People's militias in troubled times. Period of Troubles. People's militias

25.09.2019

RUSSIAN TROUBLES AND THE PEOPLE'S MILITARY.

1.1 Definitions of the Troubles

The concept of "Troubles" came into historiography from the popular vocabulary, meaning primarily anarchy and extreme disorder in public life.

According to K. S. Aksakov and V. O. Klyuchevsky, at the center of events was the problem of the legality of the supreme power. N.I. Kostomarov reduced the essence of the crisis to the political intervention of Poland and the intrigues of the Catholic Church. A similar view was expressed by the American historian J. Billington; he directly spoke of the Troubles as a religious war. I. E. Zabelin viewed the Troubles as a struggle between herd and national principles. The representative of the herd principle was the boyars, who sacrificed national interests for the sake of their own privileges. Such an idea was not alien to Klyuchevsky.

A significant block in the historiography of the Troubles is occupied by works where it is presented as a powerful social conflict. S. F. Platonov saw several levels of this conflict: between the boyars and the nobility, between landowners and the peasantry, etc. N. N. Firsov in 1927 spoke about the peasant revolution as a reaction to the development of commercial capital.

V. B. Kobrin defined the Time of Troubles as “a complex interweaving of various contradictions - class and national, intra-class and inter-class.”

EndXVI- XVIIV. - the time of the Troubles, the most severe political, social, spiritual, moral crisis that gripped Russian society and brought it to the brink of collapse.

1.2 Causes of the Troubles

The most significant causes of the Troubles are associated with the tragic consequences of the oprichnina and the Livonian War: the ruin of the economy, the growth of social tension, the silent ferment of almost all segments of the population. Russian historian S.F. Platonov found the exact words to describe the mood that arose in the country: “There was not a single public group that was happy with the way things were going... Everything was shocked... everything lost stability.” The reign of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor Ioannovich (1584-1598) did not change the situation for the better: the tsar was sick and weak, and he could not restrain the enmity of the boyar factions. The death of Ivan the Terrible's youngest son Dmitry in Uglich in 1591 deprived the last legitimate heir from the Rurik dynasty of the throne. Fyodor Ioannovich (1598), who died childless, was its last representative. The Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov (1598-1605) as Tsar, who ruled energetically and, according to historians, wisely. But he failed to stop the intrigues of the disgruntled boyars. Rumors about the tsar's involvement in the murder of Dmitry excited the country. The most severe crop failure of 1601-1603. and the subsequent famine made an explosion of social discontent inevitable.

External reasons were added to the internal reasons: the neighboring Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was in a hurry to take advantage of Russia’s growing weakness. The appearance in Poland of a young Galich nobleman, a monk of the Kremlin Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, who declared himself “the miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry,” became a real gift for King SigismundIIIand many tycoons. At the end of 1604, having converted to Catholicism, having achieved the tacit support of SigismundIII, having enlisted the help of the Polish magnate Mniszek (whose daughter Marina was declared his bride), False Dmitry entered the southern regions of Russia. Troubles have begun.

1.3 Reign of the False Dmitrievs

In the fall of 1604, False Dmitry invaded Russia, many cities in the south of Russia went over to the side of the impostor, he was supported by Cossack troops and thousands of disgruntled peasants. In April 1605, Boris Godunov suddenly died, and the boyars did not recognize his son Fedor as tsar; The army under the command of the tsarist governors Basmanov and Golitsyn goes over to the side of False Dmitry, Fedor and his mother are strangled. In June, the impostor becomes Tsar DmitryI. His further fate was predetermined: he could not fulfill the promises made to the Poles (convert Russia to Catholicism, give Poland significant territories). The boyars no longer needed Otrepyev. On May 17, 1606, dissatisfied with the arrogance of the Poles who gathered for the wedding of False Dmitry and Marina Mniszech, and with the wedding itself, which awarded the royal crown to a Catholic, the boyars rebelled.

The Muscovites, led by the Shuisky boyars, killed more than 1,000 Poles. Marina Mnishek was saved by the boyars. She and her entourage were exiled to Yaroslavl. False Dmitry, pursued by the rebels, jumped out of the window of the Kremlin Palace and was killed. Three days later, his corpse was burned, his ashes were placed in a cannon, from which they were fired in the direction from which the impostor came.

The Zemsky Sobor elected boyar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky as the new king, who gives a sign of the cross with a promise to rule together with the Boyar Duma, not to impose disgrace and not to execute without trial. Rumors are spreading again about Dmitry's new miraculous salvation. In the summer of 1606, an uprising broke out in Putivl, which was joined by very different segments of the population - peasants, townspeople, archers, nobles. The uprising is led by the fugitive military slave Ivan Bolotnikov. The rebels reach Moscow, besiege it, but are defeated (one of the reasons is that the nobles, led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov, went over to the side of the Tsar). Bolotnikov with his loyal supporters retreats to Tula and for several months resists the royal regiments. In the summer of 1607, the rebels surrendered, Bolotnikov was captured, exiled to Kargopol and killed there.

Meanwhile, the turmoil is growing. A new impostor, False Dmitry, appearsII(there is no exact information about who he was), the surviving participants in Bolotnikov’s uprising, the Cossacks led by Ivan Zarutsky, and Polish detachments unite around him. Marina Mnishek also recognizes the impostor as her husband. From June 1608 False DmitryIIsettles in the village of Tushino near Moscow (hence his nickname - “Tushino thief”) and besieges Moscow. The Troubles lead to the actual split of the country: two kings, two boyar dumas, two patriarchs (Hermogenes in Moscow and Filaret in Tushino), territories recognizing the power of False DmitryII, and territories remaining loyal to Shuisky.

1.4 Seven Boyars

The successes of the Tushenians forced Shuisky to conclude an agreement with Sweden, hostile to Poland, in February 1609. In exchange for the Russian fortress of Korela, the tsar receives military assistance, the Russian-Swedish army liberates a number of cities in the north of the country. But the participation of the Swedish corps in Russian events gives the Polish king SigismundIIIreason to start an open intervention: in the fall of 1609, Polish troops besieged Smolensk. Meanwhile, the actions of the Tushins (siege of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, robberies, looting) deprive False DmitryIIsupport of the population. The impostor flees from Tushino, and the Tushino residents who left him conclude an agreement with the Polish king at the beginning of 1610 on the election of the eldest son of the prince, Vladislav, to the Russian throne. The Poles, having inflicted a crushing defeat on the tsarist army near the village of Klushino, are rapidly approaching Moscow. In July 1610, the boyars forced Vasily Shuisky to abdicate the throne and announced that power was passing to a government of seven boyars - the Seven Boyars.

The Seven Boyars in August 1610 signed with SigismundIIIan agreement on the election of Vladislav as king, provided that he converts to Orthodoxy. In September, Polish troops enter Moscow.

The turmoil has not been overcome. The Seven Boyars have no real power; Vladislav refuses to fulfill the terms of the agreement and accept Orthodoxy. Patriotic sentiments are growing, and calls for an end to strife and restoration of unity are intensifying. The Moscow Patriarch Hermogenes becomes the center of gravity of patriotic forces, calling for a fight against the interventionists.

1.5 First militia

In 1611, the First Militia was created. Participating in it are the noble detachments of P. Lyapunov, the Cossacks of D. Trubetskoy and I. Zarutsky, and former Tushino residents. A temporary government body is established - the “Council of the Whole Earth”. In February of the same year, the militia moved towards Moscow. It was headed by the “Council of All the Earth”. The leading role in the militia was played by the Cossacks under the leadership of Ataman I. Zarutsky and Prince D.T. Trubetskoy and the nobles, headed by P.P. Lyapunov. The militia managed to capture the White City, but the Poles held Kitay-Gorod and the Kremlin.

The siege of Moscow dragged on. In the camp of the besiegers, contradictions grew between the nobles and the Cossacks. Adopted on June 30, 1611 on the initiative of Lyapunov, the “Sentence of the Whole Land” prohibited the appointment of Cossacks to positions in the management system and demanded that fugitive peasants and slaves be returned to their owners. This caused indignation among the Cossacks. Lyapunov was killed. In response, the nobles abandoned the militia, and it disintegrated.

On June 3, 1611, Smolensk fell. Sigismund announced that not Vladislav, but he himself would become the Russian Tsar. This meant that Russia would be included in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In July, the Swedes captured Novgorod and surrounding lands.

1.6 Second militia

In the fall of 1611, at the call of the Nizhny Novgorod merchant elder K.M. Minin, the formation of the Second Militia began. The leading role in it was played by the townspeople. Prince D.M. became the military leader. Pozharsky. Minin and Pozharsky headed the “Council of the Whole Earth”. Funds for arming the militia were obtained thanks to voluntary donations from the population and mandatory taxation on a fifth of property. Yaroslavl became the center for the formation of the new militia.

In August 1612, the Second Militia united with the remnants of the First Militia, still besieging Moscow. At the end of August, the militia did not allow Polish Hetman Y.K. to break into Moscow. Khodkevich, who went to the aid of the garrison with a larger convoy. At the end of October, Moscow was liberated.

1.7 Accession of the Romanovs.

In January 1613, in order to elect a new tsar, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, at which the question of choosing a new Russian tsar was raised. The Polish prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl Philip, the son of False Dmitry, were proposed as candidates for the Russian throne.IIand Marina Mnishek Ivan, nicknamed “Vorenko”, as well as representatives of the largest boyar families.

From many candidates, the Council selects the 16-year-old grand-nephew of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife Anastasia Romanova, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, a representative of an ancient and popular boyar family among various segments of the population, with whom hopes are associated for a return to order, peace and antiquity. An embassy was sent to the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma, where Mikhail and his mother were at that time. Mikhail arrived in Moscow and was crowned king on July 11. Soon, the leading place in governing the country was taken by his father, Patriarch Filaret, who “mastered all royal and military affairs.” Power was restored in the form of an autocratic monarchy. The leaders of the fight against the interventionists received modest appointments. D.M. Pozharsky was sent by the governor to Mozhaisk, and K. Minin became the Duma governor.

The government of Mikhail Fedorovich faced the most difficult task - eliminating the consequences of the intervention. The greatest danger to him was posed by the Cossack detachments that wandered around the country and did not recognize the new king. Among them, the most formidable was Ivan Zarutsky, to whom Marina Mnishek moved with her son. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky to the Moscow government in 1614. I. Zarutsky and “Vorenok” were hanged, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she probably died soon.

The Swedes posed another danger. After several military clashes and then negotiations, the Peace of Stolbovo was concluded in 1617 (in the village of Stolbovo, near Tikhvin). Sweden returned to Russia Novgorod land, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation. After the Peace of Stolbovo, King Gustav Adolf said that now “Russia is not a dangerous neighbor... it is separated from Sweden by swamps, fortresses, and it will be difficult for the Russians to cross this “trickle” (the Neva River).

The Polish prince Vladislav, who sought to gain the Russian throne, organized in 1617-1618. march to Moscow. He reached the Arbat Gate of Moscow, but was repulsed. In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618, the Deulino truce was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which retained the Smolensk and Chernigov lands. There was an exchange of prisoners. Vladislav did not give up his claims to the Russian throne.

So basically territorial unity Russia was restored, although part of the Russian lands remained with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. These are the consequences of the events of the Troubles in foreign policy Russia. In the internal political life of the state, the role of the nobility and the upper classes of the town increased significantly.

During the Time of Troubles, in which all layers and classes of Russian society took part, the question of the very existence of the Russian state and the choice of the path of development of the country was decided. It was necessary to find ways for the people to survive. Troubles settled primarily in the minds and souls of people. Under specific starting conditionsXVIIV. a way out of the Troubles was found in the regions and the center realizing the need for strong statehood. The idea of giving everything for the common good, rather than seeking personal gain, has prevailed in people's minds.

After the Time of Troubles, a choice was made in favor of preserving the largest power in eastern Europe. In the specific geopolitical conditions of that time, the path was chosen further development Russia: autocracy as a form political rule, serfdom as the basis of the economy, Orthodoxy as an ideology, the class stratum as a social structure.

The long and difficult crisis was finally broken. According to many historians, the Time of Troubles was the first civil war in Russian history.

The time of troubles at the beginning of the 17th century became a serious test of strength for the Moscow state: the Polish-Swedish intervention was aimed at dividing it, and in order to prevent this, the people organized themselves into the first militia in 1611. However, serious contradictions soon emerged between its leaders, which led to the collapse of the first national formation in Russian history.

Time of Troubles

In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich, the Rurik dynasty that had ruled the Russian lands since time immemorial came to an end. As a result of lengthy intrigues, Boris Godunov (1598-1605), the brother-in-law of the late tsar, became the new tsar. He came from a family of noble boyars, but despite this, he managed to rise to the pinnacle of power and had every opportunity to become the founder of a new dynasty. Prevented this dark story from the past: in 1591, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry, died in Uglich under mysterious circumstances. Rumors immediately spread that Godunov was involved in this. The death of Dmitry allowed the phenomenon of imposture to develop, which largely provoked the Troubles in the Russian state.

False Dmitry

The first impostor was the fugitive monk of the Chudov Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev. In 1605, Godunov died suddenly, and with the support of Polish troops, Otrepiev managed to take the throne. But his defiant behavior turned all layers of society against the new king, and as a result of a conspiracy he was killed. Boyar Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), a representative of a side branch of the Rurikovichs, became the new tsar. He was not popular, did not possess significant forces, and during his reign Russia was gradually engulfed by Civil War. The strongest blow to his power was dealt by the appearance of a new Tsarevich Dmitry, who miraculously escaped, and occupied the village of Tushino near Moscow. Realizing that anarchy in the Muscovite kingdom was becoming widespread, Poland and Sweden considered the moment opportune for an open invasion, supposedly with the aim of supporting the legitimate tsar.

Intervention

Open interference of these two countries in Russian affairs began after the deposition of Shuisky. Former king, despite resistance, was tonsured a monk. The boyars swore allegiance to the Polish, but set the condition for his conversion to Orthodoxy. During the interregnum, a committee of seven representatives of the most noble families was elected, which went down in history as the Seven Boyars. Sigismund delayed negotiations on the Orthodox baptism of his son in every possible way and, perhaps, planned to become the Tsar of Moscow himself. The formal recognition of Vladislav's power allowed the Poles to rule in Moscow. They no longer needed False Dmitry II. In December 1610 he was killed.

The first zemstvo militia would not have been possible if not for the activities of the highest hierarch of the Russian Orthodox Church. Seeing the chaos that had engulfed the Muscovite kingdom, and also understanding the aspirations of the Poles to turn Russia into one of the provinces of their state, he began to disseminate appeals, the essence of which boiled down to the need to repel the invaders. The Patriarch spoke about this in sermons and during services. Gradually, the idea of a militia took root in the minds of both representatives of the upper stratum of society and the lower classes.

The Poles created all sorts of obstacles to the patriarch's activities. He was forcibly removed from the throne and imprisoned in the Chudov Monastery, where he died of hunger in 1612.

Organization of the people's militia

The patriarchal letters made the greatest impression in Ryazan. Local governor Prokopiy Lyapunov announced a fundraiser to organize a militia. Soon he was joined by former supporters of False Dmitry II, led by Prince Trubetskoy and Cossack ataman Zarutsky. The official goal of the first militia of 1611 was a march on Moscow and its liberation from the Poles.

In a fairly short time, Lyapunov managed to gather a significant army. In addition to purely Ryazan formations and Tushino detachments, regiments from Vladimir, Murom, Yaroslavl, Suzdal and other cities joined the militia. The support of Nizhny Novgorod residents was especially significant. The importance of this city and its arsenal were so great that Lyapunov sent his representatives there to ask for support. It was then that the dates for the march on Moscow were agreed upon.

Start of hostilities

As already mentioned, the Poles mainly counted on the growing unrest in the Russian state. The emergence of a patriotic spirit popular formation was not part of their plans. That is why the interventionists tried to destroy this idea in the bud by invading the Ryazan lands. Lyapunov was besieged in Pronsk, but the regiments of Prince Dmitry Pozharsky managed to free the Ryazan governor.

On February 17, 1611, the main part of the Nizhny Novgorod regiments advanced to Moscow, simultaneously connecting with other formations. March 19 The first militia was already at the walls of Moscow. Having learned about this, the residents of the capital rebelled against the power of the Poles. This did not allow the interventionists to immediately engage in battle with the militia, and some of their regiments were able to penetrate into Moscow. Prince Pozharsky was able to break through to Sretenka and drive the Poles to Kitay-Gorod. During this operation he was seriously injured. The actions of other units were no less successful. Realizing that it would not be possible to cope with the militias by force, the Poles set Moscow on fire.

Arrival of new troops and discord

On March 24, Cossack detachments led by Ataman Prosovetsky approached the walls of Moscow. They had at their disposal siege weapons and “walking cities” - small mobile fortresses, usually made from ordinary carts. Three days later, the main forces of the militia, led by Lyapunov, appeared at the walls of the capital. By the beginning of April, there were a little more than a hundred thousand people near Moscow.

The first people's militia of 1611 failed to become a unified organization. The leaders of individual detachments, Cossack atamans, and governors could not agree among themselves. Formally, a collegial governing body was created - the Council of the Whole Land. In fact, this similarity to the familiar Boyar Duma led endless debates about who would lead the first militia. In 1611, full awareness of the need for a joint action against the invaders had not yet occurred.

Organizational design of the militia

Local disputes and the struggle for power led to the fact that such significant forces gathered near Moscow were virtually inactive. At the beginning of April, shelling of the capital's towers was still underway, but they soon stopped.

The militia leaders managed to reach a shaky agreement. The council of the entire land was headed by Lyapunov, Zarutsky and Trubetskoy. After some time, the “Verdict” was adopted, according to which a control system was established both in the militia and in the lands under its control. This document repeated the structure of government institutions that existed even before the dynastic crisis and related events. In particular, the entire land controlled by the Council was introduced. Among the most important are Razryadny, Zemsky and Local.

Collapse of the First Militia

The division of supreme power between the three leaders of the popular formation was a compromise step. Since the powers of one were limited by the powers of the other two leaders of the Council of the Whole Land, a struggle for sole power was inevitable between them. Thus, the leaders of the first militia of 1611 quickly forgot about the reasons for its formation.

The Polish interventionists understood this very well. Having made sure that it was precisely due to internal contradictions that the militia was not able to begin the assault on Moscow, the invaders tried with all their might to prevent the cessation of internal struggle in him. For this purpose, falsified documents were sent to Zarutsky’s Cossacks, from which it followed that Lyapunov intended to disband their regiments. Believing the insinuations, the Cossacks summoned Lyapunov to their gathering and hacked him to death. The consequence of this was the withdrawal of the noble regiments from near Moscow.

From this moment on, the first militia actually ceases to exist. At the walls of the capital, only Cossack detachments remained, commanded by Zarutsky and Trubetskoy. This situation continued until the arrival of the forces of the second militia, assembled by Prince Pozharsky and the Nizhny Novgorod merchant

The Council of the Whole Land formally continued to remain supreme body authorities in territories not subject to the Poles. However, the absence of a single leader led to the emergence of a new impostor. On March 2, the Council swore allegiance to False Dmitry III. Subsequently, this made it possible not to listen to his opinion for years.

The meaning of the militia

Despite the lack of practical benefit, the activities of the First Home Guard meant a lot for the further fight against the Poles and Swedes. For the first time, the ability of the people to self-organize in a critical situation was demonstrated. The very idea of a people's militia was picked up and developed by one of its most prominent participants - Prince Pozharsky. When creating a new popular formation, he took into account the mistakes of the past. In particular, the new association did not consider it necessary to cooperate with people from Tushino, whose participation, by and large, led the First Militia to collapse. On the other hand, the existence of such powerful opposition in the country to the plans of the Polish gentry forced the Polish king to seriously think about further prospects for intervention. Thus, the psychological effect is the main result of the first militia of 1611.

The Second Militia of 1612 was led by the Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin, who invited Prince Pozharsky to lead military operations. An important thing that Pozharsky and Minin were able to accomplish was the organization and unity of all patriotic forces. In February 1612, the militia moved to Yaroslavl to occupy this important point, where many roads crossed. Yaroslavl was busy; The militia stood here for four months, because it was necessary to “build” not only the army, but also the “land.” Pozharsky wanted to gather a “general zemstvo council” to discuss plans to combat the Polish-Lithuanian intervention and “how can we not be stateless in this evil time and choose a sovereign for us with the whole earth.” The candidacy of the Swedish prince Karl Philip, who “wants to be baptized into our Orthodox faith of Greek law,” was also proposed for discussion. However, the zemstvo council did not take place.

Meanwhile, the first militia completely disintegrated. Ivan Zarutsky and his supporters went to Kolomna, and from there to Astrakhan. Following them, several hundred more Cossacks left, but the bulk of them, led by Prince Trubetskoy, remained to hold the siege of Moscow.

In August 1612, the militia of Minin and Pozharsky entered Moscow and united with the remnants of the first militia. On August 22, Hetman Khodkevich tried to break through to the aid of his besieged compatriots, but after three days of fighting he was forced to retreat with heavy losses.

On September 22, 1612, one of the bloodiest events of the Time of Troubles took place - the city of Vologda was taken by the Poles and Cherkasy (Cossacks), who destroyed almost its entire population, including the monks of the Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery.

On October 22, 1612, the militia led by Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky took Kitay-Gorod by storm; The garrison of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth retreated to the Kremlin. Prince Pozharsky entered Kitai-Gorod with the Kazan Icon Mother of God and vowed to build a temple in memory of this victory.

The Poles held out in the Kremlin for another month; in order to get rid of extra mouths, they ordered the boyars and all Russian people to send their wives out of the Kremlin. The boyars were very upset and sent Minin to Pozharsky and all the military men with a request to please accept their wives without shame. Pozharsky ordered them to tell them to let their wives out without fear, and he himself went to receive them, received everyone honestly and escorted each one to his friend, ordering everyone to please them.

Driven to extremes by hunger, the Poles finally entered into negotiations with the militia, demanding only one thing, that their lives be saved, which was promised. First, the boyars were released - Fyodor Ivanovich Mstislavsky, Ivan Mikhailovich Vorotynsky, Ivan Nikitich Romanov with his nephew Mikhail Fedorovich and the latter’s mother Marfa Ivanovna and all other Russian people. When the Cossacks saw that the boyars had gathered on the Stone Bridge, which led from the Kremlin through Neglinnaya, they wanted to rush at them, but were restrained by Pozharsky’s militia and forced to return to the camps, after which the boyars were received with great honor. The next day the Poles also surrendered: Coward and his regiment fell to Trubetskoy’s Cossacks, who robbed and beat many prisoners; Budzilo and his regiment were taken to Pozharsky’s warriors, who did not touch a single Pole. Coward was interrogated, Andronov was tortured, how many royal treasures were lost, how many remained? They also found ancient royal hats, which were given as pawn to the Sapezhin residents who remained in the Kremlin. On November 27, Trubetskoy’s militia converged on the Church of the Kazan Mother of God outside the Intercession Gate, Pozharsky’s militia - on the Church of St. John the Merciful on Arbat and, taking crosses and icons, moved to Kitai-Gorod from two different sides, accompanied by all Moscow residents; militias converged on Execution Place, where the Trinity Archimandrite Dionysius began to serve a prayer service, and from the Frolovsky (Spassky) gates, from the Kremlin, another procession of the cross appeared: the Galasun (Arkhangelsk) Archbishop Arseny walked with the Kremlin clergy and carried the Vladimirskaya: screams and sobs rang out among the people who had already lost there was hope to someday see this image, dear to Muscovites and all Russians. After the prayer service, the army and people moved to the Kremlin, and here joy gave way to sadness when they saw the state in which the embittered infidels left the churches: uncleanness everywhere, images were cut, eyes were turned out, thrones were torn; terrible food is prepared in the vats - human corpses! The mass and prayer service in the Assumption Cathedral ended a great national celebration similar to which our fathers saw exactly two centuries later.”

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The time of troubles in the history of Russia can be called a period lasting 14–15 years (from 1598 to 1613) from the time of the death of Fyodor Ivanovich (son of Ivan IV) until the election to the throne of the founder of the new dynasty - Mikhail Romanov, a relative of the first wife of Ivan IV.

This is a period of civil war, interregnum, imposture and intervention. The causes of the unrest were the aggravation of social, class, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and under his successors. All social strata of society come into conflict. The boyars fought to limit the tsarist power and restore their privileges, the nobility sought the possibility of promotion for personal qualities, and not for the nobility of the family, the peasantry opposed the strengthening of serfdom, the free Cossacks refused to obey the authorities in general and turned to robbery. There is a “great destruction of the Moscow state”, weakness state power leads to disobedience of the outskirts to the center. Hard times affected all aspects of Russian life and raised the question of the very existence of the Russian state.

The Troubles can be roughly divided into three periods.

Dynastic period. The main content of this period of Troubles (1598–1606) was the struggle of various boyar families and political forces for the royal throne, that is, the supreme power in the state. After the death of Ivan the Terrible's eldest son, Tsar Fedor, in January 1598, the Rurik dynasty ceased to exist. There were no legitimate heirs to the throne, since the youngest son of Ivan IV, Tsarevich Dmitry, under very mysterious circumstances, died in Uglich at the age of eight and a half years.

Despite the resistance of the Boyar Duma, on February 17, 1598, the Zemsky Sobor, at the proposal of Patriarch Job, elected Boris Godunov (1598–1605) as tsar. Thus, taking into account his reign under Tsar Feodor, Boris Godunov led the Russian state for at least 16 years. As a ruler and then sovereign, B. Godunov was distinguished by his talents as an administrator and diplomat. Under him, silence and relative order were established in Rus'. However, in the beginning XVII century The reign of B. Godunov was complicated by the appearance in Russia in 1603 of an impostor in the person of the monk Grigory Otrepyev. The latter declared himself miraculously saved youngest son I. the Terrible - Uglich prince Dmitry, which is why he went down in history under the name of False Dmitry I.

Famine in the country, imposture, as well as the unexpected, sudden death of Boris Godunov on April 13, 1605 led to the fact that the boyars recognized False Dmitry I as king. But he reigned for less than a year. On the night of May 17, 1606, about 200 armed nobles led by V. Shuisky and the Golitsyn brothers broke into the Kremlin, killed the guards and killed the impostor. The throne passed to the boyar Tsar V. Shuisky (1606–1610). He was not elected by the Zemsky Sobor; he was brought to power by the boyars, who shouted him tsar on Red Square.

Social period. With the accession of V. Shuisky, the 2nd period of the Troubles began (1606–1610). It is characterized by three main events.

One of them was the country's plunge into the abyss of civil war. Its most dramatic pages are associated with the name of Ivan Bolotnikov. On Bolotnikov’s side there was also the nobility, who fought against the boyar aristocracy, its protege V. Shuisky and the oprichnina boyars; and the old boyar oligarchy (Mstislavsky, Shuisky, Golitsyn, etc.), who wanted to restore the pre-oprich order; and the new (oprichnina) boyars (Belskys, Shakhovskys, Romanovs, Sheremetevs, etc.), who fought against the old boyars and sought to destroy them together with V. Shuisky; and peasants (owners and black-sown farmers) who fought against the strengthening of serfdom and the “fake” Tsar Shuisky; and the Cossacks, who opposed the extension of serfdom to the Cossack regions and the reduction of their privileges; and the townspeople, opposed to the boyars, and then against Bolotnikov. Thus, all major segments of the country's population were involved in the war.

To others important event was the appearance in the summer of 1607 of a new impostor - False Dmitry II. He was a protege of large Polish magnates and nobility. Thus, the civil war in Russia was complemented and complicated by hidden foreign (Polish) intervention. In the summer of 1608, the impostor approached Moscow and began its siege, setting up his camp in Tushino. Hence his nickname “Tushino thief”. A situation arose when both Shuisky and the impostor did not have enough strength to defeat each other.

The third event of the social period of the Troubles was the beginning of an open Polish-Swedish military-Catholic intervention against Russia. In 1609, Shuisky, in exchange for territorial and political concessions, concluded an agreement with Sweden, according to which the king gave 2 thousand cavalry and 3 thousand infantry to the mercenary army. This allowed the Russian-Swedish army under the command of the young (24 years old) but talented commander M.V. Skopin-Shuisky in the spring of 1610 to defeat the impostor and release Moscow. However, Poland, which was then at war with Sweden, began an open intervention in Russia, besieging Smolensk in the fall of 1609. The robberies and violence committed by the Poles, their attempts to impose Catholicism in an Orthodox country, awakened the Russian people to fight against foreigners and infidels. Sweden also decided to take advantage of Russia's difficult situation. She began an open intervention against our country, occupying most of the Novgorod region (in July 1611, Novgorod was also captured).

National period. The main content of this period was the real threat of the loss of national independence by the Russian people and their struggle against the Polish-Lithuanian and Swedish intervention.

In July 1610, Tsar Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the boyars. As a result, the power of the Boyar Duma was established in the country in the form of the Seven Boyars - the power of the seven most noble members of the Duma, led by Prince F. Mstislavsky.

The Seven Boyars committed an act of national treason by concluding an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund III on the calling of his son Vladislav (Catholic) to the Russian throne instead of the deposed Orthodox king. On September 21, 1610, Polish invaders occupied Moscow. At the same time, mercenary Swedish troops captured Novgorod on July 16, 1611. King Charles IX nominated his son Prince Charles Philip to the Russian throne. By the spring of 1612, in the north-west of Russia, the Swedes captured Yam, Oreshek, Porkhov, Ladoga, Tikhvin.

Thus, in the third period of the Troubles, the question was not only about the earthly existence of the Russian people, but also (which was then considered much more important) about the Catholicization of their soul, that is, about their loss of eternal life. This threat became one of the main reasons for the beginning and growth of the popular movement against the Swedish and Polish military-Catholic intervention.

The most important event of the national period of the Time of Troubles was the popular movement against the military-Catholic intervention, the creation of two people's militias.

First militia was formed in the spring of 1611 on Ryazan land under the leadership of the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov, his brother Zakhary and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. However, there was still no spiritual unity in him. Therefore, this militia, which blocked the Poles in Moscow, split from within.

Second militia formed in the autumn of 1611 in Nizhny Novgorod led by Kuzma Minin (?–1616), Nizhny Novgorod headman. Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky (1578–1642) was elected voivode. The spiritual father of the Second Militia was the head of the Nizhny Novgorod clergy, Archpriest Savva Efimiev. Patriarch Hermogenes played a huge role in the all-Russian cause, calling on the Russian people to rise up to fight against the Catholic invaders. In March 1612, the Second Militia went on a campaign against Moscow, and already on October 26 liberated it from the invaders, having previously (August 22–24) crushed a strong regular Polish army led by Hetman Khodkevich, rushing to the aid of the Polish garrison in the Kremlin. Currently November 4th is the day military glory Russia - The day of the liberation of Moscow by the people's militia under the leadership of Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky from the Polish invaders. Inspired by the liberation of Moscow, the people began to drive out the invaders everywhere.

On February 21, 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected the 16-year-old son of Metropolitan Philaret, Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613–1645), the nephew of the former Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, the son of Ivan the Terrible, as Russian Tsar. Continuity with the Rurikovichs was respected. Filaret, who returned from Polish captivity, was elected Patriarch of All Rus' in 1619. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “the end of the Troubles was put by the accession to the throne of Mikhail Romanov, who became the founder of a new dynasty” that existed for 304 years.

With the coming to power of the Romanovs, the restoration of the Russian state begins on the religious, moral, spiritual traditions and socio-political foundations of civilization of the Orthodox type.

The first people's militia is the collective name of the liberation movement against Moscow in 1611 (during the Time of Troubles) against foreign invaders under the leadership of Zarutsky, Lyapunov and Trubetskoy.

The militia was preceded by the extremely difficult situation in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. The two-year Norwegian occupation of Novgorod, Polish power in Moscow, internal devastation, bandit gangs of thieves within the country - all this could not remain unpunished for such a long time. At the same time, the government in the person of the boyar duma lost its authority. The country was practically in a state of anarchy. In different regions of the country, the power of the Polish king, False Dmitry II, his son, and local leaders of robber groups was recognized. In such anarchic conditions, swift and radical steps were needed.

The people's militia was not gathered in the capital. The elected authorities in the provinces were the first to succumb to the oppression. They wanted to break with the power of the “traitors” who settled in the Kremlin. To do this, the rulers exchanged letters with each other, in which they discussed steps to organize and create a general army to liberate Moscow, and then at the Zemsky Sobor to elect a tsar according to all laws.

The success in organizing the militia is associated with the name, which from the very beginning of the events of 1611 began to send a letter to Russian cities, in which it called for an end to the plunder of the fatherland, the desecration of churches and shrines, and the shedding of innocent Russian blood.

The first to respond to the letter was from Ryazan, who very warmly responded to the patriarch’s letter and already began sending out the letter to the nearest cities with a request to join the fight against. Prince Dmitry Trubetskoy did the same. Having learned about the Ryazan uprising, the Pole called upon the Little Russian Cossacks to ravage the cities around Ryazan. During the defense of Pronsk, Voivode Lyapunov came under siege, although he recaptured the city. The troops of Prince Pozharsky came to his aid and managed to defeat the Cossacks who were besieging Pronsk. Pozharsky himself went to Zaraysk, where the surviving Cossacks at night captured the Kremlin fort in Zaraysk, where the governor Pozharsky was. But the prince managed to defeat them. The rest of the Cossack army fled.

Meanwhile, residents of Galich, Kostroma, Vologda, and a number of Siberian and Volga provinces responded to the letters. As a result, the First Militia was convened. The militia led by Lyapunov was significantly strengthened by former adherents,” who, over time, destroyed his enterprise. Among the militia were the Cossacks Prosovetsky and Zarutsky with their “Cossack freemen”. The first zemstvo militia was led by Prince Lyapunov.

March to liberate Moscow

Throughout the winter of 1611, detachments of the First Militia were formed in different cities (Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir, etc.). Already by March 1611, these regiments approached the capital and took the capital under siege.

The besieged Polish garrison of seven thousand was headed by Hetman Gonsevsky. The educated army consisted of 2 thousand German mercenaries. Seeing the regiments of their compatriots arrive in time, Muscovites rebelled against the invaders. In addition, the advanced detachments of Kotlovsky, Pozharsky and Buturliny penetrated into the city from the outer perimeter of the siege. Kotlovsky’s detachment fought with the Poles at Zamoskvorechye, Pozharsky’s detachment at Sretenka, Buturlin’s detachment at the Yauz Gate. Unfortunately, the Poles and their henchmen from among the Russian boyars managed to thwart the internal uprising.

Finding no other way out, the strangers started a fire. To do this, they appointed special companies, which were tasked with setting fire to houses in different parts cities. Seeing numerous fires in various parts Moscow, the townspeople began to save their relatives and their property. The fire turned out to be uncontrollable and engulfed almost all of Moscow. In general panic, many temples were looted. Less than half of the Moscow suburb was preserved. But the goal was accomplished: the rebel townspeople forgot about their rebellion. During this uprising, according to modern historical data, about seven thousand capital residents died.

The first militia managed to reach Moscow and enter the capital only a few days after the fire. A combined army from different cities entered the burning city.

The counterattack of the First Militia, which was located at Lubyanka, was launched on March 20. In this attack, the Poles seriously wounded Prince Pozharsky. He was taken to the Trinity Monastery. But the invaders failed to take control of Zamoskvorechye. They had to retreat to the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod.

On March 24, an attempt was made to storm Moscow by Prosovetsky’s Cossack detachment that arrived in time. However, he was counterattacked and forced to retreat, suffering heavy losses (about 200 people). The Poles did not continue the attack of the Cossacks who went on the defensive and remained in place and retreated to the capital.

The main 100,000-strong militia approached the capital only on March 27 and stopped at the Simonov Monastery. All militia forces were fully assembled on April 1. On April 6, the militia attacked the defense towers of the White City, and on May 22 they stormed Kitay-Gorod. The militia recaptured the White City and besieged the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod (which were not affected by the fire). The besieged Poles were able to repel all attempts to storm these powerful fortifications.

Failure of the People's Militia

Arriving near Moscow, the militia took up not active assault operations, but restoration central government. The militia included representatives of different classes. On the basis of the militia headquarters, a numerous Zemsky Sobor was convened, which included boyars, clerks, Tatar khans, princes, nobles, service people, officials, Cossacks and other classes.

The reasons for the defeat and collapse remain controversial. The militia lacked training and discipline. Therefore, soon discord and hostility began in the camp between the Cossacks, who only sought to consolidate and increase their liberties, and the nobles, who sought to strengthen discipline and serfdom. Poles and adherents of the Seven Boyars also threw firewood into the fire of discord, who sent false letters to the Cossacks, which mentioned Governor Lyapunov’s intention to destroy the Cossacks as a class. This played a role and led to the death of Lyapunov, who was accused of treason by the Cossacks in the Cossack circle and executed. The nobles, without their military leader, returned to their native estates and houses. The militia became decentralized and completely disintegrated. Only part Cossack army continued to camp near the capital and periodically storm the besieged foreigners.

Results of the First Militia

The date of the final collapse of the 1st militia can be considered July 28, 1612, when an active participant in the hostilities, Ataman Zarutsky, with his 3,000-strong Cossack detachment moved away from Moscow, losing primacy to the vanguard. In September 1612, the remaining troops of Dmitry Timofeevich Trubetskoy became part of. This is considered to be the end of the 1st militia.

The militia never managed to liberate Moscow from the Poles. The situation in the state was catastrophic. The first militia came to nothing decisively. But nevertheless, it was the first attempt of Russian people from different classes and social groups unite and organize yourself. The nobles fought side by side with people of military rank and Cossacks. The militia army was voluntary, and military ranks were elected. As a result of the activities of the First Militia, traditions of self-organization of the people were laid to solve national political problems.