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Military reform of Peter 1 term of service. Church reform of Peter I. Medical reforms of Peter I

25.09.2019

Reforms of Peter the Great

During the reign, reforms were carried out in all areas state life countries. The transformations covered almost all aspects of life: the economy, domestic and foreign policy, science, everyday life, and the political system.

Basically, the reforms were aimed not at the interests of individual classes, but at the country as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence. In general, the process of state reform was associated with external factor– the need for Russia to access the seas, as well as with the internal process of modernization of the country.

Military reform Peter 1

Since 1699

The essence of the transformation: Introduction of conscription, creation of a navy, establishment of a Military Collegium that managed all military affairs. Introduction using the Table of Ranks military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Severe discipline was established in the troops and navy, and corporal punishment was widely used to maintain it. Introduction of military regulations. Military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions, were created.

Reform result: through reforms, the emperor was able to create a strong regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725 and a strong military navy. In the army, units were created: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Was won a large number of military victories. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by various historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Public administration reforms of Peter 1

(1699-1721)

The essence of the transformation: Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards, with a specific scope of activity and powers.

Reform result: The state management system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Provincial (regional) reform of Peter 1

(1708-1715 and 1719-1720)

The essence of the transformation: Peter 1, at the initial stage of the reform, divided Russia into eight provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were under the control of governors in charge of the troops stationed in the province. And also the governors had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which were governed by governors, and they, in turn, were divided into districts, under the leadership of zemstvo commissars. Governors lost administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.

Reform result: There has been a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost their influence.

Judicial reform of Peter 1

(1697, 1719, 1722)

The essence of the transformation: Formation by Peter 1 of new judicial bodies: Senate, Justice Collegium, Hofgerichts, lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (similar to a jury trial) was abolished, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

Reform result: many judicial bodies and persons who carried out judicial activities (the sovereign himself, governors, voivodes, etc.) added confusion and confusion to the legal proceedings; the introduced possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created fertile ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, they established the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law, in accordance with the case being examined.

Church reform Peter 1

(1700-1701; 1721)

The essence of the transformation: After Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was essentially liquidated. 1701 - the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. The Emperor restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. 1721 - The Spiritual Regulations are adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the sovereign.

Reform result: Church reform led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many of the bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church was no longer able to pursue an independent spiritual policy and had partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reform of Peter 1

The essence of the transformation: Many new (including indirect) taxes were introduced, monopolizing the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (minting a coin of less weight and reducing the silver content in it) of a coin. The kopeck became the main coin. Introduction of a poll tax, replacing household taxation.

Reform result: Increase in state treasury revenues several times. But first: it was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population. Second: for the most part, these incomes were stolen.

Results of the reforms of Peter 1

The reforms of Peter 1 marked the formation absolute monarchy.

The transformations significantly increased the efficiency of government administration and served as the main lever for modernizing the country. Russia has become a Europeanized country and a member of the European community of nations. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements began to appear in technical training and science. The emergence of authoritarian rule is taking place; the role of the sovereign and his influence on all spheres of life of society and the state have increased enormously.

The price of Peter 1's reforms

Repeatedly increased taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population.

A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the race for ranks and positions has turned into a national disaster.

The main psychological support of the Russian state is Orthodox Church at the end of the 17th century it was shaken to its foundations and gradually lost its importance.

Instead of the civil society emerging in Europe with market economy, Russia by the end of the reign of Peter 1 was a military-police state with a nationalized, monopolized feudal economy.

Weakening contact between the government and the people. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly.

The cost of the transformations turned out to be prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the monarch did not take into account either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or the national traditions, nor with the memory of ancestors.

Most of all, Peter I was interested in the idea of a fleet and the possibility of trade relations with Europe. To put his ideas into practice, he equipped the Grand Embassy and visited a number of European countries, where he saw how Russia lagged behind in its development.

This event in the life of the young king marked the beginning of his transformative activities. The first reforms of Peter I were aimed at changing the external signs of Russian life: he ordered beards to be shaved and ordered to dress in European clothes, introduced music, tobacco, balls and other innovations into the life of Moscow society, which shocked it.

By decree of December 20, 1699, Peter I approved the calendar from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the New Year on January 1.

Foreign policy of Peter I

The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with connections with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of military operations, the vigorous activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. The great tsar did a lot, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Reform of public administration of Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of provinces, numerous Orders ceased to operate and were replaced by Collegiums, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the control system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To govern the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed the Town Hall in November 1699, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). Members of the Town Hall and magistrates were elected by election.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.

Nobility.

Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.
Table of Ranks (1722): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
palace ones that belonged personally to the king;
possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

Urban class

Urban people were divided into “regular” and “irregular”. The regulars were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small traders and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or “mean people,” made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. In the provinces there were court appeal courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the position of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial highest administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of Peter I's financial reform boiled down to collecting money for maintaining the army and waging wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, indirect taxes(baths, horses, beards, etc.).

In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the kopeck became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted of a transition from household taxation to per capita taxation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools free training children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated learning to read and write and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, and in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, focusing on Special attention the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Medical reforms of Peter I

The main transformations were the opening of hospitals (1707 - the first Moscow military hospital) and schools attached to them, in which doctors and pharmacists were trained.

In 1700, pharmacies were established at all military hospitals. In 1701, Peter I issued a decree on the opening of eight private pharmacies in Moscow. Since 1704, state-owned pharmacies began to open in many cities of Russia.

To grow, study, and create collections of medicinal plants, apothecary gardens were created, where seeds of foreign flora were imported.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged domestic industrialists and traders. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated in Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, outlining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy were created.

Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, because the transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration. Among the opponents of Peter I's reforms was his son Alexei.

Results of the reforms of Peter I

A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
Lack of reform system.
Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

TO XVIII century Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

In the course of the history of our country, by this time significant shifts in its development had already occurred. The city separated from the village, agriculture and crafts were separated, and manufacturing-type industrial enterprises arose. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Russia borrowed technology and science, culture and education from Western Europe, but at the same time developed independently. Thus, the ground was already prepared for Peter's reforms.

The sage avoids all extremes.
Lao Tzu

The reforms of Peter 1 are his main and key activities, which were aimed at changing not only political, but also social life Russian society. According to Pyotr Alekseevich, Russia was very far behind Western countries in its development. This confidence of the king was further strengthened after he conducted the great embassy. Trying to transform the country, Peter 1 changed almost all aspects of the life of the Russian state, which had developed over centuries.

What was the central government reform?

The reform of central government was one of Peter's first reforms. It should be noted that this reformation continued long time, since it was based on the need to completely restructure the work of Russian authorities.

Peter I's reforms in the field of central government began back in 1699. At the initial stage, this change affected only the Boyar Duma, which was renamed the Near Chancellery. With this step, the Russian Tsar alienated the boyars from power and allowed power to be concentrated in a chancellery that was more pliable and loyal to him. This was an important step that required priority implementation, since it allowed the centralization of government of the country.

Senate and its functions

At the next stage, the king organized the Senate as the main government body in the country. This happened in 1711. The Senate has become one of the key bodies in governing the country, with the broadest powers, which include the following:

Legislative activity
Administrative activities
Judicial functions in the country
Control functions over other bodies

The Senate consisted of 9 people. These were representatives of noble families, or people whom Peter himself elevated. In this form, the Senate existed until 1722, when the emperor approved the position of prosecutor general, who controlled the legality of the activities of the Senate. Before this, this body was independent and did not bear any responsibility.

Creation of boards

The reform of central government continued in 1718. It took the reformer tsar three whole years (1718-1720) to get rid of the last legacy of his predecessors - orders. All orders in the country were abolished and collegiums took their place. There was no actual difference between the boards and orders, but in order to radically change the administrative apparatus, Peter went through with this transformation. In total, the following bodies were created:

Collegium of Foreign Affairs. She was in charge of the state's foreign policy.
Military Collegium. She was engaged in ground forces.
Admiralty College. Controlled the Russian navy.
Office of Justice. She handled litigation matters, including civil and criminal cases.
Berg College. It controlled the country's mining industry, as well as factories for this industry.
Manufactory Collegium. She was involved in the entire manufacturing industry of Russia.

In fact, only one difference between boards and orders can be identified. If in latest decision Always made by one person, after the reform all decisions were made collectively. Of course, not many people decided, but the leader always had several advisers. They helped me make the right decision. After the introduction of the new system, a special system was developed to control the activities of the boards. For these purposes, the General Regulations were created. It was not general, but was published for each board in accordance with its specific work.

Secret Chancery

Peter created a secret office in the country that dealt with state crimes. This office replaced the Preobrazhensky order, which dealt with the same issues. It was a specific government body that was not subordinate to anyone except Peter the Great. In fact, with the help of the secret chancellery, the emperor maintained order in the country.

Decree on unity of inheritance. Table of ranks.

The decree on unified inheritance was signed by the Russian Tsar in 1714. Its essence boiled down, among other things, to the fact that the courtyards that belonged to the boyar and noble estates were completely equalized. Thus, Peter pursued one single goal - to equalize the nobility of all levels that were represented in the country. This ruler is known for the fact that he could bring a person without a family closer to him. After signing this law, he could give each of them what they deserved.

This reform continued in 1722. Peter introduced the Table of Ranks. In fact, this document equalized rights in public service for aristocrats of any origin. This Table divided the entire public service into two large categories: civil and military. Regardless of the type of service, all government ranks were divided into 14 ranks (classes). They included all key positions, from simple performers to managers.

All ranks were divided into the following categories:

14-9 levels. An official who was in these ranks received the nobility and peasants into his possession. The only restriction was that such a nobleman could use the property, but not dispose of it as property. In addition, the estate could not be inherited.
8 – 1 level. This was the highest administration, which not only became the nobility and received full control of the estates, as well as serfs, but also received the opportunity to transfer their property by inheritance.

Regional reform

The reforms of Peter 1 affected many areas of the life of the state, including the work of local government bodies. The regional reform of Russia had been planned for a long time, but was carried out by Peter in 1708. It completely changed the work of the local government apparatus. The whole country was divided into separate provinces, of which there were 8 in total:

Moscow
Ingermanlandskaya (later renamed Petersburgskaya)
Smolenskaya
Kyiv
Azovskaya
Kazanskaya
Arkhangelogorodskaya
Simbirskaya

Each province was governed by a governor. He was appointed personally by the king. All administrative, judicial and military power was concentrated in the hands of the governor. Since the provinces were quite large in size, they were divided into districts. Later the counties were renamed provinces.

The total number of provinces in Russia in 1719 was 50. The provinces were governed by voivodes, who directed military power. As a result, the governor's power was somewhat curtailed, since the new regional reform took away all military power from them.

City government reform

Changes at the local government level prompted the king to reorganize the system of government in the cities. This was an important issue as the urban population increased annually. For example, by the end of Peter’s life, there were already 350 thousand people living in cities, who belonged to different classes and estates. This required the creation of bodies that would work with each class in the city. As a result, a reform of city government was carried out.

Special attention in this reform was paid to the townspeople. Previously, their affairs were handled by governors. The new reform transferred power over this class into the hands of the Chamber of Burmisters. It was an elected body of power located in Moscow, and locally this chamber was represented by individual mayors. Only in 1720 was the Chief Magistrate created, which was responsible for control functions regarding the activities of the mayors.

It should be noted that the reforms of Peter 1 in the field of urban management introduced clear distinctions between ordinary citizens, who were divided into “regular” and “vile”. The former belonged to the highest inhabitants of the city, and the latter to the lower classes. These categories were not clear cut. For example, “regular townspeople” were divided into: rich merchants (doctors, pharmacists and others), as well as ordinary artisans and traders. All “regulars” enjoyed great support from the state, which provided them with various benefits.

The urban reform was quite effective, but it had a clear bias towards wealthy citizens who received maximum state support. Thus, the king created a situation in which life became somewhat easier for the cities, and in response, the most influential and wealthy citizens supported the government.

Church reform

The reforms of Peter 1 did not bypass the church. In fact, the new transformations finally subordinated the church to the state. This reform actually began in 1700, with the death of Patriarch Adrian. Peter forbade holding elections for a new patriarch. The reason was quite convincing - Russia entered the Northern War, which means that electoral and church affairs can wait for better times. Stefan Yavorsky was appointed to temporarily fulfill the duties of Patriarch of Moscow.

The most significant changes in the life of the church began after the end of the war with Sweden in 1721. The reform of the church came down to the following main steps:

The institution of the patriarchate was completely eliminated; from now on there should be no such position in the church
The Church was losing its independence. From now on, all its affairs were managed by the Spiritual College, created specifically for these purposes.

The ecclesiastical college existed less than a year. It was replaced by a new organ state power– Most Holy Governing Synod. It consisted of clergy who were personally appointed by the Emperor of Russia. In fact, from that time on, the church was finally subordinated to the state, and its management was actually carried out by the emperor himself through the Synod. To carry out control functions over the activities of the synod, the position of chief prosecutor was introduced. This was an official whom the emperor himself also appointed.

Peter saw the role of the church in the life of the state in the fact that it had to teach the peasants to respect and honor the tsar (emperor). As a result, laws were even developed that obliged priests to conduct special conversations with peasants, convincing them to obey their ruler in everything.

The significance of Peter's reforms

The reforms of Peter 1 actually completely changed the order of life in Russia. Some of the reforms actually brought a positive effect, while others created negative preconditions. For example, local government reform has led to sharp increase number of officials, as a result of which corruption and embezzlement in the country literally went off scale.

In general, the reforms of Peter 1 had next value:

The power of the state was strengthened.
The upper classes of society were actually equal in opportunities and rights. Thus, the boundaries between classes were erased.
Complete subordination of the church to state power.

The results of the reforms cannot be clearly identified, since they had many negative aspects, but you can learn about this from our special material.

In the history of Peter’s reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mainly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, and traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence.

Military reform

The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and a Russian navy, staffed on the basis of conscription. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be supported by the state. To manage the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; The position of commander-in-chief was introduced (in wartime). A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, and engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, and methods of conducting combat operations were legislatively enshrined in the Military Charter (1716) and the Naval Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art and were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and the fleet in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, crafts, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern. During the first quarter of the 18th century. 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by increased feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in factories: the use of serfs, purchased (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a constant source of labor. In 1711, vocational schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a guild system was introduced in cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities for the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant “companies” and the expansion of trade relations with foreign countries were encouraged in every possible way. Peter's government paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main form of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for waging war, active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved through the expansion of indirect taxes and an increase in direct taxes. Special “profit-makers” led by A. Kurbatov were looking for ever new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, including a tax on beards. In total, indirect collections by 1724 numbered up to 40 species. Along with these levies, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special “fees”. Considerable income was brought by minting coins of lighter weight and reducing the silver content in it. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system- the introduction of a poll tax, replacing household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenue from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became important stage serfdom in Russia, extended it to those segments of the population that were previously free (“walking people”), or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded slaves). Thirdly, a passport system was introduced. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 miles from his place of residence was required to have a passport indicating the period of return.

Reorganization of public administration.

The strengthening of the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of public administration, its highest, central and local authorities. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the tsar himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.” In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and confusing system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often overlapped and did not have clear boundaries, 11 boards were established. Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs - for external relations, the Military Collegium - for the land armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - for the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - for revenue collection, the State Collegium - for state expenses, the Patrimonial Collegium - for noble land ownership, the Manufacturer Collegium - for industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium . In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated. Along with the strengthening of the central management apparatus, reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodeship administration, a provincial management system was introduced in 1708 - 1715. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of the subordinate territories. Each province occupied a huge territory and was therefore divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (headed by a governor). The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of governance emerged for the entire country, in which the decisive role was played by the monarch, who relied on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. The Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the “Spiritual Regulations”, developed by his supporter, Pskov Bishop Feofan Prokopovich. According to the new law, a radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, management of educational institutions and removal of church officials, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic Prikaz, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, this meant the subordination of the church to the state.

Social politics.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The remaining nobles had to perform compulsory service in the army, navy or government bodies. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civilian and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to achieve each subsequent rank only by completing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and clergy, was obliged to pay taxes to the state.

Under Peter I, a new structure of society emerged, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly visible. Reforms in the field of education and culture. State policy was aimed at educating society and reorganizing the education system. At the same time, enlightenment acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technology: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, engineering. The first to appear were the Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707). To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic font was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg. A lot of work has been done to study the history, geography and natural resources of Russia. Propaganda scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first Russian natural history museum. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced in Russia Julian calendar. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe. There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life of Russian society. The Tsar, by order of command, introduced hair shaving, European clothing, and the compulsory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms, set out in the translated book “The Honest Mirror of Youth.” In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the mandatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's reforms in the sphere of culture, life and morals were often introduced by violent methods and were of a clearly political nature. The main thing in these reforms was to respect the interests of the state.

Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends that emerged in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also, in a minimal historical period of time, brought it to a qualitatively more high level, turning Russia into a powerful power.

The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population. Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social uprisings - the revolt of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 -1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.

Foreign policy of Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Peter I

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

Urban reform (1699-1720)

Estate reforms

The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.

Nobility.

Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.

Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.

Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.

Table of Ranks (1721): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);

palace ones that belonged personally to the king;

possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

Urban class

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

Church reform of Peter I

Financial reforms of Peter I

In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the kopeck became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education for children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of the architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

Reforms of Peter I in the army

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy were created.

Results of the reforms of Peter I

A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.

Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.

The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.

Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.

Lack of reform system.

Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.

Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became

be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of government - a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to take this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had enormous historical meaning, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serf owners, using serfdom methods and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of Peter’s time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which in the course of further development countries were becoming increasingly stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations remained, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. Peter's transformative activities were distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking down outdated institutions , laws, foundations and way of life. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most notable figures in world history.

Table "Reforms of Peter 1" (briefly). The main reforms of Peter 1: table, summary

The table “Reforms of Peter 1” briefly outlines the features transformative activities the first emperor of Russia. With its help, it is possible to concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life of Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this The best way in order for middle-level students to master this complex and quite voluminous material, which is very important for analysis and correct understanding of the features historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the “Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table on this topic demonstrates all the data students need.

In introductory lesson It should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all layers of society and determined the further history of the country. This is precisely the uniqueness of the era of his reign. At the same time, he was a very practical person and introduced innovations based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic “Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, government bodies, made significant changes in the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.

Transformations in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic “The Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on this problem helps students familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. For almost his entire reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the topic being studied is “The Military Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.

The importance of military innovations

It shows that the emperor’s steps were dictated by the specific needs of his time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that previously there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the inspections along with several servants, who also had to serve with him.

However, by the beginning of the 18th century this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had already taken final shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers for service from peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and command personnel.

Transformations of power structures

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is “ Political reforms Peter 1". Briefly, the table on this problem clearly demonstrates how deep the transformative activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which previously performed advisory functions under the tsar, he created a Senate modeled on Western European countries. Instead of orders, boards were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucratic apparatus.

New administrative division

No less complex is the topic “State reforms of Peter 1.” Briefly, the table on this problem reflects dramatic changes that occurred in the organization of local government. Governorates were created that were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. This structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and districts was the voivode.

Changes in industry and trade

Particular difficulty is often caused by studying the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1.” Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost serf-like methods, which could in no way contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Pyotr Alekseevich's economic activity was not as effective as transformations in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in developing trade along Western European lines.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that have occurred in Russian society the time being studied. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and government spheres depending not on clan affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous “Table of Ranks” introduced a new principle of service. From now on, in order to receive a promotion or rank, a person had to achieve some success.

It was under Peter that the social structure society. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the clan aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this class, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

The study of this problem can be completed by summing up the results. What significance did the reforms of Peter 1 have in the history of Russia? Table, summary on this topic can serve as an effective means of summing up the results. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of localism was outdated, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to carry out the new tasks that faced the country in connection with the Northern War and Russia’s entry into the international arena

The role of the emperor's transformative activities

The topic “The Main Reforms of Peter 1”, a table whose summary is an important component in studying the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and indicate what role the transformation of the first emperor into future fate Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country onto the European stage and included it among the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, table, summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, gaining access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.

Reforms of Peter 1.

Zhanna Gromova

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722

Military reforms
since 1699

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721

Financial reforms

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. Kopek became

Tatyana Shcherbakova

Regional reform
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

Governors were also in charge of the troops stationed on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - the Hofgerichts or court of appeals in major cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called single court acted (cases were decided individually by the zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church governance he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings. In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the Tsar's close Little Russian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of loyalty to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not agree to the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign.
Army and Navy reforms
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Army reform and the creation of a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.

Maxim Lyubimov

Public Administration Reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in the Northern War. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state management mechanism, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not meet the growing needs of the autocracy. This manifested itself in a shortage of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of regional reform - the creation of new administrative entities - provinces, uniting several counties. In 1708, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingria (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything it needed: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the army regiments, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of Kriegskomissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created locally. The former “order - district” system was doubled: “order (or office) - province - province - district.”
In 1711 the Senate was created. Autocracy, which strengthened significantly in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed the institutions of representation and self-government.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Meetings of the Boyar Duma actually cease, management of the central and local state apparatus passes to the so-called “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied key position in the state system of Petra. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, and appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was the Prosecutor General, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of prosecutor general laid the foundation for an entire institution of the prosecutor's office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
In 1718 - 1721 The system of command administration of the country was transformed. 10 boards were established, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with external relations, the Military Collegium - with the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - with the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - with revenue collection, the State Office Collegium - with state expenses, and the Commerce Collegium - with trade.
Church reform
The Synod, or Spiritual Collegium, established in 1721, became a kind of collegium. The destruction of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to eliminate the “princely” system of church power, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter’s time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of church institutions to carry out his policies.
Monitoring the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special government official - the chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social policy was pro-noble and serfdom in nature. The Decree of 1714 on single inheritance established the same procedure for inheritance of immovable estates, without distinction between estates and estates. The merger of two forms of feudal land ownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidation of the feudal class into a single class - the class of nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often, in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).
To force the nobles to think about service as the main source of well-being, they introduced primordacy - it was forbidden to sell and mortgage land

Oleg Sazonov

Military Collegium
The Military Collegium was established by Peter I instead of a number of military institutions in order to centralize military administration. The formation of the Military Collegium began with the appointment in 1717 of the first president, Field Marshal A. D. Menshikov and vice-president A. A. Weide.
On June 3, 1719, the staff of the College was announced. The board consisted of a presence, headed by the president (vice-president) and the Chancellery, which was divided into divisions in charge of cavalry and infantry, garrisons, fortifications and artillery, as well as keeping logs of incoming and outgoing documents. The Collegium consisted of a notary, an auditor general and a fiscal general. Supervision over the legality of decisions was carried out by the prosecutor, subordinate to the prosecutor general. The organization of the ground army service was under the jurisdiction of the Military Collegium.
The Kriegskomissariat and the Provision Master General, who were involved in the clothing and food supply of the army, were formally subordinate to the Military Collegium, but had significant independence.
In relation to the artillery and engineering departments, headed by the Artillery Chancellery and the Field Chief General, the Collegium exercised only general leadership.
In the 1720s - 1730s. The Military Collegium was subject to reorganization aimed at subordinating all branches of military administration to it.
In 1721, the management of the Don, Yaik and Greben Cossacks was transferred from the Collegium of Foreign Affairs to the newly created Cossack district.
In 1736, the Commissariat, which had existed since 1711 as an independent institution for supplying the army, became part of the Military Collegium. The staff of 1736 consolidated the new composition of the Collegium: the presence, the Chancellery, which was in charge of recruiting, organizing, inspecting and serving troops, as well as cases of fugitives, recruiting minors and some other issues, and a number of offices (later renamed expeditions) for branches of management. The offices were headed by directors who took part in the meetings of the Board. The offices resolved cases independently, submitting only complex and controversial issues to the Board for consideration. During this period, there were the General Kriegs Commissariat, Chief Tsalmeister, Amunich (Mundirnaya), Provisions, Accounting, Fortification Offices and the Artillery Office. The body of the Collegium in Moscow was the Military Office.
With the accession of Elizabeth there was a return to the decentralization of military administration. In 1742, independent departments were restored - commissariat, provisions, artillery and fortification management. The counting expedition was abolished. After this, the importance of the Military Collegium as a governing body fell.
The increasing importance of the Military Collegium began in 1763, when its president became Catherine II’s personal rapporteur on military affairs; new staff of the Collegium were introduced.
In 1781, the Accounting Expedition was restored in the Military Collegium, exercising control over the expenses of the military department.
In 1791 the College received a new organization. The commissariat, provisions, artillery and engineering departments became part of the Military Collegium as independent expeditions (departments since 1796).
In 1798, new staff of the College were approved. According to them, it consisted of the Office, divided into expeditions (Army, Garrison, Order, Foreign, Recruitment, School Establishment and Repair), independent expeditions (Military, Accounting, Inspector, Artillery, Commissariat, Provisions, Military Orphan Institutions) and the General Auditorium.
With the formation of the Ministry of Military Ground Forces in 1802, the Military College became part of it and was finally abolished in 1812. The functions of its expeditions were transferred to the newly formed departments of the Ministry.

Yuri Kek

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721
Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.
The public administration system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Regional (provincial) reform
1708-1715 and 1719-1720
At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.

Military reforms
since 1699
The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction, using the “Table of Ranks,” of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, which by 1725 numbered up to 212 thousand people and a strong navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was virtually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms
Almost the entire reign of Peter 1
Introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes,

Mikhail Basmanov

Completing the destruction of the empire of Great Tartary, he set about military reform in the Western style. Established a mechanism for obtaining material income from the Christian church. He introduced serfdom, while in Europe they were getting rid of it. He allowed many foreigners (including military personnel) into the Russian Empire with privileges. Previously, few of them were allowed into the empire. And their theft and corruption. The beginning of a large-scale rewriting of the history of the empire of Great Tartary.

Olya Kireeva

As you know, Peter I cut a window to Europe, forced the boyars to shave their beards and enlightened the dark Russian people. This emperor was immensely respected during the Soviet period, but in recent history his role in the life of the country is assessed very ambiguously. A relatively objective assessment of what Peter I did for Russia can be done by his completed reforms.
Under Peter I, the Russian kingdom became Russian Empire as a result of victory in the Northern War and gaining access to the Baltic Sea. Since that time (1721), the country has been actively involved in foreign policy games.
The Byzantine chronology was replaced by the era “from the Nativity of Christ”, New Year began to be celebrated on January 1.
The conservative Boyar Duma was replaced by the Governing Senate, to which the collegiums (ministries) were subordinate, all document flow was standardized, and office work was brought to a unified scheme.
The fiscal department was called upon to control the activities of the bureaucratic apparatus.
The territory of the country was divided into 8 provinces, in each of which a local power vertical was created, and then each province into 50 provinces.
The country's regular army was replenished first with foreign officers, and then with Russian nobles - graduates of navigation, engineering and artillery schools. A powerful navy was created and a Maritime Academy was opened.
The church hierarchy came under the complete subordination of the Senate; instead of the patriarch, the management of the church vertical was handled by the Holy Synod, which swore allegiance to the emperor.
The land and peasants assigned to the estate became the full property of the nobles and landowners, free peasants became the property of the state.
Elementary education became mandatory for all children of the boyars.
All representatives of the nobility were required to perform public service.
A “Table of Ranks” appeared, allowing one to build a career regardless of class origin: an official who reached the 8th grade could receive personal nobility.
Instead of household taxes, capitation taxes began to be collected, and for the first time a capitation census was carried out.
The kopeck became the main monetary unit.
Petersburg was built (founded in 1703).
233 industrial enterprises were built.

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Strengthening Russian statehood: military reforms of Peter I

Throughout the entire period of Peter the Great's reign, Russia participated in wars. At the same time, these military campaigns were aimed at some of the most powerful opponents in the whole world - Turkey and Sweden. To carry out grueling long offensive military operations, the state needed a combat-ready, powerful army. It is the direct need for the formation of such an army that is the main reason for Peter’s military reforms. It is worth noting that the entire process of transformation was not characterized by a sharp course. Each stage took a lot of time, because each of them was determined by its own events on the battlefield.

In addition, modern historians remind us that the tsar did not begin the entire process of military reforms out of the blue. Rather, Peter the Great expanded and then continued the military innovations that were conceived by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, his father.

Peter's main military reforms include:

Reform of the Streltsy army

The Streltsy regiments, which previously formed the basis of the Russian army, were disbanded by Peter in 1697. And a little later they were completely abolished, since the regiments were not ready to conduct combat operations on a permanent basis. At the same time, the earlier Streltsy riots completely undermined the ruler’s trust in them. In 1699, instead of the Streltsy regiments, Peter formed three new regiments, staffed by recruits and disbanded foreign regiments.

Introduction of conscription

In 1699, a new system of recruiting troops was introduced in the Russian state - conscription. Initially, the king carried out such recruitment only when necessary, regulating it with special decrees that announced the required number of recruits required at that time.

Recruitment service was lifelong, and the basis for recruitment was the peasant class and townspeople. The introduced new army recruitment system made it possible to create a large standing army in the country, which had significant advantages over mercenary troops, the recruitment of which was practiced in that historical period in Europe.

Changing the training system in Russian troops

In the same year (1699), the actual training of officers and soldiers began to be carried out according to the uniform drill regulations. At the same time, the emphasis is on ongoing military training. A year later, the first military school was opened for officers, and five years later - the Naval Academy, located in St. Petersburg.

Changes in the structure of the Russian army

By Peter's decree, the Russian army was officially divided into three main types of troops:

cavalry;
artillery;
infantry.

In addition, the very structure of the new army was reduced by the tsar to uniformity, dividing into brigades, regiments, and divisions. The management of the renewed Russian army was carried out in four orders, and from 1718 the so-called Military Collegium began to act as the highest military body.

Four years later, the tsar released the “Table of Ranks,” which structured the entire existing system of military knowledge.

Petrovsky rearmament of the army

The Russian Tsar Peter the Great began arming the infantry with swords and flintlock rifles with a single caliber. In addition, many new types of ammunition and guns were developed during his reign. Also, new types of ships of the Russian fleet were created.

In addition to all of the above, it is worth highlighting the following points of Peter’s military transformations:

According to the royal decree, it was forbidden to make officers those who had not received an education at a military school. A fairly frequent occurrence was Peter personally administering exams to noble children. Those who failed to cope with the tasks were sent to serve in the navy without further right to become an officer in the future.
Caring not only about the physical training of the troops, but also about their moral support, Peter the Great began to award distinguished generals with the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called, which he established in 1698. Also, officers and soldiers were rewarded with promotions, but most often with money. At the same time, Peter’s army had severe discipline, which included not only corporal punishment, but also the death penalty.

The military reforms of Peter 1 and the system formed by the ruler turned out to be so successful and stable that it lasted without any significant changes until the eighteenth century! Modern historians argue that in the subsequent decades after the end of Peter’s reign, Russians armed forces continued to develop under the influence of Peter's reforms.

So, A. Suvorov and P. Rumyantsev took up their improvement. The latter’s military works are considered the greatest contribution to Russian military science!

Table: military reforms of Peter I

Direction of reform	Main stages
Recruitment of the army and navy	The introduction of compulsory service for nobles, with them receiving an officer rank after graduating from military school. Introduction of regular recruitment for peasants.
Army and Navy Administration	Creation of a military board to replace the abolished order system of management. Creation of the General Staff of Russian troops.
Army and Navy structure	Transformation of the structure of the army and navy. The land army began to be divided into: infantry, cavalry and artillery. The Russian fleet began to be divided into: rowing and sailing. Marine Corps units were created for the first time.
Armament	All weapons of the Russian army were standardized and brought to uniformity.
Marks of Excellence	Introduction of a single uniform for different types of troops.
Military personnel	Creation of the first military schools and military educational institutions for nobles. The School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened in 1701. The artillery school was opened in 1701. The military medical school was opened in 1707.
Army rearmament	The Russian army is replenished with new types of weapons: rifles with bayonets, mortars and grenades.
*Fleet*	For the first time in Russian history, a full-fledged navy is being created

Military reforms of Peter I

The introduction of conscription as the main principle of recruiting the regular army (existed in Russia from 1705 to 1874)

Creation of new military regulations

Rearmament of the army. New types of weapons are being created:

· Guns with bayonets
· Mortars
· Grenades

Creation of unified military command and control bodies

Changes in the organizational structure of the army (the army was officially divided into three branches of service: infantry, artillery and cavalry)

1722 – the Table of Ranks was created (system of ranks (ranks))

Opening of military schools for officer training

Creation of a regular navy