particular water body to meet the various needs of interested water users - the population and the national economy. With the integrated use of water, some water users are given an advantage to local economic and natural conditions. At the same time, provision of drinking water to the population is a priority.

Water legislation recommends the development of general and basin schemes for the integrated use and protection of water. They define water management and other measures that are implemented to meet the water needs of the population and the national economy.

Rational use and reproduction of water resources and ecosystems is aimed at ensuring the stable functioning of aquatic ecosystems, protection, conservation and restoration of water resources. The use of water resources should be aimed at ensuring public health and creating sufficient water resource potential for the needs of agriculture, public utilities and fisheries, industry, energy, transport, etc.

Most reservoirs are simultaneously sources of domestic drinking and industrial water supply, energy sources, transport routes, fisheries production bases, recreation areas, etc. A large number of government, municipal, industrial, transport, fishery, agricultural, and energy organizations are interested in their exploitation , enterprises and institutions, as well as the population. Therefore, it is very important to coordinate the sometimes conflicting interests of various water users so that water resources are used most rationally, so that there is no interference with the use of water bodies by other water users, and no harm is caused to economic facilities and natural resources - soils, forests, minerals, etc. At the same time, Particular importance is attached to planning the integrated use of water.

The strategy for the development of production and water protection measures should be conducive to both meeting the needs for products and services, and the environmental safety of humans and aquatic ecosystems. This can be achieved with the effective development of equipment and production technologies, the use of advanced methods of wastewater treatment, waste recycling and the implementation of measures to prevent accidents and improve the management and monitoring system.

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to form an effective organizational and legal system for the functioning of water bodies, implement zoning of territories according to environmental risk, form protected areas and improve methods for monitoring and assessing the condition of water bodies, introduce paid water consumption taking into account the composition and properties of wastewater and develop quality standards natural waters for various water users.

Simultaneously with the structural and technological restructuring of industry, primarily in the fuel and energy complex, ferrous metallurgy and chemical industry, it is necessary to introduce highly efficient wastewater treatment systems, water recycling and reuse systems, and effective systems for protecting against the harmful effects of surface runoff. In addition, it is necessary to develop and introduce new technologies for the purification of surface runoff, industrial and domestic wastewater based on the use of a modular-chain system for the gradual selection and disposal of important metals and chemical-toxic substances with final water purification at citywide or regional treatment facilities.

4. Conclusion.

Having examined the issue of water supply in detail, we can come to the conclusion that the problem of ensuring adequate quantity and quality of water is one of the most important and has global significance.

Since the population on Earth is constantly increasing, the need for clean fresh water is also constantly increasing. Already at the present time, a lack of fresh water is experienced not only by territories that nature has deprived of water resources, but also by many regions that until recently were considered prosperous in this regard. Currently, the need for fresh water is not met for 20% of the urban and 75% of the rural population of the planet.

The limited supply of fresh water is further reduced due to pollution. The main danger is wastewater (industrial, agricultural and domestic). The latter, getting into surface and underground water sources, pollute them with harmful toxic impurities that are dangerous to human health, as a result of which already limited fresh water reserves are reduced. A person needs clean, high-quality fresh water. For the body, water is a “building” material, supporting its vital functions. Water ensures the flow of all life processes in the body. Tissue synthesis, digestion, metabolism and other vital processes are carried out with the direct participation of water. It is a solvent for organic and inorganic substances in the body necessary to maintain its functions. Water promotes the removal from the body of various toxins that remain after the absorption of necessary substances, regulates body temperature, salt content in tissues and liquids, and takes part in many other processes, without which the functioning of living cells is impossible, because almost all physiological, chemical and colloid-chemical processes occur with the direct participation of water. Loss of only 10–20% of water by the body leads to its death. That is why it is so necessary to consume high-quality water, because low-quality water can lead to a failure or complete stop of the processes necessary for life and, therefore, not only to various diseases, but also to death. Almost all surface water supplies in recent years exposed to harmful anthropogenic pollutants. 70% of surface waters and 30% of underground waters have lost their drinking value and moved into the categories of pollution - “conditionally clean” and “dirty”.

In Ukraine, every fifth sample of tap water does not meet sanitary-chemical standards, every eighth does not meet microbiological standards, and 90% of drinking water in the country does not meet recommended sanitary standards, chemical and microbiological standards. This water is used by 70% of cities and towns. What spoils our lives the most is the chlorine used to disinfect water. Although at first it saves us from infections, then its derivatives begin to slowly kill us, since they have a carcinogenic, mutagenic effect and affect heredity. According to American studies, people who regularly drink chlorinated water are 21% more likely to have bladder cancer and 38% more likely to have colon cancer than those who drink purified but not chlorinated water.

The price of water is rising. Clark (USA) notes that over the past 50 years, prices for oil have increased 10 times, for drinking water - about 100 times, for drinking water - 1000 times. The sale of bottled drinking water has become commonplace. Naturally clean water is becoming the most important source of national wealth.

Water resources... 2.2 million rubles. In the interests protection the main aquifers were surveyed...

  • Water resources. Rationing of water consumption and wastewater disposal

    Test >> Ecology

    Activities related to water protection and water biological resources, protection environment from harmful effects...

    • Water protection– a system of measures aimed at preventing, limiting and eliminating the consequences of pollution, clogging and depletion of water (GOST 17.1.1.01-77. Nature conservation. Hydrosphere. Use and protection of water. Basic terms and definitions).

    Protection of water from pollution is a system of measures aimed at preventing, limiting and eliminating the consequences of pollution (SanPiN 2.1.5.980-00. Drainage of populated areas, sanitary protection of water bodies. Hygienic requirements for the protection of surface water. Terms and definitions).

    Protection of water bodies is a system of measures aimed at preserving and restoring water bodies (Water Code of the Russian Federation dated June 3, 2006 No. 74-FZ).

    Water is one of the main components of the natural environment, the basics of its protection are given in Federal law"On environmental protection." The basic principles and rules of water protection are directly reflected in water legislation.

    All water users are legally required to reduce the volume of water withdrawals and losses, and to prevent clogging, depletion and pollution of water bodies. It is prohibited to discharge wastewater (SW) into water bodies if the latter are classified as specially protected, contain natural medicinal resources, are located in places of mass recreation or resort areas, as well as in places of spawning and wintering of valuable fish species, etc.

    Water protection is based on the following basic principles:

    Water quality regulation consists of establishing for the water of a water body a set of acceptable values ​​for indicators of its composition and properties, within which the health of the population, favorable conditions for the economic use of water and the environmental well-being of the water body are reliably ensured.

    Water quality standards include:

    • standards established in accordance with chemical indicators of the state of water, including standards for maximum permissible concentrations of chemicals, including radioactive substances;
    • standards established in accordance with physical indicators of the state of the environment, including indicators of levels of radioactivity and heat;
    • standards established in accordance with biological indicators of the state of waters, including species and groups of plants, animals and other organisms used as indicators of water quality, as well as standards for maximum permissible concentrations of microorganisms.

    Acceptable values ​​for water composition indicators are established depending on the type of water use. Currently, the following types of water use are distinguished: household and drinking, cultural and domestic and fishery. Household and drinking water use involves the use of water bodies as sources of household and drinking water supply for the population and food industry enterprises. Cultural and domestic water use refers to the use of water bodies for swimming, recreation and sports. Water quality requirements for this type of water use apply to all water bodies located within populated areas.

    Almost all water bodies are classified as fisheries and are divided, based on the requirements of fisheries, into three categories. The highest category includes places of spawning grounds, mass feeding and wintering of valuable fish species, as well as protected zones of farms engaged in breeding and raising fish and other aquatic animals. The first category includes reservoirs and watercourses, which are used for the preservation and reproduction of valuable fish species that are highly sensitive to the concentration of dissolved oxygen in water; The second category includes reservoirs used for other fishing needs.

    There are two groups of quality standards: the first group is established based on the fishery use of water bodies, the second group is based on sanitary and hygienic requirements. The development and approval of state sanitary and epidemiological rules and hygienic standards is carried out by Federal service for supervision in the field of consumer rights protection and human well-being (Rospotrebnadzor).

    The regulation of anthropogenic impact consists of limiting the negative impact on water bodies during economic and other activities. Types of negative impact on water bodies include: discharges of pollutants, other substances and microorganisms into surface water bodies, underground water bodies and into catchment areas; noise, thermal, electromagnetic, ionizing and other types of physical influences. Standards for the withdrawal of water from water bodies are also established.

    Standards for permissible discharges of substances and microorganisms are established for stationary, mobile and other sources of environmental impact by economic and other activities based on standards for permissible anthropogenic load on a water body or water management area, water quality standards, as well as technological standards.

    The standards for permissible impact on the environment must ensure compliance with environmental (water) quality standards, taking into account the natural features of territories and water areas. For exceeding the established standards of permissible impact on water bodies, subjects of economic and other activities, depending on the harm caused to the environment, are liable in accordance with the law.

    To monitor compliance with water legislation, regular observations are carried out of the condition of water bodies, the quantitative and qualitative indicators of surface and groundwater, which is ensured by the State Monitoring System of Water Bodies.

    Currently, the following main types of observations are carried out within the monitoring system:

    • the state of pollution of surface waters of land and seas;
    • the chemical composition and acidity of precipitation and snow cover;
    • for background pollution of water bodies;
    • for radioactive contamination of water bodies.

    The basis State system monitoring is made up of the observation network of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet), which solves the following tasks:

    The monitoring system is based on a network of security observation points that are installed on reservoirs and watercourses both in areas with increased anthropogenic impact and in unpolluted areas.

    In addition to Roshydromet, monitoring of surface and groundwater used for domestic and drinking purposes is carried out by Rospotrebnadzor.

    Conducting local monitoring in the zone of their influence in accordance with the law is entrusted to business entities.

    Organization and implementation of state monitoring of water bodies in the manner established by law Russian Federation, is also entrusted to the basin water departments. The role of the observation network of basin water departments is great in monitoring transboundary water bodies, that is, water bodies that generate their flow on the territory of two or more states.

    Payment for water use is the basis on which economic regulation of the use, restoration and protection of water bodies is based. Any use of the water body is subject to payment. Rates of fees for the use of water bodies, the procedure for calculating such fees are established accordingly by the Government of the Russian Federation, government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and local government bodies.

    Objects of taxation – types of use of water bodies:

    • water intake from water bodies;
    • use of the water area of ​​water bodies, with the exception of timber rafting and;
    • use of water bodies without water intake for hydropower purposes;
    • use of water bodies for the purpose of rafting wood in rafts and purses.

    Payments related to water withdrawal make up about 85% of the total amount of the corresponding tax and payments (the rest comes from taxes/payments for the use of water bodies for hydropower and other purposes). Part of the payments consists of payments for negative impacts on water bodies.

    By Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of July 30, 2004 No. 400, the functions of state supervision in the field of use and protection of water bodies are assigned to the Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Natural Resources (Rosprirodnadzor), which is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation.

    This service carries out its activities directly through its territorial bodies (Departments of Rosprirodnadzor in the relevant constituent entities of the Russian Federation) in interaction with other federal executive authorities, executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local government bodies, public associations and other organizations.

    Territorial bodies of Rosprirodnadzor, together with representatives of the Center for Laboratory Analysis and Technical Measurements (FBU TsLATI) for the relevant federal district, monitor water users.

    Sanitary and epidemiological supervision of water bodies and water supply systems is carried out by Rospotrebnadzor. Rospotrebnadzor authorities conduct both scheduled and unscheduled inspections of enterprises for compliance with the requirements of sanitary legislation and consumer protection.

    Compliance with the principle: the polluter pays . This principle includes two provisions: firstly, payments should be targeted at the processes of restoration, rehabilitation of water bodies and nowhere else; secondly, not only those who discharge pollutants into water bodies must pay, but anyone who has other negative impacts on water bodies and their watersheds, including as a result of emergency situations (accidents on transport, product pipelines). With these two additions, the principle formulated above becomes the principle of compensation: damage to nature must contribute to its recovery. In other words, any activity that causes damage to water bodies must simultaneously be a source of funds and labor for their restoration (rehabilitation).

    Protection of waters (water bodies) includes the implementation of the following specific measures:

    • establishment of water protection zones and coastal protective strips adjacent to coastline water bodies;
    • establishment of sanitary protection zones for water supply sources;
    • construction of treatment facilities before discharging industrial and municipal wastewater into water bodies;
    • introduction of circulating water supply systems at industrial enterprises;
    • collection and purification of storm water from the territories of populated areas (residential areas), enterprise sites and other facilities.

    Water protection zones are territories adjacent to the coastline of seas, rivers, streams, canals, lakes and reservoirs with an established special regime for carrying out economic activities.

    Sanitary protection zones are organized into three zones: the first zone (strict regime) includes the area where water intakes are located, the sites of all water supply facilities and the water supply canal. Its purpose is to protect the water intake site and water intake structures from accidental or intentional pollution and damage. The second and third zones (restriction zones) include the territory intended to prevent water pollution from water supply sources.

    Treatment facilities are a complex of engineering structures in the sewerage system of a populated area or industrial enterprise, designed to purify wastewater from the contaminants it contains. The purpose of treatment is to prepare wastewater for use in production or for discharging incoming facilities.

    Industrial wastewater, as a rule, is first treated at local treatment facilities to reduce the concentration of contaminants, extract and utilize useful substances contained in them, as well as to prepare this water for treatment at general plant treatment facilities (if necessary). After local treatment or treatment at general plant treatment facilities, wastewater can be used again in technological process. In some cases, purified industrial waters are discharged into reservoirs or (without complete purification) into city sewer systems.

    Currently, the task is to expand recycling water supply systems, ensuring both a reduction in the consumption of fresh water from water bodies or water supply systems, and a reduction in the discharge of polluted water into water bodies.

    Protection of water resources from depletion and pollution by harmful substances involves a set of measures: 1) development of relevant legislative acts; 2) organization of monitoring of water bodies; 3) protection of surface and ground waters, including the treatment of industrial and domestic wastewater; 4) preparation of water used for drinking and household purposes; 5) state control over the use and protection of water resources.

    Federal legislation and protection of water bodies

    Water legislation includes the Water Code of the Russian Federation and federal laws and other regulatory legal acts adopted in accordance with it, as well as laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation (republics, territories, regions).

    The purpose of water legislation is to regulate relations in the field of use and protection of water bodies. At the same time, the use of water bodies for drinking and domestic water supply is a priority. For this type of water supply, it is necessary to use surface and underground water bodies protected from clogging and pollution.

    All water users are legally required to reduce withdrawals and losses of water, and to prevent clogging, depletion and pollution of water bodies. It is prohibited to discharge wastewater (SW) into water bodies if the latter are classified as specially protected, contain natural medicinal resources, are located in places of public recreation or resort areas, as well as in places of spawning and wintering of valuable fish species, etc.

    The main role in water protection is played by state accounting of surface and groundwater, which is carried out for the purpose of current and long-term planning of the rational use of water resources, their restoration and protection. It is based on state monitoring data and accounting data provided by water users. Collections of systematic data on water bodies, water resources, regime, quality and use of water, as well as water users are included in the water cadastre.

    The Water Code of the Russian Federation prohibits the commissioning of:

    • any facilities that are not equipped with treatment facilities and devices that prevent clogging, depletion and pollution of water bodies;
    • discharge and drainage structures, as well as hydraulic structures (HTS) without fish protection devices;
    • industrial, agricultural and other complexes that do not have sanitary protection zones;
    • irrigation, water supply and drainage systems, reservoirs, dams and canals until the completion of measures that prevent their harmful effects on water bodies.

    Licensing of water use, as well as the discharge of waste and other waters, plays an important role in the protection of water resources. The procedure for licensing water use is regulated by Art. 48-53 and 83 of the Water Code of the Russian Federation, as well as the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation “On approval of the Rules for the provision of state-owned water bodies for use, the establishment and revision of water use limits, the issuance of water use licenses and distribution licenses.”

    Violation of security requirements and rational use water bodies entails restriction, suspension and even prohibition of the operation of economic and other facilities that have a negative impact on the condition of water bodies. The decision on this is made by the Government of the Russian Federation or the executive authorities of its constituent entities. A preliminary representation is given from the specially authorized state body for managing the use and protection of the water fund, specially authorized state bodies in the field of protection of environmental protection, and the state body for sanitary and epidemiological supervision.

    Monitoring of water bodies

    State monitoring of water bodies, being an integral part of the state monitoring system of the natural environment, includes monitoring of surface water bodies of land and seas, monitoring of underground water bodies, monitoring of water management systems and structures.

    It provides for: 1) constant monitoring of their condition by qualitative and quantitative indicators of both surface and groundwater; 2) collection, storage and processing of observational data; 3) creation and maintenance of data banks; 4) assessment, drawing up forecasts of changes in the state of water bodies and transfer of relevant information to government bodies of the Federation and its constituent entities.

    State monitoring of water bodies is carried out by the Ministry natural resources(MPR), the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) and other specially authorized state bodies in the field of environmental protection.

    The Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation is responsible for the development of a network of stations and observation posts on water bodies, the development of automated information systems (AIS) for state monitoring of water bodies, and the creation of an observation network of posts on water management systems and structures. Roshydromet monitors the pollution of land surface waters, covering 154 reservoirs and 1172 watercourses, where hydrochemical indicators are studied.

    The Sanitary and Epidemiological Service of Russia is responsible for the sanitary protection of water bodies. It has 2,600 sanitary and epidemiological institutions, 35 hygienic and epidemiological research institutions. In addition, there is a network of sanitary laboratories at enterprises engaged in studying the composition of wastewater and the quality of water in reservoirs.

    Currently, much attention is paid to the deployment of a network of automated stations that are capable of measuring and monitoring changes in dozens of water quality indicators, and very quickly.

    Schemes for integrated use and protection of waters

    In order to develop comprehensive measures aimed at meeting the long-term water needs of the population and the national economy in combination with water protection, general, basin and territorial schemes are drawn up.

    General schemes for the integrated use and protection of water determine the fundamental directions for the development of the country's water sector, which makes it possible to clearly identify the technical and economic feasibility and priority of carrying out the largest water management activities. Based on them, basin schemes are developed for river basins and other water bodies. Territorial schemes, developed on the basis of general and basin schemes, cover specific economic regions of the country and constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

    To coordinate the activities of various water users aimed at the restoration and protection of water bodies within the basin, the Water Code of the Russian Federation requires the drawing up of a so-called basin agreement on the restoration and protection of water bodies. These agreements are concluded between a specially authorized government agency management of the use and protection of the water fund and executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Federation, which are located within the basin of a water body (for example, Lake Baikal).

    The basin agreement is based on water balances, schemes for the integrated use and protection of water resources, state programs for the use, restoration and protection of water resources and necessarily takes into account proposals from public authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation (territories, regions, etc.).

    In 1996, the Russian Government adopted a decree “On the procedure for developing and approving standards for maximum permissible harmful effects on water bodies”, according to which MPE standards for water bodies should be developed and approved for the basin of a water body or its section in order to maintain surface and ground waters in in good condition.

    Surface water protection

    Surface water includes water that is permanently or temporarily located on earth's surface. These are the waters of rivers, temporary streams, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, reservoirs, swamps, glaciers and snow cover.

    Measures for their protection are provided for in the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters, approved by the USSR State Committee for Nature Protection on February 21, 1991. Particular attention is paid to the protection of water bodies when wastewater is discharged into them.

    Surface waters are protected from clogging, depletion and pollution. To prevent clogging, measures are taken to prevent the entry of garbage, solid waste and other objects that negatively affect the quality of water and the living conditions of aquatic organisms. Strict control over the minimum permissible water flow and limiting its irrational consumption help protect surface waters from depletion.

    A very important and, at the same time, complex problem is the protection of surface waters from pollution. For this purpose, a number of measures are envisaged, in particular: monitoring of water bodies; created

    creation of water protection zones; development of waste-free and water-free technologies, as well as recycling (closed) water supply systems; wastewater treatment (industrial, municipal and other); purification and disinfection of surface and groundwater used for drinking water supply and other purposes.

    Organization of water protection zones

    To maintain water bodies in a condition that meets environmental requirements, eliminates pollution, clogging and depletion of surface water and preserves the habitat of animals and plants, water protection zones are organized. They are territories adjacent to the waters of rivers, reservoirs and other surface water bodies; they are subject to a special regime for the use and protection of natural resources, as well as the implementation of other activities. Within the specified zones, coastal protective strips are established where it is not allowed to plow the land, cut down forests, place farms, etc.

    According to the Water Code of the Russian Federation, the government of the country is charged with establishing the size and boundaries of water protection zones and their coastal protective strips. Thus, the minimum width of the indicated zones for lakes from the average long-term water line in the summer and for reservoirs from the water line at a normal retaining level with a water area of ​​up to 2 km 2 is 300 m, more than 2 km 2 - 500 m.

    A similar indicator for rivers is determined by the length of the river: from the source to 10 km - 15 m; from 11 to 50 km - 100 m; from 51 to 100 km - 200 m; from 201 to 300 km - 400 m; over 500 km - 500 m.

    Water protection forest plantings around natural and artificial reservoirs and watercourses are of great importance in protecting surface waters from clogging and pollution. They are designed to protect them from the destructive effects of winds and water entering them from the catchment area, as well as to reduce water losses due to evaporation. Forest plantings improve the water regime of reservoirs, the sanitary and hygienic conditions of the coast and its landscape and decorative design, the quality of water in reservoirs, reduce their siltation, and reduce the loss of land due to the processing of the coast by waves (abrasion). Water protection forest plantations located around drinking reservoirs must meet the sanitary and hygienic requirements that apply to drinking reservoirs. They include up to 50% coniferous species, which are placed in the outer 2-3 rows on the side of the reservoir to protect its mirror from falling leaves.

    In addition to water protection zones, in order to ensure protection, sanitary protection districts can also be established. They are established to protect water bodies used for drinking and domestic water supply, as well as containing natural medicinal resources.

    Domestic wastewater treatment

    When treating wastewater (WW), harmful substances are destroyed or extracted from them.

    A complex of engineering structures and sanitary measures that ensure the collection and removal of contaminated wastewater outside populated areas and enterprises, their purification, neutralization and disinfection (destruction of dangerous microorganisms) is sewerage.

    According to Yu.V. Novikov (1998), the capacity of sewerage treatment facilities in the country exceeds 58 million m 3 per day, and the length of sewer networks in populated areas has reached 114 thousand km. Cities and other populated areas discharge 21.9 billion m3 of wastewater per year through sewerage systems; of which only 76% passes through wastewater treatment plants. Surface water bodies (the main sources of drinking water supply) annually receive 13.3 billion m3 of dry waste through municipal sewerage systems, of which 92% is discharged contaminated and only 8% of wastewater is treated at treatment facilities to the established standards. According to official data, 60% of operating sewage treatment plants are overloaded, about 38% have been in operation for 25-30 years and require urgent reconstruction. Let's add to this that 52 cities and 845 urban-type settlements do not have centralized sewage systems at all.

    In order to economically stimulate environmental protection measures, the Government of the Russian Federation in 1996 adopted a resolution “On collecting fees for the discharge of wastewater and pollutants into the sewerage systems of populated areas,” according to which the procedure and amounts of payments for the discharge of wastewater and pollutants into the sewerage systems of populated areas are determined. from enterprises and organizations discharging their waste water into the specified systems. In this case, the fee is distributed in the following ratio: to the federal budget - 40%, to the budget of the constituent entities of the Federation - 60%, The funds received should be used for the restoration and protection of water bodies.

    Cleaning of household waste water can be carried out using mechanical and biological methods. During mechanical cleaning, waste water is divided into liquid and solid parts. The liquid is then subjected to biological treatment, which can be natural or artificial. Natural biological purification of wastewater is carried out on agricultural fields of irrigation and filtration, as well as in biological ponds. Artificial biological treatment is carried out in special structures (biofilters, aeration tanks). The resulting sludge is processed on sludge beds or in special devices - metatanks.

    Industrial wastewater previously undergoes local treatment facilities, where they are freed from suspended particles or specific toxic components using mechanical, chemical or physicochemical cleaning methods.

    In practice, several types of irrigation systems are used: continuous flooding, flooding along furrows and strips, sprinkling, subsurface irrigation. The latter method most satisfies sanitary, epidemiological, agroeconomic, water management and, importantly, aesthetic requirements. When using treatment facilities with irrigation fields and year-round intake of wastewater with seasonal regulation of their supply, irrigation is carried out only during the growing season, and the rest of the time the wastewater enters storage ponds.

    Biological ponds are designed for deep purification of household and industrial wastewater that has previously been treated for VOCs. There are ponds with natural and artificial aeration (using mechanical aerators), their depth is usually within 1-3 m. Aquatic vegetation plays an important role in oxidative processes, which helps reduce the concentration of nutrients and regulates the oxygen regime of the reservoir.

    Artificial biological treatment facilities. As is known, biological treatment is based on the process of biological oxidation of organic compounds contained in wastewater. Biological oxidation is carried out by a community of microorganisms (biocenosis), which includes many different bacteria, protozoa and a number of more highly organized organisms - algae, fungi and others, interconnected into a single complex by complex relationships (metabiosis, symbiosis and antagonism).

    Biofilters are widely used with daily consumption of household and industrial waste water up to 20-30 thousand m 3 /day.

    A biofilter is a reservoir that is filled with loading material (gravel, expanded clay, slag). Wastewater flows above the surface of the loading material; it is evenly distributed over it through the loading material, on the surface of which a biological film (biocenosis) is formed, similar to activated sludge in an aeration tank.

    When operating biological treatment facilities, it is necessary to carefully observe the technological regulations for their operation, to avoid overloads and especially volleys of toxic components, significant deviations from the active reaction of the environment, since these violations can have a detrimental effect on the vital activity of microorganisms and disable biological oxidizers.

    Disinfection of wastewater that has passed the stage of biological treatment, as well as those that have not passed it, is carried out with gaseous chlorine, bleach, and sodium hypochlorite. In recent years, methods for disinfecting waste water using ozone and UV rays, as well as electric pulse discharge, have been intensively introduced.

    The wastewater discharge point of a populated area must be located below its border along the watercourse. Discharge of sewage, waste and drainage water within the boundaries of a populated area is permitted in exceptional cases on the basis of permits issued by the bodies for the protection of hazardous environmental protection and agreed with the state sanitary supervision bodies.

    Groundwater protection

    The surface hydrosphere is inextricably linked with the atmosphere, underground hydrosphere, lithosphere and other components of the OPS. Therefore, given the interconnection of all its ecosystems, it is impossible to ensure the cleanliness of surface water bodies and watercourses without appropriate protection of groundwater. The latter is to prevent the depletion of groundwater reserves and protect them from pollution.

    According to Art. 1 of the Water Code of the Russian Federation, groundwater is water, including mineral water, located in underground water bodies. At the same time, groundwater and the rocks containing it are recognized as a single body of water.

    In order to combat the depletion of fresh groundwater reserves, which are a strategic reserve for the drinking water supply of future generations, the following measures are envisaged: 1) rational placement of water intakes; 2) regulation of the groundwater withdrawal regime; 3) clarification of the amount of operational reserves (to prevent their depletion); 4) for self-flowing artesian wells, establishing a crane operating mode.

    Sometimes, to prevent groundwater depletion, artificial replenishment is used by converting part of the surface runoff into underground water.

    The fight against groundwater pollution includes preventive and special measures. Preventive measures are the main ones because they require the least cost. Special measures are aimed primarily at isolating sources of pollution from the rest of the aquifer (impervious walls, curtains), intercepting contaminated groundwater using drainage or pumping it out of special wells.

    The most important preventive measure to prevent groundwater pollution in areas of water intakes is the construction of sanitary protection zones around them.

    Sanitary protection zones (SPZ) consist of three zones. The first belt includes the territory at a distance of 30-50 m directly from the water intake site (well). This is a strict security zone; the presence of unauthorized persons and work not related to the operation of the water intake are prohibited. The second belt of the WSS serves to protect the aquifer from bacterial contamination, and the third - from chemical pollution. It is prohibited to place any objects that may cause any kind of pollution, such as livestock farms. Wood cutting, use of pesticides, etc. are not allowed.

    The Russian Ministry of Natural Resources approved in 1998 Guidelines on the development of standards for maximum permissible harmful effects (MPE) on groundwater bodies and maximum permissible discharges of harmful substances into groundwater bodies. MPE standards are a set of quantitative and qualitative indicators (characteristics) of processes and structures that can have a harmful effect on groundwater. If these standards are observed, the harmful effects do not exceed permissible limits.

    MPE standards are determined for each projected, constructed or operating economic activity facility in relation to a specific groundwater body that may be affected by the specified activity.

    Protection of small rivers

    There are over 2.5 million small (up to 100 km long) rivers in Russia. They form almost half of the total volume of river flow; up to 44% of the total urban population and almost 90% of the rural population live in their basins (Yu.V. Novikov, 1998).

    Small rivers, being a unique component of the geographic environment, perform the functions of a regulator of the water regime of certain landscapes, since they largely maintain equilibrium and redistribute moisture. Let us add to this that they determine the hydrological and hydrochemical specificity of medium and large rivers.

    Since the flow of small rivers is formed in close connection with the landscape of the basin, they are characterized by a high level of vulnerability, not only due to excessive use of water resources, but also during development of the catchment area. Intensive economic activity causes especially great harm to small rivers. Because of this, they quickly become overgrown and swamped, degrade and, ultimately, disappear.

    The protection of the waters of small rivers is closely related to the protection from pollution of the territory from which the river collects its waters. Experts have calculated that over a year, more than 4,000 tons of organic matter, 6,000 tons of suspended substances, and tens of tons of petroleum products enter the small rivers of the Vladimir region, and more than 2,000 tons of ammonia nitrogen and 600 tons of nitrates are washed away from the fields by floods and rains.

    Since small rivers have a significantly lower ability to self-purify than large ones, it is important to create water protection zones on their banks and strictly maintain their regime. The specified zone (width from 100 to 500 m) includes the floodplain, above-floodplain terraces, edges and steep slopes of the banks, ravines and ravines. It is recommended to create strips of forest or meadows with a width of 15 to 100 m along the banks. Plowing slopes along the banks, grazing, and construction is prohibited livestock farms, treatment of fields adjacent to rivers with pesticides. The ravines adjacent to the water protection zone must be strengthened, the springs that feed the small river must be cleared.

    Artificial aeration contributes to increasing the ability of small rivers to process biochemically oxidizable impurities that come with wastewater and discharges of polluted water. This is achieved by installing a dam with an overflow, due to which the water falling even from a small height is well saturated with oxygen.

    Industrial wastewater treatment

    Methods for treating industrial wastewater are divided into mechanical, chemical, physicochemical and biological.

    The following structures are used for mechanical cleaning: gratings, which retain coarse impurities larger than 5 mm in size; sieves that retain SW impurities up to 5 mm in size; sand traps, which serve to retain mineral pollutants from the waste water, mainly sand; grease traps, oil traps, oil traps, tar traps for catching relevant contaminants lighter than water from the waste water; settling tanks for sedimentation of suspended substances with a specific gravity greater than one.

    The operating principle of the sand trap is based on the fact that, under the influence of gravity, particles whose specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of water, as they move along with the water in the tank, settle to the bottom. In accordance with the laws of flow hydraulics, sand grains are carried away along with water only at a certain flow speed. When this speed decreases, grains of sand settle to the bottom of the tank, and the water flows further.

    Sand traps are horizontal, in which water moves in a horizontal direction, vertical, in which water moves vertically upward, and round with a helical (translational-rotational) movement of water.

    In the last sand traps processes occur similar to the phenomena observed in a tea cup. When stirring tea poured into a cup, the tea leaves collect in the center of the cup. When the SW moves in a circular manner in a circular sand trap, large sand particles are similarly collected in its center. Through a hole in the center of the sand trap they enter a special chamber.

    During mechanical purification from industrial waste water by straining, settling and filtering, up to 90% of insoluble mechanical impurities are removed of various nature(sand, clay particles, scale and others), and from household waste water - up to 60%.

    In order to purify waste water from petroleum products, the settling method is also widely used, which in this case is based on the ability of spontaneous separation of water and petroleum products. Particles of the latter, under the influence of surface tension forces, acquire a spherical shape, and their sizes range from 2 to 3 10 2 microns. The settling process is based on the principle of separation of petroleum products under the influence of the difference in density of water and oil particles. The content of petroleum products in wastewater varies widely and averages 100 mg/l.

    Oil products are separated in oil traps. Dirty water is supplied to the receiving chamber and, passing under the partition, enters the settling chamber, where the process of separation of water and oil products occurs. Purified water is removed from the oil trap, and oil products form a film on the surface of the water and are removed with a special device. Grease traps, oil traps and tar traps are designed in a similar way, using the principle of the difference in density between water and contaminants that are lighter (for example, oil) than water.

    Chemical methods are used to clean industrial wastewater. The main techniques are neutralization and oxidation-reduction; they can be used both independently and as auxiliary ones in combination with others.

    Industrial technological processes take place in both acidic (excess H + ions) and alkaline (excess OH -) environments, which leads to the appearance of corresponding wastewater. Balancing the amount of H + and OH - ions is the essence of the neutralization method for wastewater treatment.

    It is rational to combine acidic and alkaline wastewater. Disposal of acidic and alkaline wastewater through a single pipeline system is not always advisable, as this can cause precipitation in the pipes and, as a result, clogging of the network.

    In order to neutralize acidic waters, alkaline reagents are used: lime CaO, slaked lime Ca(OH) 2, soda ash Na 2 CO 3, caustic soda NaOH, ammonia water, as well as filtering through neutralizing materials (limestone, dolomite, magnesite, chalk).

    To neutralize alkaline waters, acids are most often used: sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, and less commonly acetic. It is also possible to use flue gases containing CO 2 SO 2 and NO 2 for these purposes.

    Wastewater containing oxidized variable-valent elements (Cr +6, Cl -, Cl +5, N -3, N +5, etc.) is neutralized in two stages. At the first stage, elements that are in the highest (or high) oxidation state are reduced to a lower (or intermediate) valency, at which this element can be separated from the liquid phase in the form of sediment, gas, or converted into a low-toxic form at the second stage of purification.

    The oxidative method is used to purify industrial wastewater from toxic cyanides, sulfides, mercaptans, phenols, cresols, etc. The reagents are chlorine and its derivatives (hypochlorites, dioxide, chlorates), oxygen, ozone, permanganates, chromates and dichromates, hydrogen peroxide. The reductive method is used to purify waste water from nitrites and nitrates, chromates and bichromates, chlorates and perchlorates, sulfates, bromates, and iodates. The reducing agents in this case are oxidized variable-valent elements contained in sulfites, sulfides, ferrous iron salts, and sulfur dioxide (from flue gases).

    Physicochemical methods are also mainly used for cleaning industrial wastewater. However, in lately some of them began to be used in the purification of urban wastewater. These include, in particular, coagulation - the process of enlargement of colloidal particles in a liquid due to the electrostatic forces of intermolecular interaction. With an initial particle size of 0.001 - 0.1 microns, after coagulation their size reaches 10 microns or more, i.e. those sizes at which they can be isolated by mechanical methods. Coagulation not only leads to the adhesion of particles, but also violates the aggregative stability of the polydisperse system, resulting in the separation of solid and liquid phases.

    A type of coagulation is the process of flocculation - the enlargement of fine particles due to electrostatic interaction under the influence of specially introduced polyelectrolytes - flocculants. In water treatment practice, activated silicic acid and polyacrylamide (PAA) are most widely used. The dose of coagulants and flocculants depends on the composition of the treated water and is specified during commissioning work at treatment facilities.

    Flotation is the process of separating suspended and emulsified contaminants from water into a foam layer as a result of adhesion to gas bubbles supplied from below in the liquid being purified.

    Sorption is a method of deep purification of industrial waste water from dissolved organic and some inorganic contaminants. In water treatment processes, it can be used either independently or in combination with other biological and chemical methods. Sorption allows not only to isolate and concentrate contaminants from waste water, but also to utilize them in the technological process, and use purified water in circulating water supply.

    The adsorption mechanism consists in the transfer of a solute molecule from the bulk of a liquid to the surface of a solid sorbent under the influence of its force field. Various natural and artificial materials are used as sorbents: ash, coke breeze, peat, zeolites, active clays, etc. Activated carbons are especially widely used for these purposes; the specific adsorption surface reaches 400-900 m 2 /g.

    For concentrated waste water containing organic contaminants of technical value, effective method purification is extraction. It is based on mixing two mutually insoluble liquids (one of which is waste water) and distributing the contaminated substance in them, according to solubility.

    Various organic substances are used as extractants: acetone, chloroform, butyl acetate, toluene, etc. The separation of the extractant and the extracted substance is carried out by distillation of the mixture. This determines one of the main requirements for choosing an extractant: different boiling temperatures of the extractant and the substance being released. After separating the mixture, the extractant is again used in the water purification cycle, and the substance is disposed of.

    Ion exchange is the extraction of cations and anions from contaminants dissolved in waste water using ion exchangers, which are solid natural or artificial materials (for example, artificial ion exchange resins). Substances extracted using ion exchange are subsequently recycled or destroyed. Cation exchangers enter into exchange with cations, anion exchangers with anions.

    Despite its efficiency and environmental friendliness, the ion exchange method has not found wide application in industry due to a shortage of ion exchange resins and the need to organize a reagent facility for the regeneration of ion exchangers.

    The biological method described above is the most environmentally friendly of all methods. One of the basic principles of ecology - “nature knows best” - is implemented here by microbial communities by transforming complex environmentally hazardous substances into simple, harmless ones.

    Development of waterless and drainless technologies

    It is estimated that 1 m 3 of untreated waste water entering a natural water body can pollute hundreds of cubic meters of clean water, thereby creating unacceptable conditions for the life of aquatic organisms. Therefore, technologies that either do not use water at all or do not produce polluted wastewater are promising. Their successful implementation into practice would completely solve the problem of protecting water bodies from pollution. Currently in a number of industries chemical industry, for example, in the production of ammonia, synthetic methanol and other products, they switched from water cooling of high-temperature gas mixtures to air. This removed the very pressing issues of fresh water intake for industrial needs and the formation of contaminated wastewater.

    Water supply technologies that are characterized by minimal consumption of fresh water are also promising. With closed technology, the enterprise takes water from a natural source, uses it to produce products, after which the resulting waste water undergoes deep purification and is returned to the cycle. Any small losses of water, for example due to evaporation, are replenished by drawing in fresh water.

    In a number of industries, closed water circulation schemes with local treatment have been partially implemented. Thus, in the petrochemical industry, recycled water supply saved 90% of water for production purposes.

    Preparation of water for drinking purposes

    The most important among water protection problems is the development of methods for preparing surface water for drinking purposes that are effective from an environmental and hygienic point of view.

    Contamination of natural sources of drinking water supply with insufficient efficiency of water treatment facilities entails a deterioration in the quality of drinking water supplied to consumers and creates a danger to public health in many regions of Russia, causes a high incidence of intestinal infections, hepatitis, and increases the risk of exposure to carcinogenic and mutagenic substances on the human body. factors.

    Every second resident of our country is forced to use water for drinking purposes that does not meet hygienic requirements for a number of indicators; almost a third of the country's population uses decentralized water supply sources without appropriate water treatment; the population of a number of regions suffers from a lack of drinking water and the lack of related sanitary and living conditions. Russia lags behind developed countries in terms of average duration life and increased mortality (especially among children) are largely associated with the consumption of poor quality water.

    For more than 100 years, the method of water disinfection with chlorine has been the most common method of combating pollution in Russia. In recent years, it has been found that water chlorination poses a serious threat to human health, since it produces extremely harmful organochlorine compounds and dioxins. The concentration of these substances in drinking water can be reduced by replacing chlorination with ozonation or treatment with UV rays. These advanced methods are being widely implemented at water treatment plants in many countries. Western Europe and the USA. In our country, unfortunately, due to economic difficulties, the use of environmentally efficient technologies is extremely slow.

    At a number of domestic water treatment stations, sorption processes using activated carbons(adsorbents) that effectively remove petroleum products, surfactants, pesticides, organochlorines and other compounds, including those with carcinogenic properties, from water.

    With the steady increase in technogenic pollution of surface waters in the world practice of drinking water supply in last decades There has been a tendency to switch to the use of artesian (ground) waters. Artesian waters compare favorably with surface waters: their level of mineralization, organic, bacterial and biological pollution is much lower. In some cases, such waters fully meet hygienic requirements and can be served to consumers without traditional preparation.

    However, if artesian waters are anoxic by their hydrochemical nature (do not contain dissolved oxygen), then they may contain reducing ingredients (Mn 2+, Fe 2+ ions and hydrogen sulfide) in concentrations exceeding the permissible ones. Then purification is necessary, which boils down to treating the water with strong oxidizing agents, for example, potassium permanganate, ozone, and oxygen chlorine compounds. As a result of processing, these impurities become insoluble and are then easily removed by filtration.

    State control over the use and protection of water resources

    In 1997, the Russian government approved the “Regulations on the implementation of state control over the use and protection of water bodies”, in accordance with which this control is carried out by the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR), departments of state control over the use and protection of water bodies of territorial bodies (basin bodies, that operate on the territory of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation).

    The main task of the Ministry of Natural Resources is to exercise state control over compliance with the requirements of the water legislation of Russia, standards, regulations, rules and other legal acts that are binding on all users of water bodies when they carry out all types of work related to the use and protection of water bodies, including internal sea ​​waters and territorial sea of ​​the Russian Federation. Together with the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision bodies, the Ministry exercises state control over the study, use and protection of underground water bodies, and together with the federal mining and industrial supervision bodies, over water bodies containing natural medicinal resources.

    State inspectors for control over the use and protection of water bodies are vested with broad powers, in particular they have the right to: visit, without prior notice, facilities and organizations that are water users and consumers, as well as, if necessary, military, defense and other facilities, taking into account the established regime for visiting them; give binding instructions to eliminate violations of the regime for using water bodies identified during inspections and monitor their implementation; inspect and, if necessary, detain ships (including foreign ones) that have illegally discharged pollutants or failed to take the necessary measures to prevent pollution of water bodies; present to organizations (including sensitive ones) and individuals requirements to take measures to improve the condition, use and protection of water bodies and to organize control over wastewater and its impact on water bodies; consider cases of administrative offenses and impose administrative penalties on persons guilty of violating water legislation.

    It should be borne in mind that decisions of state control bodies over the use and protection of water bodies are binding on all water users; they can only be appealed to a civil or arbitration court.

    Questions for self-control

    1. Describe the role that legislation plays in the integrated use and protection of water resources?
    2. What is water monitoring and who conducts it?
    3. Why are schemes for the integrated use and protection of water drawn up? Their types. What is a basin agreement?
    4. List the measures to protect surface waters.
    5. Why are water protection zones established? What role do water conservation forests play?
    6. What facilities are included in the artificial biological treatment system?
    7. List the activities. carried out to combat the depletion and pollution of groundwater.
    8. Why is the problem of protecting small rivers so acute today?
    9. List the methods for treating wastewater from enterprises.
    10. What are the main devices used in mechanical wastewater treatment?
    11. What processes are used in chemical and physicochemical wastewater treatment?
    12. Describe the role of drainless production in solving the problem of protecting water bodies.
    13. Why is chlorination of drinking water dangerous for consumers? What alternative methods of water disinfection to chlorination do you know?
    14. Who exercises state control over the use and protection of water bodies? What powers do government inspectors have?

    Legal protection of waters is a large system of legislatively enshrined measures aimed at comprehensively regulating the protection of waters from various types of pollution, depletion and clogging. Water pollution is a deterioration in their quality as a result of discharges into them, or the entry of various harmful substances into them in some other way, and clogging is a result of the ingress of suspended matter or objects into them. Depletion is a steady decrease in their volume.

    Water protection requires the development and implementation of national programs, regular organization of state accounting of all surface water resources, as well as cadastral accounting of water resources. In order to ensure strict compliance, both by legal entities and individual citizens of the Russian Federation, with norms, rules and standards in the use and protection of water resources, water protection zones and any other requirements of water protection laws, the executive authorities of all subjects of the country, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Those exercising control over the protection of our environment must constantly monitor them.

    The law stipulates that any use of any must be carried out with minimal harm to them. Water protection in nature must be carried out during any reclamation, agro-technical, hydraulic, technological, sanitary and other activities.

    Maintenance in such a state, which fully complies with all environmental requirements of both surface water and groundwater, is ensured by installing and strictly observing MPE standards (maximum permissible concentration) for any water bodies.

    Full water protection is carried out based on the following standards:

    1) The maximum permissible anthropogenic load, which in the long term will not lead to changes in the ecological system of a given water body.

    2) The maximum permissible mass of harmful substances, which, when it enters a water body or its catchment area, it can neutralize without harming itself. The protection of water, as well as ensuring the safety and health of the population using it, requires compliance with established standards for the content of both harmful and polluting substances, their maximum permissible concentrations in water. To maintain water quality that meets such standards,

    legislative norms regulating the negative impact on them have been sent, economic activity. Water protection is also aimed at identifying real and potential sources of water pollution. Such sources are recognized as objects that discharge or release any other type of harmful substances that impair the quality of both surface and groundwater.

    Water protection from pollution is carried out by regulating the activities of stationary and other sources of such pollution. All legal entities and individual citizens who operate any facilities that affect the state of waters are obliged to take all measures to prevent clogging, pollution and depletion of water resources.

    To discharge wastewater that contains any kind of wastewater, you must obtain a special license, which is issued by the Office for the Use and Protection of the Water Fund. But it will be issued only if their release into water bodies does not lead to an excess of any of the harmful substances contained in these effluents.

    Legal protection of water is a set of means, rules and norms that are aimed at ensuring the maintenance of integrity, as well as improving the quality of water resources in nature. IN modern world These measures are carried out with the help of various restrictions and prohibitions, however, it would be much more effective to form and develop a preventive system of measures that would prevent further violation of the quality characteristics of water resources and the destruction of existing ecological systems. The legal system of each state already has a sufficient number of laws and articles that state that any water resource needs protection from clogging, pollution and depletion of reserves.

    In nature, a set of these measures is vital to further ensure the normal life of every microorganism on Earth. Failure to comply with these rules can cause negative effects on the human body, as well as lead to the death of living organisms inhabiting aquatic systems.

    Terms and symbols

    Water protection implies the presence of special terms and designations. Here are some of them:

    1. Pollution. Water reserves are saturated and oversaturated with various foreign substances, which may be soluble or suspended.

    2. Level. Dangerous effects on human life and health.

    3. Clogging. Discharge of water-insoluble objects, garbage and waste, as well as human waste products into rivers and reservoirs. Do not forget about such phenomena as flooding, flooding and inundation. The result of these impacts is soil erosion, leaching of the fertile layer, destruction of territories and protective dams.

    4. Exhaustion. This implies a decrease in volume, and therefore a decrease in the water level in the reservoir.

    Cost reduction

    Water protection implies not only prohibitions and restrictions of all kinds, but also a careful, careful attitude to the use of water resources. For example, of the total volume of water required for land irrigation, approximately a quarter is lost due to evaporation and filtration. Water conservation can also result from waterproofing water channels, which is excellent for preventing water runoff and salinization in areas prone to dry seasons. The use of special sprinkler systems instead of conventional watering also has a beneficial effect. This allows you to reduce water losses, and therefore its consumption, several times. A special place is occupied by the method of irrigation, when water is supplied directly to the roots of the plant using the drip method.

    Additional measures

    Water protection consists of preventing evaporation, as well as strict control over the flow of water to each individual element of the flora. A method based on waste-free production, when a water resource, having already passed any stage of the production cycle, enters the next one, where it is used as a raw material. Unfortunately, this technology is currently only being developed.