The second period of ancient Russian literature. Periodization of Old Russian literature

16.04.2019

According to the established tradition in the development ancient Russian literature There are three main stages associated with periods of development of the Russian state:

I. Literature ancient Russian state XI - first half XIII centuries The literature of this period is often called literature Kievan Rus.

II. Literature of the period feudal fragmentation and the struggle for the unification of northeastern Rus' (second half of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries).

III. Literature from the period of creation and development of the centralized Russian state (XVI-XVII centuries).

However, when periodizing the literary process, it is necessary to take into account:

1. A range of original and translated monuments that appeared in a given period.
2. The nature of ideas and images reflected in literature.
3. The leading principles of displaying reality and the nature of genres and styles that determine the specifics literary development of this period.

The first monuments of ancient Russian writing that have come down to us are known only from the second half of the 11th century: the Ostromir Gospel (1056–1057), “Izbornik of the Grand Duke Svyatoslav of 1073,” “Izbornik of 1076.” Most of the works created in the 11th–12th centuries survived only in later lists XIV–XVII centuries

However, the intensive development of writing in Rus' began after the official adoption of Christianity in 988. At the same time, a certain education system arose. In the 30s of the 11th century. in Kyiv there are “many scribes” who not only copy books, but also translate them from Greek language on "Slovenian letter" All this allows us to highlight the end of the 10th - the first half of the 11th century. as the first, initial, period of formation of Old Russian literature. True, we can only speak hypothetically about the range of works of this period, their themes, ideas, genres and styles.

The predominant place in the literature of this period was occupied by apparently, books of religious and moral content: Gospels, Apostle, Service Menaions, Synaxari. During this period, the translation of the Greek chronicles was carried out, on the basis of which the “Chronograph of the Great Exposition” was compiled. At the same time, records of oral legends about the spread of Christianity in Rus' arose. The artistic pinnacle of this period and the beginning of a new one was Hilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace.”

The second period - the middle of the 11th - the first third of the 12th century - the literature of Kievan Rus. This is the heyday of original ancient Russian literature, represented by the genres of didactic “word” (Theodosius of Pechersky, Luka Zhidyata), genre varieties original lives ("Tale" and "Reading" about Boris and Gleb, "Life of Theodosius of Pechersk", "Memory and Praise to Prince Vladimir"), historical tales, stories, traditions that formed the basis of the chronicle, which in beginning of XII V. is called "The Tale of Bygone Years". At the same time, the first “walk” appeared - the journey of Abbot Daniel and such an original work as the “Teaching” of Vladimir Monomakh.

Translated literature during this period is widely represented by philosophical-didactic and moral-didactic collections, patericons, historical chronicles, and apocryphal works.

Central theme original literature becomes the theme of the Russian land, the idea of its greatness, integrity, sovereignty. Its devotees are the spiritual lights of the Russian land and the ideal of moral beauty. to his "toil and sweat" formidable princes build the fatherland - "good sufferers for the Russian land."

During this period they develop various styles: epic, documentary-historical, didactic, emotionally expressive, hagiographic, which are sometimes present in the same work.

The third period falls on the second third of the 12th - first half of the 13th century. This is literature from the period of feudal fragmentation, when the “patchwork empire of the Rurikovichs” broke up into a number of independent feudal semi-states. The development of literature takes on a regional character. Based on the literature of Kievan Rus, local literary schools were created: Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Kiev-Chernigov, Gachitsa-Volyn, Polotsk-Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk, which then became the source of the formation of the literature of the three fraternal Slavic peoples– Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

In these regional centers, local chronicles, hagiography, genres of travel, historical stories, epideictic eloquence (the “words” of Cyril of Turov, Kliment Smolyatich, Serapion of Vladimir) are developing, and the “Tale of the Miracles of the Vladimir Icon” begins to take shape Mother of God". Through the works of the Vladimir bishop Simon and the monk Polycarp, the "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon" was created. The pinnacle of literature of this period was the "Tale of Igor's Host", firmly connected with the outgoing traditions of the heroic druzhina epic. The original striking works are "The Lay" by Daniil Zatochnik and "The Lay about the destruction of the Russian land."

The composition of translated literature is replenished with the works of Ephraim and Isaac the Syrians, John of Damascus. The fourth collection “The Triumphant” and “Ismaragd” is being formed. As a result of cultural ties with the southern Slavs, the eschatological story “The Tale of the Twelve Dreams of King Shahaishi” and the utopian “The Tale of Rich India” appear.

The fourth period is the second half of the 13th–15th centuries. - literature from the period of the struggle of the Russian people with the Mongol-Tatar conquerors and the beginning of the formation of a centralized Russian state, the formation of the Great Russian people. The development of literature during this period proceeds in such leading cultural centers, like towering Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, Tver.

Awareness of the need to fight against foreign enslavers led to the unification of popular forces, and this struggle goes hand in hand with the political unification of Rus' around a single center, which becomes Moscow. An important milestone in the political and cultural life Rus' saw the victory won by the Russian people on the Kulikovo field in September 1380 over the hordes of Mamai. It showed that Rus' has the strength to decisively fight the enslavers, and these forces can be united and united by the centralized power of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

In the literature of this time, the main theme was the fight against foreign enslavers - the Mongol-Tatars and the theme of strengthening the Russian state, glorifying the military and moral exploits of the Russian people, their deeds. Literature and fine arts reveal moral ideal personality capable of overcoming "the strife of this age" - the main evil that prevents the unification of all forces to fight the hated conquerors.

Epiphanius the Wise revives and raises to a new level of artistic perfection the emotionally expressive style developed by the literature of Kievan Rus. The development of this style was determined by the historical needs of life itself, and not only by the second South Slavic influence, although the experience of Bulgarian and Serbian literature was taken into account and used by the literature of the late XIV - early XV centuries.

Further development receives the style of historical narrative. It is influenced by the democratic strata of the population, on the one hand, and church circles, on the other. IN historical narrative entertainment begins to penetrate more widely, fiction. Fictional tales appear that are taken as historical (the story of the city of Babylon, “The Tale of the Mutyansky governor Dracula”, “The Tale of the Iveron Queen Dinara”, “The Tale of Basarga”). In these tales, journalistic and political tendencies are intensified, emphasizing the importance of Rus' and its the center of Moscow - the political and cultural successor to the ruling world powers.

In the 15th century reaches its peak Novgorod literature, which clearly reflected the acute struggle of classes within the feudal urban republic. Novgorod chronicles and hagiography with its democratic tendencies played an important role in the development of ancient Russian literature.

The development of the style of “idealizing biographism” is outlined in the literature of Tver. “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin is associated with democratic urban culture.

The emergence and development of the rationalistic heretical movement in Novgorod, Pskov and then Moscow testifies to the shifts that took place in the consciousness of the town, the intensification of its activity in the ideological and artistic spheres.

There is growing interest in the literature psychological states human soul, dynamics of feelings and emotions.

The literature of this period reflected the main character traits of the emerging Great Russian people: perseverance, heroism, the ability to endure adversity and difficulties, the will to fight and win, love for the homeland and responsibility for its fate.

The fifth period of development of Old Russian literature falls at the end of the 15th–16th centuries. This is the period of literature of the centralized Russian state. In the development of literature, it was marked by the process of merging local regional literatures into a single all-Russian literature, which provided an ideological justification for the centralized power of the sovereign. The acute internal political struggle to strengthen the sovereign power of the Grand Duke, and then the Sovereign of All Rus', determined the unprecedented flourishing of journalism.

The official style of the era becomes the representative, magnificent, eloquent style of Makaryevskaya literary school. Polemical journalistic literature gives birth to freer, more vibrant literary forms related to business writing and everyday life.

In the literature of this time, two trends are clearly visible: one is the observance of strict rules and canons of writing, church ritual, and everyday life; the other is the violation of these rules, the destruction of traditional canons. The latter begins to manifest itself not only in journalism, but also in hagiography and historical narration, preparing the triumph of new beginnings.

The sixth period of development of Old Russian literature falls on the 17th century. The nature of literary development allows us to distinguish two stages in this period: 1st - from the beginning of the century to the 60s, 2nd - 60s - the end of the 17th century, the first third XVIII centuries

The first stage is associated with the development and transformation of traditional historical and hagiographic genres of ancient Russian literature. The events of the first Peasant War and the struggle of the Russian people against the Polish-Swedish intervention dealt a blow to religious ideology and providentialist views on the course of historical events. In the social, political and cultural life of the country, the role of the posad - the trade and craft population - has increased. A new democratic reader has appeared. Responding to his requests, literature expands the scope of reality, changes the previously established genre system, begins to free itself from provenentialism, symbolism, etiquette - the leading principles artistic method medieval literature. Hagiography is turning into everyday biography, and the genre of the historical story is being democratized.

The second stage of the development of Russian literature, the second half XVII V. associated with church reform Nikon, with the events of the historical reunification of Ukraine with Russia, after which an intensive process of penetration of Western European literature into Old Russian literature began. Historical story, losing connections with specific facts, becomes an entertaining narrative. The life becomes not only an everyday biography, but also an autobiography - a confession of a hot rebellious heart.

Traditional genres Church and business writing become objects of literary parody: church service parodied in the service to the tavern, the life of the saint in the life of a drunkard, the petition and the “judgment case” in the “Kalyazin Petition” and “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich.” Folklore is rushing into literature in a broad wave. Folk genres satirical tale, epic, song lyrics are organically included in literary works.

The self-awareness of the individual is reflected in a new genre - the everyday story, in which appears new hero- a merchant's son, a seedy rootless nobleman. The nature of translated literature is changing.

The process of democratization of literature meets with a response from the ruling classes. In court circles, an artificial normative style, ceremonial aesthetics, and elements of Ukrainian-Polish baroque were implanted. Living folk lyrics are contrasted with artificial syllabic book poetry, democratic satire is contrasted with a moralizing abstract satire on morals in general, folk drama- court and school comedy. However, the emergence of syllabic poetry, court and school theater testified to the triumph of new beginnings and prepared the emergence of classicism in Russian XVIII literature V.

Cm.: Meshchersky N. A. Sources and composition of ancient Slavic-Russian writing of the 9th–15th centuries. L., 1978.

Academic science has been using the periodization of Old Russian literature based on historical principles since the 11th century:

Literature of Kievan Rus (XI - first third of the XIII century)
Literature of the period of fragmentation and the Tatar-Mongol yoke (second third of the 13th–14th centuries)
Literature from the time of the unification of the northeastern principalities into a single Moscow state (late XIV - early XV centuries)
Literature of the centralized Russian state (late 15th–16th centuries)
Literature of the stage of formation of the Russian nation (XVI–XVII centuries)

The stages in this periodization were the most important historical events, such as

invasion of the Tatar-Mongols in 1237-1240,
the emergence of appanage principalities in the post-space of Kievan Rus,
unification of the northeastern lands,
the rise of Moscow and the creation of the Moscow state, its further flourishing and the emergence of the Russian nation.

But literary historians have differing opinions on this matter. All existing periodizations are similar, but at the same time they are different. The number of stages ranges from 4 to 7. There were attempts by D.I. Chizhevsky, D.S. Likhacheva, G.K. Wagner distinguishes periods in ancient Russian literature based on the style of the eras. But to unanimous opinion the scientists never came.

Literature of Kievan Rus (XI - first third of the XIII century)

The literature of this period, which arose with the introduction of Christianity in Rus', is closely connected with the church. The first chroniclers were the monks of St. Sophia Cathedral and the Kiev Pechersk Monastery.

“The Tale of Bygone Years” is the oldest written source of that time. It consists of chronicle materials written and rewritten by several authors of the 10th-11th centuries. The Tale of Bygone Years has survived in the form of the Laurentian, Ipatiev and Radziwill lists, created in subsequent centuries. In the chronicles in chronological sequence the main events in the state and in the world were outlined, dynasties of princes, armed campaigns, biblical stories were described, stories and legends from oral folk art and the Holy Scriptures were used. Many interpret the history of Kievan Rus based on this source.

Other examples of literature from this period were:

oratorical prose “The Sermon on Law and Grace” (1037 - 1050 of the 11th century) by Hilarion,
set of legal rules “Russian Truth” (1019-1054) by Yaroslav the Wise,
biography “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” (mid-11th century) by an unknown author,
pedagogical prose “Teaching to Children” by Vladimir Monomakh,
sample pilgrimage notes “The Walk of Abbot Daniel”,
“Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik (1213 – 1236),
philosophical reflections “The Parable of the Human Soul” by Kirill of Turov (late 12th century).

In 2000, Novgorod archaeologists found three wooden waxed tablets with scratched writings. This find was called the Novgorod Codex and dates back to no later than the 1st quarter of the 11th century. Psalms are written on the tablets, but more ancient texts are “hidden” under the wax. Scientists have yet to solve this riddle, like the riddle of the Book of Veles.

Literature of the period of fragmentation (mid-XIII–XIV centuries)

During the period of absence of a single center, chronicles were kept in separate principalities by each. Kyiv, Novgorod and Pskov chronicle collections have reached us. The legendary “Tale of Igor's Campaign” (circa 1185) became the apogee of the development of literature during the period of fragmentation. Written in figurative language and absorbing popular beliefs, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” told about the campaign of the Russian princes in 1185 against the Polovtsians, which ended in failure. The word is imbued with patriotism and the desire to unite the disparate Russian lands.

A genre emerges as war story:

“Tales of the murder of Mikhail of Chernigov and his boyar Fyodor in the Horde,”
"The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu."

Both “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land” and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky,” written after the death of the Grand Duke, glorify the greatness and power of the Russian land, the courage and glory of Russian soldiers.

Literature from the time of the unification of the northeastern principalities into a single Moscow state (late XIV - early XV centuries)

Literature is dominated by an expressive-emotional style and theme. After the Tatar-Mongol period, chronicle writing was revived in many large cities, works of a historical nature and panegyric hagiography appeared. In the wake of admiration for the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, military stories “The Tale of Mamaev's massacre" and "Zadonshchina".

Literature of the centralized Russian state (late 15th–16th centuries)

Translated literature, journalism, and historical prose are developing.

Fiction (secular narrative literature translated from other languages) also spread during this period:

"The Tale of Dracula"
"The Tale of Basarga".

Literature of the stage of formation of the Russian nation (XVI–XVII centuries)

During this period, traditional forms dominate, official influence on literature from rulers is felt, and individual styles are suppressed.

“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”, written by himself,
“The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” by Ermolai-Erasmus,
a collection of spiritual rules and instructions “Domostroy”, attributed to the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral Sylvester,
collection of religious content “Great Cheti-Minea”,
travel notes of ambassadors “The Walk of Trifon Korobeinikov to Constantinople”

and “Tales of the death and burial of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky" are the most striking works of that time.

During this period there was a transition to new literature, the basis of which was the professionalism of each individual author, his personal perception of reality, protests and preferences.

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Old Russian literature arose in the 11th century and developed over seven centuries, until the Peter the Great era. Kievan Rus was replaced by the time of the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' with its center in Vladimir, the chronicle Russian land survived the Mongolo-Tatar invasion and was freed from the yoke. Grand Duke Muscovite became Tsar, Sovereign of All Great, White, and Little Rus'. The last scion of the “tribe of Rurik” died, and the Romanov dynasty reigned on the throne. Rus' became Russia, passing on the richest literary traditions to its successor.

The term “Old Russian literature” is conditional. Starting from the 13th century, the literature we study is East Slavic literature of the Middle Ages. Continuing to use the term that has historically been assigned to the named phenomenon, let us not forget about its real semantic content.

Old Russian literature is divided into several periods (according to D. S. Likhachev):

literature of Kievan Rus (XI-XIII centuries);
literature of the XIV-XV centuries;
16th century literature;
literature of the 17th century.

During the era of Kievan Rus, the formation of literary genres took place, the foundations of all East Slavic literatures were laid - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian. At this time, the genres of Greek and Byzantine literature begin to develop on a national basis. In the process of the formation of the Old Russian literary language, a large role is played not only by the living spoken language of that time, but also by another language, closely related to it, although foreign in origin - the Old Church Slavonic language.

The literature of the next two periods is already the literature of the Russian people themselves, who acquired national independence in the northeast of Rus'. This is the time of the creation of traditions, the development of new ideas in Russian culture and literature, the time that is called the Pre-Renaissance.

The 16th century was the time of development of journalistic genres. “Domostroy” is being created - a set of everyday rules and instructions that reflect the principles of patriarchal life. “Domostroy” requires strict home life.

During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the “Great Menaions of the Chetya” were created - a set of twelve books, including readings for each month. Each of the twelve books contains from one thousand five hundred to two thousand large format sheets. The compilation of white lists lasted about twenty-five years. The books include works of various genres, the creation, translation and editing of which involved a large number of Russian writers, translators, scribes and copyists. At the same time, the “Facial Vault” is created, which contains the position world history from the creation of the world to the 15th century. The surviving ten volumes contain about ten thousand sheets, decorated with 17,744 miniatures (color illustrations).

The 17th century is an era when people’s worldviews change, old literary forms disintegrate, and new genres and ideas emerge. A transition to the literature of Peter's time is planned. Satirical and everyday literature is developing, the focus is gradually shifting to life common man- not a prince, not a saint.

Old Russian literature is not similar to the literature of modern times: it is permeated by different thoughts and feelings, it has a different way of depicting life and man, a different system of genres.

In the Middle Ages it was impossible to draw a clear boundary between secular and ecclesiastical literature. They developed together, not denying, but enriching each other. The main types of ancient Russian literary creativity are: chronicle, life, eloquence, which includes teachings, genres in praise And words; military stories, walks (walks) And messages. There was no poetry, drama, novel, or story in the modern understanding of these genres in the 11th-16th centuries. They appear only in the 17th century.

All genres of ancient Russian literature develop in close connection with oral folk art. Most of all, the folklore element influenced the chronicle. Like folklore, ancient Russian literature did not know the concept of copyright: every scribe could use everything that was written before him. This was manifested in widespread textual borrowing. Scribes sought to leave only the texts of liturgical books and legislative acts unchanged.

The main role of the book in the culture of Ancient Rus' was to serve as a means of saving the soul. In this regard, the most important were considered New Testament, Holy Scripture, patristic works, hagiographic literature and church traditions. Also considered important historical works and monuments of business writing. The least valued were worldly works that did not pursue didactic purposes. They were considered "vain."

At the beginning of its development, ancient Russian literature was very closely connected with everyday life, especially liturgical life. Production, in addition to literary significance, are also practical and applied. Only gradually over time does the separation of the artistic and aesthetic function from the everyday, applied function occur.

Old Russian literature is pre-realistic, medieval, studying it shows us how different our perception of the world is from the perception of our ancestors. In the minds of the inhabitants of Ancient Rus', the book was a symbol of Christianity, enlightenment and a special way of life. When Christianity was tested by idolaters, the book was first tested. The Life of Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir tells how the pagans demanded that Patriarch Photius put into the fire a book that teaches the Christian faith. The Gospel did not burn in the fire. The amazed pagans believed in the truth of the new teaching and were baptized. Both the book and writing itself are surrounded by an aura of miracle. The Slavic alphabet was given to Constantine after his prayer as a divine revelation. The concepts of “Christianity”, “book” and “miracle” were closely intertwined.

The miracle of the Russian language is that a person, even with little philological training, can read (prepared) texts almost a thousand years ago. But often words that seem familiar to us have a different meaning, there are many unclear words, syntactic constructions are difficult to perceive. The names of objects, names, details of everyday life, the very logic of events - everything requires comment. Without trying to think about the meaning of the work, the modern reader seems to be deceiving himself. So, for example, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom” seems to him a funny fairy tale, and its theological problematics and philosophical depth remain unnoticed.

For last centuries Stereotypes of social consciousness, norms of behavior, human thinking have radically changed, old words have acquired a new meaning, actions have been filled with a different content. Already with the invention of printing, books began to be treated differently. Material from the site

Initially, all literature was exclusively ecclesiastical. The themes and ideas of the works could be different, but the worldview of the authors and readers was deeply religious. This is manifested not only in liturgical and theological texts, but also in the description of history, in military stories and secular subjects.

In the view of the Orthodox Middle Ages, “book reverence” was a moral merit and virtue that brought a person closer to the comprehension of God. To do this, it was necessary to read and re-read spiritual literature “night and day.” The Tale of Bygone Years writes that this is exactly what Yaroslav the Wise did. The art of reading consisted of slow, concentrated and deliberate perception of what was written “with all my heart.” The reader stopped, re-read important passages, carefully peering into the depth of meaning. Such a culture of reading taught us to recognize the hidden nature of things behind the outer shell, to comprehend the invisible with “spiritual eyes.” to the naked eye world.

The book is a microcosm in which “lovers of soul-nourishing words” enjoy eternal truths and receive spiritual medicine - consolation and instruction. It was necessary to read not in a hurry, but to take refuge from the bustle of life and empty worries. It was believed that if you turn to a work with sinful thoughts, you cannot extract from it anything useful for the soul. To this day, the ancient belief in the miraculous power of the word remains in our minds.

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On this page there is material on the following topics:

periodization of ancient Russian literature according to Likhachev
brief description of the pre-Mongol period
periods of development of Eastern literature
history of ancient Russian literature briefly
what does ancient Russian literature teach essay

The issue of periodization of ancient Russian literature has not yet been completely resolved. Undoubtedly, the stages of development of Old Russian literature are closely related to the stages of development of Old Russian people and state. Taking into account the uniqueness of ideas, original and translated works, main genres and styles, four periods can be distinguished in the history of the development of Old Russian literature (in addition to the initial one):

- Literature of Kievan Rus (11th – first third of the 12th century). Associated with the intensive development of Old Russian writing. Ancient Rus' gets acquainted with a large number of monuments of translated literature, both canonical, church, and apocryphal, didactic, historical and narrative. During this period, original ancient Russian literature was born and developed. Are being formed the most important genres- life, didactic and solemn sermon, teaching, description of travel, chronicle, historical and military story, legend. The literature of this period is imbued with the patriotic, civic pathos of love for the great Russian land.

- Literature of the period of feudal fragmentation (second third of the 12th - mid-13th centuries). Russia breaks up into a number of independent feudal semi-states, and the development of literature takes on a regional character. Literary schools are being created: Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Kiev-Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk-Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk. In these regional centers, local chronicles, hagiography, the genres of travel, historical stories, and solemn oratorical eloquence are developing (“words” of Kirill Turovsky, Kliment Smolyatich; “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon”, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik”).

- Literature from the period of the struggle against foreign invaders and the unification of northeastern Rus' (mid-13th - early 14th centuries). The heroic struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders is clearly reflected. “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”. In the literature of this time, the main themes were the struggle against foreign enslavers - the Mongol-Tatars - and the strengthening of the Russian state, glorifying the military and moral exploits of the Russian people.

During this period, Epiphanius the Wise revived and raised the emotionally expressive style to a new level of artistic perfection. The style of historical narration is further developed, the political theory “Moscow is the third Rome” (“The Tale of the Capture of Constantinople”) is strengthened.

In the 15th century, Novgorod literature, as well as the literature of Tver, reached its peak. Afanasy Nikitin’s “Walking across Three Seas” is associated with democratic urban culture.

The literature of this period reflected the main character traits of the emerging Great Russian people: perseverance, heroism, the ability to endure adversity and difficulties, the will to fight and win. Interest in the psychological states of the human soul is growing.

- Literature of the period of Russian strengthening centralized state(16th – 17th centuries). In the 16th century, the process of merging regional literatures into one common one took place. Two trends are strictly observed: one is the observance of strict rules and canons of writing, church rites, and everyday life, the other is the violation of these rules. The latter begins to appear not only in journalism, but also in hagiography and historical storytelling. Literature, in connection with historical changes (Bolotnikov’s peasant war, the fight against intervention), expands the scope of reality, changes the genre system, and begins to free itself from the belief in divine predestination. The principles of the artistic method of medieval literature - symbolism, etiquette - are being destroyed. The life turns into an everyday biography. Vivid evidence of this is “The Life of Juliania Lazarevskaya” and “The Tale of the Azov Siege of the Don Cossacks in 1641.” In the second half of the 17th century, the process of secularization of literature, its liberation from the tutelage of the church, and the process of its democratization accelerated. Traditional genres of church and business writing become objects of literary parody (“Kazan Petition” and “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”). Folklore is rushing into literature in a broad wave. The genres of folk satirical fairy tales, epics, and song lyrics are organically included in literary works.

According to the established tradition, three main stages are distinguished in the development of Old Russian literature, associated with periods of development of the Russian state.

1. Literature of the ancient Russian state of the 11th - first half of the 13th centuries. The literature of this period is often called the literature of Kievan Rus.
2. Literature from the period of feudal fragmentation and pain for the unification of North-Eastern Rus' (second half of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries).
3. Literature from the period of creation and development of the centralized Russian state (XVI-XVII centuries).

However, when periodizing the literary process, it is necessary to take into account:

· A range of original and translated monuments that appeared in a given period.
· The nature of ideas, themes, images reflected in literature.
· The leading principles of reflecting reality and the nature of genres and styles that determine the specifics of literary development of a given period.

The first monuments of ancient Russian writing that have come down to us are known only from the second half of the 11th century:

- Ostromir Gospel (1056-1057);
- "Izbornik 1076";
- "Selection of Grand Duke Svyatoslav 1073."

Most of the works created in the 11th-12th centuries were preserved only in later copies of the 14th-17th centuries.

However, the intensive development of writing in Rus' began after the official adoption of Christianity in 988. At the same time, a certain education system arose. In the 30s of the 11th century, scribes worked in Kyiv who not only copied books, but also translated them from Greek. All this allows us to single out the end of the 10th - first half of the 11th century as the first period of the formation of Old Russian literature. There is no information about the range of works of this period, their themes, ideas, genres and styles.

The second period - the middle of the 11th - the first third of the 12th century - the literature of Kievan Rus. This is the heyday of original ancient Russian literature, represented by the genres of the didactic “word” (Theodosius of Pechersk, Luka Zhidyata), genre varieties of original lives (“The Legend” and “Reading” about Boris and Gleb, “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, “Memory and Praise to Prince Vladimir” ") historical tales, tales, traditions that formed the basis of the chronicle, which at the beginning of the 12th century received the name "Tale of Bygone Years."

Translated literature during this period is widely represented by philosophical - didactic and moral - didactic collections, paterikon..., historical chronicles, apocryphal works.

The central theme of ancient Russian literature is the theme of the Russian land, the idea of its greatness, integrity, and sovereignty.

During this period, various styles developed: epic, documentary-historical, didactic, emotionally expressive, autographic, which are sometimes present in the same work.

The third period is the second third of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries. This is literature from the period of feudal fragmentation, when the Russian land broke up into a number of independent semi-states. The development of literature takes on a regional character. Based on the literature of Kievan Rus, local literary schools are created: Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, Kiev-Chernigov, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk-Smolensk, Turovo-Pinsk, which will then become the source of the formation of the literature of the three fraternal peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

In these regional centers, local chronicles, hagiography, the genre of travel, and historical stories are developing.

The pinnacle of literature of this period was “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” firmly connected with the outgoing traditions of the heroic druzhina epic. The original striking works are “The Lay” by Daniil Zatochnik and “The Lay on the Destruction of the Russian Land.”

The fourth period - the second half of the XIII-XV centuries - literature with the Mongol-Tatrian conquerors and the beginning of the formation of a centralized Russian state, the formation of the Great Russian people. The development of literature during this period took place in such leading cultural centers as Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, and Tver.

An important milestone in the political and cultural life of Rus' was the victory won by the Russian people on the Kulikovo field in September 1380 over the hordes of Mamai. It showed that Rus' has the strength to decisively fight the enslavers, and this force is capable of rallying and uniting the centralized power of the Grand Duke of Moscow.

In the literature of this time, the main thing becomes the flame of the struggle against foreign enslavers - the Mongol-Tatars and the theme of strengthening the Russian state, glorifying the military and moral exploits of the Russian people, their deeds. Literature and fine arts reveal the moral ideal of an individual.

The style of historical narration receives further development. It is influenced by the democratic strata of the population, on the one hand, and church circles, on the other.

Entertainment and artistic fiction are beginning to penetrate more widely into the historical narrative. Fictional tales appear that are taken as historical ("The Tale of the Mutyansky Governor Dracula", "The Tale of Basarch"). In these tales, journalistic and political tendencies are intensified, emphasizing the importance of Rus' and its center of Moscow - the political and cultural successor of the ruling world powers.

In the 15th century, Novgorod literature reached its peak, clearly reflecting the acute struggle of classes within the feudal city republic. The Novgorod chronicle played an important role in the development of ancient Russian literature.

The development of the style of “idealizing biographism” is outlined in the literature of Tver. “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin is associated with democratic urban culture.

In literature, there is growing interest in the psychological states of the human soul, the dynamics of feelings and emotions.

The fifth period of development of Old Russian literature falls at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. This is the period of literature of the centralized Russian state. In the development of literature, it was marked by the process of merging local regional literatures into a single all-Russian literature, which provided an ideological justification for the centralized power of the sovereign. The acute internal political struggle to strengthen the sovereign power of the Grand Duke, and then the Sovereign of All Rus', determined the unprecedented flowering of journalism.

The official style of the era becomes the representative, lush, eloquent style of the Makaryev literary school. Political journalistic literature gives rise to freer, more vibrant literary forms associated with business writing and everyday life.

In the literature of this time, two trends can be traced: one - adherence to strict rules and canons of writing, church ritual, and everyday life; the other is the violation of these rules, the destruction of these canons. The latter begins to manifest itself not only in journalism, but also in hagiography and historical storytelling.

The sixth period of development of Old Russian literature falls on the 17th century. The nature of literary development allows us to distinguish two stages in this period:

1st: from the beginning of the century to 60 years;
2nd: 60s - end of the 17th century, first quarter of the 18th century.

The first stage is associated with the development and transformation of traditional and hagiographic genres of ancient Russian literature. The events of the first peasant war and the struggle of the Russian people against the Polish-Swedish intervention dealt a blow to religious ideology and the course of historical events. In the social, political and cultural life of the country, the role of the settlement - the trade and craft population - has increased. A new democratic reader has appeared. Responding to his requests, literature expands the scope of reality and changes the previously established genre system. Life turns into a description of life, the genre of the historical story is democratized.

The second stage in the development of Russian literature in the second half of the 17th century is associated with Nikon’s church reform, with the events of the historical reunification of Ukraine and Russia, after which an intensive process of penetration of Western European literature into Old Russian literature began. A historical story, losing connections with specific facts, becomes an entertaining narrative. The life becomes not only an everyday biography, but also an autobiography - a confession of a hot, rebellious heart. Traditional genres of church and business writing become objects of literary parody: a church service is parodied into a tavern service, the life of a saint into the life of a drunkard. Folklore is rushing into literature in a broad wave. The genres of folk satirical fairy tales, epics, and song lyrics are organically included in literary works.

The process of personal self-awareness is reflected in a new genre - an everyday story, in which a new hero appears - a merchant's son, a seedy, rootless nobleman. The nature of translated literature is changing.

The process of democratization of literature meets with a response from the ruling classes. In court circles, an artificial normative style and ceremonial aesthetics are implanted; living folk poetry is opposed to artificial syllabic book poetry, democratic satire is contrasted with a moralizing abstraction of satire on morals in general, and folk drama is contrasted with court and school comedy.