In the family of lawyer Chéruben Beil. Henrietta Bayle, the writer's mother, died when the boy was seven years old. Therefore, his aunt Seraphi and his father were involved in his upbringing. Little Henri did not have a good relationship with them. Only his grandfather Henri Gagnon treated the boy warmly and attentively. Later in his autobiography “The Life of Henri Brulard” Stendhal recalled: “I was entirely brought up by my dear grandfather, Henri Gagnon. This rare person once made a pilgrimage to Ferney to see Voltaire, and was wonderfully received by him..." Henri Gagnon was a fan of the Enlightenment and introduced Stendhal to the works of Voltaire, Diderot and Helvetius. From then on, Stendhal developed an aversion to clericalism. Due to Henri's childhood encounter with the Jesuit Ryan, who forced him to read the Bible, he had a lifelong horror and mistrust of clergy.
While studying at the Grenoble central school, Henri followed the development of the revolution, although he hardly understood its importance. He studied at school for only three years, mastering, by his own admission, only Latin. In addition, he was interested in mathematics, logic, studied philosophy, and studied art history.
In 1802, gradually becoming disillusioned with Napoleon, he resigned and lived throughout the following three years in Paris, engaged in self-education, studying philosophy, literature and English language. As follows from the diaries of that time, the future Stendhal dreamed of a career as a playwright, a “new Moliere.” Having fallen in love with the actress Mélanie Loison, the young man followed her to Marseille. In 1805 he returned to serve in the army again, but this time as a quartermaster. As an officer in the quartermaster service of the Napoleonic army, Henri visited Italy, Germany, and Austria. During his hikes, he found time to think and wrote notes about painting and music. He filled thick notebooks with his notes. Some of these notebooks were lost while crossing the Berezina.
Having secured a long vacation for himself, Stendhal spent three fruitful years in Paris from 1836 to 1839. During this time, “Notes of a Tourist” (published in 1838) and last novel"Parma Monastery". (Stendhal, if he did not come up with the word “tourism”, was the first to introduce it into wide circulation). The attention of the general reading public to the figure of Stendhal in 1840 was attracted by one of the most popular French novelists, Balzac, in his "". Shortly before his death, the diplomatic department granted the writer a new leave, which allowed him to last time return to Paris.
In recent years, the writer was in a very serious condition: the disease progressed. In his diary, he wrote that he was taking medications and potassium iodide for treatment, and that at times he was so weak that he could hardly hold a pen, and therefore was forced to dictate texts. Mercury medications are known to have many side effects. The assumption that Stendhal died of syphilis does not have sufficient evidence. In the 19th century, there was no relevant diagnosis of this disease (for example, gonorrhea was considered the initial stage of the disease, there were no microbiological, histological, cytological and other studies) - on the one hand. On the other hand, a number of figures European culture Heine, Beethoven, Turgenev and many others were considered to have died from syphilis. In the second half of the 20th century, this point of view was revised. For example, Heinrich Heine is now considered to have suffered from one of the rare neurological ailments (more precisely, a rare form of one of the ailments).
On March 23, 1842, Stendhal, having lost consciousness, fell right in the street and died a few hours later. Death most likely occurred from a recurrent stroke. Two years earlier, he suffered his first stroke, which was accompanied by severe neurological symptoms, including aphasia.
In his will, the writer asked to write on the gravestone (done in Italian):
Arrigo BayleMilanese
Wrote. I loved. Lived
Works
Fiction constitutes a small fraction of what Bayle wrote and published. To earn his living, at the dawn of his literary career, he in great haste “created biographies, treatises, memories, memoirs, travel sketches, articles, even original “guides” and wrote much more books of this kind than novels or short story collections” ( D. V. Zatonsky).
His travel essays “Rome, Naples et Florence” (“Rome, Naples and Florence”; 3rd ed.) and “Promenades dans Rome” (“Walks around Rome”, 2 vols.) were popular with travelers throughout the 19th century for Italy (although the main estimates from the standpoint of today's science seem hopelessly outdated). Stendhal also owns “The History of Painting in Italy” (vols. 1-2;), “Notes of a Tourist” (fr. "Mémoires d'un touriste" , vol. 1-2), the famous treatise “On Love” (published in).
Novels and stories
- The first novel is “Armance” (fr. "Armance", vol. 1-3, ) - about a girl from Russia who receives the inheritance of a repressed Decembrist, was not successful.
- "Vanina Vanini" (fr. "Vanina Vanini" ,) - a story about the fatal love of an aristocrat and a carbonari, filmed in 1961 by Roberto Rossellini
- "Red and Black" (fr. "Le Rouge et le Noir" ; 2 t., ; 6 hours, ; Russian translation by A. N. Pleshcheev in “Notes of the Fatherland”) - the most important work of Stendhal, the first career novel in European literature; was highly praised by major writers, including Pushkin and Balzac, but was not initially successful with the general public.
- In the adventure novel “The Parma Monastery” ( "La Chartreuse de Parme"; 2 volumes -) Stendhal gives a fascinating description of court intrigues at a small Italian court; The Ruritanian tradition of European literature dates back to this work.
- The novel “Red and White”, or “Lucien Levene” (fr. "Lucien Leuwen" , - , published).
- The autobiographical story “The Life of Henri Brulard” (French) was also published posthumously. "Vie de Henry Brulard" , , ed. ) and “Memoirs of an Egotist” (fr. "Souvenirs d'égotisme" , , ed. ), unfinished novel “Lamielle” (fr. "Lamiel" , - , ed. , completely) and “Excessive favor is destructive” (, ed. -).
Editions
- The complete works of Bayle in 18 volumes (Paris, -), as well as two volumes of his correspondence (), were published by Prosper Mérimée.
- Collection op. edited by A. A. Smirnova and B. G. Reizov, vol. 1-15, Leningrad - Moscow, 1933-1950.
- Collection op. in 15 vols. General ed. and entry Art. B. G. Reizova, t. 1-15, Moscow, 1959.
Characteristics of creativity
Stendhal expressed his aesthetic credo in the articles “Racine and Shakespeare” (1822, 1825) and “Walter Scott and the Princess of Cleves” (1830). In the first of them, he interprets romanticism not as a specific historical phenomenon inherent early XIX century, but as a revolt of innovators of any era against the conventions of the previous period. The standard of romanticism for Stendhal is Shakespeare, who “teaches movement, variability, the unpredictable complexity of worldview.” In the second article, he abandons Walter Scott’s tendency to describe “the clothes of the heroes, the landscape among which they are located, their facial features.” According to the writer, it is much more productive in the tradition of Madame de Lafayette to “describe the passions and various feelings that excite their souls.”
Like other romantics, Stendhal longed for strong feelings, but could not close his eyes to the triumph of philistinism that followed the overthrow of Napoleon. The age of Napoleonic marshals - figures in their own way as bright and integral as the condottieres of the Renaissance - was replaced by "loss of personality, drying out of character, disintegration of the individual." Just as other French writers of the 19th century sought an antidote to vulgar everyday life in a romantic escape to the East, to Africa, less often to Corsica or Spain, Stendhal created for himself an idealized image of Italy as a world that, in his mind, maintained direct historical continuity with the Renaissance, dear to his heart.
Meaning and influence
At the time when Stendhal formulated his aesthetic views, European prose was entirely under the spell of Walter Scott. Progressive writers preferred a slow-paced narrative with extensive exposition and lengthy descriptions designed to immerse the reader in the environment where the action takes place. Stendhal's moving, dynamic prose was ahead of its time. He himself predicted that it would be appreciated no earlier than 1880. Andre Gide and Maxim Gorky characterized Stendhal's novels as “letters to the future.”
Indeed, the revival of interest in Stendhal occurred in the second half of XIX century. Fans of Stendhal derived from his works a whole theory of happiness - the so-called. bailism, which “prescribed not to miss a single opportunity to enjoy the beauty of the world, as well as to live in anticipation of the unexpected, to be in constant readiness for divine contingency.” The hedonistic pathos of Stendhal's work was inherited by one of the major French writers, Andre Gide, and a thorough analysis of psychological motivations and the consistent de-heroization of military experience allow us to consider Stendhal as the immediate predecessor of Leo Tolstoy.
Stendhal's psychological views have not lost their significance to this day. So his theory of “crystallization of love” was presented in 1983 in the form of excerpts from his text (book) “On Love” in the “Anthology on the Psychology of Emotions,” published under the editorship of Yu. B. Gippenreiter.
Stendhal's sayings
“The only excuse for God is that he does not exist.”
see also
Write a review about the article "Stendhal"
Notes
Links
- Naumenko V. G.// Information humanitarian portal “Knowledge. Understanding. Skill." - 2012. - No. 4 (July - August) ().
|
||||||||||||||
Excerpt characterizing Stendhal
“Well, introduce me to your lovely daughters,” she said, “the whole city is shouting about them, but I don’t know them.”Natasha stood up and sat down to the magnificent countess. Natasha was so pleased by the praise of this brilliant beauty that she blushed with pleasure.
“Now I also want to become a Muscovite,” said Helen. - And aren’t you ashamed to bury such pearls in the village!
Countess Bezukhaya, rightly, had a reputation as a charming woman. She could say what she did not think, and especially flatter, completely simply and naturally.
- No, dear Count, let me take care of your daughters. At least I won't be here for long now. And you too. I will try to amuse yours. “I heard a lot about you back in St. Petersburg, and I wanted to get to know you,” she told Natasha with her uniformly beautiful smile. “I heard about you from my page, Drubetsky. Did you hear he's getting married? And from my husband’s friend Bolkonsky, Prince Andrei Bolkonsky,” she said with special emphasis, thereby hinting that she knew his relationship to Natasha. “She asked, in order to get to know each other better, to allow one of the young ladies to sit in her box for the rest of the performance, and Natasha went over to her.
In the third act, a palace was presented on stage, in which many candles were burning and paintings depicting knights with beards were hung. In the middle stood probably the king and queen. The king waved right hand, and, apparently timid, sang something badly and sat down on the crimson throne. The girl, who was first in white, then in blue, was now wearing only a shirt with her hair down and stood near the throne. She sang sadly about something, turning to the queen; but the king sternly waved his hand, and men with bare legs and women with bare legs came out from the sides and began to dance all together. Then the violins began to play very subtly and cheerfully, one of the girls with bare thick legs and thin arms, separated from the others, went backstage, straightened her bodice, went out to the middle and began to jump and quickly beat one leg against the other. Everyone on the ground clapped their hands and shouted “Bravo”. Then one man stood in the corner. The orchestra started playing cymbals and trumpets louder, and this one man with bare legs began to jump very high and mince his feet. (This man was Duport, who received 60 thousand a year for this art.) Everyone in the stalls, in the boxes and in the rai began to clap and shout with all their might, and the man stopped and began to smile and bow in all directions. Then others danced, with bare legs, men and women, then again one of the kings shouted something to the music, and everyone began to sing. But suddenly there was a storm, chromatic scales and diminished seventh chords were heard in the orchestra, and everyone ran and again dragged one of those present backstage, and the curtain fell. Again a terrible noise and crackling arose between the spectators, and everyone with delighted faces began to shout: Dupora! Dupora! Dupora! Natasha no longer found this strange. She looked around her with pleasure, smiling joyfully.
- N"est ce pas qu"il est admirable - Duport? [Isn’t Duport amazing?] said Helene, turning to her.
“Oh, oui, [Oh, yes,”] Natasha answered.
During the intermission, there was a smell of cold in Helen's box, the door opened and, bending down and trying not to catch anyone, Anatole entered.
“Let me introduce you to my brother,” Helen said, nervously flicking her eyes from Natasha to Anatole. Natasha turned her pretty head over her bare shoulder to the handsome man and smiled. Anatole, who was as good-looking up close as he was from afar, sat down next to her and said that he had long wanted to have this pleasure, ever since the Naryshkin Ball, at which he had the pleasure, which he had not forgotten, of seeing her. Kuragin was much smarter and simpler with women than in male society. He spoke boldly and simply, and Natasha was strangely and pleasantly struck by the fact that not only was there nothing so terrible about this man about whom they talked so much, but that, on the contrary, he had the most naive, cheerful and good-natured smile.
Kuragin asked about the impression of the performance and told her about how Semenova fell while playing in the last performance.
“You know, Countess,” he said, suddenly addressing her as if he were an old acquaintance, “we are having a carousel in costumes; you should take part in it: it will be a lot of fun. Everyone gathers at the Karagins'. Please come, right? - he said.
As he said this, he did not take his smiling eyes off Natasha’s face, neck, and bare arms. Natasha undoubtedly knew that he admired her. She was pleased with this, but for some reason his presence made her feel cramped and heavy. When she was not looking at him, she felt that he was looking at her shoulders, and she involuntarily intercepted his gaze so that he would look better at her eyes. But, looking into his eyes, she felt with fear that between him and her there was absolutely no barrier of modesty that she had always felt between herself and other men. She, without knowing how, after five minutes felt terribly close to this man. When she turned away, she was afraid that he would take her bare hand from behind and kiss her neck. They talked about the simplest things and she felt that they were close, like she had never been with a man. Natasha looked back at Helen and her father, as if asking them what this meant; but Helen was busy talking with some general and did not respond to her glance, and her father’s gaze did not tell her anything other than what he always said: “It’s fun, well, I’m glad.”
In one of the moments of awkward silence, during which Anatole calmly and stubbornly looked at her with his bulging eyes, Natasha, in order to break this silence, asked him how he liked Moscow. Natasha asked and blushed. It constantly seemed to her that she was doing something indecent when talking to him. Anatole smiled, as if encouraging her.
– At first I didn’t like it much, because what makes a city pleasant, ce sont les jolies femmes, [pretty women,] isn’t it? Well, now I really like it,” he said, looking at her significantly. – Will you go to the carousel, Countess? “Go,” he said, and, stretching out his hand to her bouquet and lowering his voice, he said: “Vous serez la plus jolie.” Venez, chere comtesse, et comme gage donnez moi cette fleur. [You will be the prettiest. Go, dear Countess, and give me this flower as a pledge.]
Natasha did not understand what he said, just like he himself, but she felt that incomprehensible words his intent was indecent. She didn't know what to say and turned away as if she hadn't heard what he said. But as soon as she turned away, she thought that he was there behind her, so close to her.
“What is he now? Is he confused? Angry? Should I fix this? she asked herself. She couldn't help but look back. She looked straight into his eyes, and his closeness and confidence, and the good-natured tenderness of his smile defeated her. She smiled just like him, looking straight into his eyes. And again she felt with horror that there was no barrier between him and her.
The curtain rose again. Anatole left the box, calm and cheerful. Natasha returned to her father’s box, completely subjugated to the world in which she found herself. Everything that happened in front of her already seemed completely natural to her; but for that all her previous thoughts about the groom, about Princess Marya, about village life never once entered her head, as if it all happened a long time ago, long ago.
In the fourth act there was some kind of devil who sang, waving his hand until the boards were pulled out under him and he sat down there. Natasha saw only this from the fourth act: something worried and tormented her, and the cause of this excitement was Kuragin, whom she involuntarily followed with her eyes. When they left the theater, Anatole approached them, called their carriage and picked them up. As he sat Natasha down, he shook her hand above the elbow. Natasha, excited and red, looked back at him. He looked at her, his eyes sparkling and smiling tenderly.
Only after arriving home, Natasha could clearly think through everything that had happened to her, and suddenly remembering Prince Andrei, she was horrified, and in front of everyone at tea, which everyone sat down to after the theater, she gasped loudly and ran out of the room, flushed. - "My God! I'm dead! she said to herself. How could I let this happen?” she thought. She sat for a long time, covering her flushed face with her hands, trying to give herself a clear account of what had happened to her, and could neither understand what had happened to her, nor what she felt. Everything seemed dark, unclear and scary to her. There, in this huge, illuminated hall, where Duport jumped on the wet boards to the music with bare legs in a jacket with sequins, and girls, and old men, and Helen, naked with a calm and proud smile, shouted “bravo” in delight - there, under the shadow of this Helen , there it was all clear and simple; but now alone, with herself, it was incomprehensible. - "What it is? What was this fear that I felt for him? What is this remorse that I feel now? she thought.
Natasha would be able to tell the old countess alone in bed at night everything that she thought. Sonya, she knew, with her stern and integral gaze, either would not have understood anything, or would have been horrified by her confession. Natasha, alone with herself, tried to resolve what was tormenting her.
“Did I die for the love of Prince Andrei or not? she asked herself and with a reassuring smile answered herself: What kind of fool am I that I ask this? What happened to me? Nothing. I didn't do anything, I didn't do anything to cause this. No one will know, and I will never see him again, she told herself. It became clear that nothing had happened, that there was nothing to repent of, that Prince Andrei could love me just like that. But what kind? Oh God, my God! Why isn’t he here?” Natasha calmed down for a moment, but then again some instinct told her that although all this was true and although nothing had happened, instinct told her that all the former purity of her love for Prince Andrey had perished. And again in her imagination she repeated her entire conversation with Kuragin and imagined the face, gestures and gentle smile of this handsome and brave man, while he shook her hand.
Anatol Kuragin lived in Moscow because his father sent him away from St. Petersburg, where he lived more than twenty thousand a year in money and the same amount in debts that creditors demanded from his father.
The father announced to his son that he was paying half of his debts for the last time; but only so that he would go to Moscow to the post of adjutant to the commander-in-chief, which he procured for him, and would finally try to make a good match there. He pointed him to Princess Marya and Julie Karagina.
Anatole agreed and went to Moscow, where he stayed with Pierre. Pierre accepted Anatole reluctantly at first, but then got used to him, sometimes went with him on his carousings and, under the pretext of a loan, gave him money.
Anatole, as Shinshin rightly said about him, since he arrived in Moscow, drove all the Moscow ladies crazy, especially because he neglected them and obviously preferred gypsies and French actresses to them, with the head of which, Mademoiselle Georges, as they said, he was in intimate relations. He did not miss a single revelry with Danilov and other merry fellows of Moscow, drank all night long, outdrinking everyone, and attended all the evenings and balls of high society. They talked about several of his intrigues with Moscow ladies, and at balls he courted some. But he did not get close to girls, especially rich brides, who for the most part were all bad, especially since Anatole, which no one knew except his closest friends, had been married two years ago. Two years ago, while his regiment was stationed in Poland, a poor Polish landowner forced Anatole to marry his daughter.
Anatole very soon abandoned his wife and, for the money that he agreed to send to his father-in-law, he negotiated for himself the right to be considered a single man.
Anatole was always pleased with his position, himself and others. He was instinctively convinced with his whole being that he could not live differently than the way he lived, and that he had never done anything bad in his life. He was unable to think about how his actions might affect others, nor what might come of such or such an action. He was convinced that just as a duck was created in such a way that it should always live in water, so he was created by God in such a way that he should live with an income of thirty thousand and always occupy the highest position in society. He believed in this so firmly that, looking at him, others were convinced of this and did not deny him either a higher position in the world or money, which he obviously borrowed without return from those he met and those who met him.
He was not a gambler, at least he never wanted to win. He wasn't vain. He didn't care at all what people thought about him. Still less could he be guilty of ambition. He teased his father several times, ruining his career, and laughed at all the honors. He was not stingy and did not refuse anyone who asked him. The only thing he loved was fun and women, and since, according to his concepts, there was nothing ignoble in these tastes, and he could not think about what came out of satisfying his tastes for other people, in his soul he believed considered himself an impeccable person, sincerely despised scoundrels and bad people and carried his head high with a calm conscience.
The revelers, these male Magdalenes, have a secret sense of consciousness of innocence, the same as the female Magdalenes, based on the same hope of forgiveness. “Everything will be forgiven to her, because she loved a lot, and everything will be forgiven to him, because he had a lot of fun.”
Dolokhov, who this year appeared again in Moscow after his exile and Persian adventures, and led a luxurious gambling and carousing life, became close to his old St. Petersburg comrade Kuragin and used him for his own purposes.
Anatole sincerely loved Dolokhov for his intelligence and daring. Dolokhov, who needed the name, nobility, connections of Anatoly Kuragin to lure rich young people into his gambling society, without letting him feel this, used and amused himself with Kuragin. In addition to the calculation for which he needed Anatole, the very process of controlling someone else’s will was a pleasure, a habit and a need for Dolokhov.
Natasha made a strong impression on Kuragin. At dinner after the theater, with the techniques of a connoisseur, he examined in front of Dolokhov the dignity of her arms, shoulders, legs and hair, and announced his decision to drag himself after her. What could come out of this courtship - Anatole could not think about it and know, just as he never knew what would come out of each of his actions.
“It’s good, brother, but not about us,” Dolokhov told him.
“I’ll tell my sister to call her for dinner,” said Anatole. - A?
- You better wait until she gets married...
“You know,” said Anatole, “j”adore les petites filles: [I adore girls:] - now he’ll get lost.
“You’ve already fallen for a petite fille [girl],” said Dolokhov, who knew about Anatole’s marriage. - Look!
- Well, you can’t do it twice! A? – Anatole said, laughing good-naturedly.
The next day after the theater, the Rostovs did not go anywhere and no one came to them. Marya Dmitrievna, hiding something from Natasha, was talking with her father. Natasha guessed that they were talking about the old prince and making up something, and this bothered and offended her. She waited for Prince Andrei every minute, and twice that day she sent the janitor to Vzdvizhenka to find out if he had arrived. He didn't come. It was now harder for her than the first days of her arrival. Her impatience and sadness about him were joined by an unpleasant memory of her meeting with Princess Marya and the old prince, and fear and anxiety, for which she did not know the reason. It seemed to her that either he would never come, or that something would happen to her before he arrived. She could not, as before, calmly and continuously, alone with herself, think about him. As soon as she began to think about him, the memory of him was joined by the memory of the old prince, of Princess Marya and of the last performance, and of Kuragin. She again wondered if she was guilty, if her loyalty to Prince Andrei had already been violated, and again she found herself remembering in the smallest detail every word, every gesture, every shade of play of expression on the face of this man, who knew how to arouse in her something incomprehensible to her. and a terrible feeling. To the eyes of her family, Natasha seemed more lively than usual, but she was far from being as calm and happy as she had been before.
On Sunday morning, Marya Dmitrievna invited her guests to mass at her parish of the Assumption on Mogiltsy.
“I don’t like these fashionable churches,” she said, apparently proud of her free-thinking. - There is only one God everywhere. Our priest is wonderful, he serves decently, it’s so noble, and so is the deacon. Does this make it so sacred that people sing concerts in the choir? I don’t like it, it’s just self-indulgence!
Marya Dmitrievna loved Sundays and knew how to celebrate them. Her house was all washed and cleaned on Saturday; people and she were not working, everyone was dressed up for the holidays, and everyone was attending mass. Food was added to the master's dinner, and people were given vodka and roast goose or pig. But nowhere in the whole house was the holiday more noticeable than on Marya Dmitrievna’s broad, stern face, which on that day assumed an unchanging expression of solemnity.
When they had drunk coffee after mass, in the living room with the covers removed, Marya Dmitrievna was informed that the carriage was ready, and she, with a stern look, dressed in the ceremonial shawl in which she made visits, stood up and announced that she was going to Prince Nikolai Andreevich Bolkonsky to explain to him about Natasha.
After Marya Dmitrievna left, a milliner from Madame Chalmet came to the Rostovs, and Natasha, having closed the door in the room next to the living room, very pleased with the entertainment, began trying on new dresses. While she, putting on a bodice, still without sleeves, on a living thread and bending her head, looked in the mirror at how the back was sitting, she heard in the living room the animated sounds of the voice of her father and another, female voice, which made her blush. It was Helen's voice. Before Natasha had time to take off the bodice she was trying on, the door opened and Countess Bezukhaya entered the room, beaming with a good-natured and affectionate smile, in a dark purple, high-necked velvet dress.
- Ah, ma delicieuse! [Oh, my charming one!] - she said to the blushing Natasha. - Charmante! [Charming!] No, this is not like anything, my dear Count,” she said to Ilya Andreich, who came in after her. – How to live in Moscow and not travel anywhere? No, I won't leave you alone! This evening M lle Georges is reciting and some people will gather; and if you don’t bring your beauties, who are better than M lle Georges, then I don’t want to know you. My husband is gone, he left for Tver, otherwise I would have sent him for you. Be sure to come, definitely, at nine o'clock. “She nodded her head to a milliner she knew, who sat down respectfully to her, and sat down on a chair next to the mirror, picturesquely spreading out the folds of her velvet dress. She did not stop chatting good-naturedly and cheerfully, constantly admiring Natasha’s beauty. She examined her dresses and praised them, and boasted about her new dress en gaz metallique, [made of metal-colored gas], which she received from Paris and advised Natasha to do the same.
F. Stendhal. The biography (briefly) of this person will be presented to your attention below.
General information
French writer Henri Marie Bayle (real name) was born in Grenoble in the south of France in 1783. His family was wealthy, his father was a lawyer in the local parliament. Unfortunately, the boy lost his mother at the age of 7 and his father and aunt took over his upbringing. The mourning for his dead wife was so strong that the father plunged headlong into religion, becoming an extremely devout man.
Henri's relationship with his father did not go well. And his maternal grandfather, a doctor and supporter of education, became a close friend and instilled in the future writer a love of literature. Grandfather Henri Gagnon personally met with Voltaire. It was he who introduced the future writer to the works of Diderot, Voltaire, Helvinicius, and laid the foundation for education, worldview and aversion to religion. F. Stendhal's character was distinguished by sensuality and impulsiveness, narcissism and criticism, and lack of discipline.
Education and military service
Henri received his primary education at the local Grenoble school, studying there for only three years. He was interested in philosophy and logic, art history and mathematics. At the age of 16, the young man went to Paris to enter the Ecole Polytechnique to become a military engineer or artillery officer.
But the whirlwind of events taking place in the country changed his plans. After the events of the Revolution, he enlists in Napoleon's army, in the dragoon regiment. Soon he leaves the service and is engaged in self-education in Paris. His focus is on literature, philosophy and the English language. The future writer writes in his diaries of that time about his desire to become a playwright.
After a short service in Marseille, where he went after the actress with whom he fell in love, he entered the army as a military official.
Stendhal, whose biography is full of interesting facts, participated in Napoleon’s military campaigns in Germany, Austria, Italy and Russia. During his hikes, he writes down his thoughts about music and painting. As part of Napoleon's army, he witnessed the Battle of Borodino and the fire in Moscow. Passed Orsha and Smolensk, was on Vyazma. The events of the military campaign in Russia struck him with the patriotism and greatness of the Russian people.
Trip to Italy
The defeat of Bonaparte and the restoration of the power of the Bourbons, towards whom he had a negative attitude, forced Stendhal to resign and spend the next 7 years in Italian Milan. The writer falls in love with Italy, its language, opera, painting and women. Italy became a second home for Stendhal, and he moved his heroes here. He considered the Italians' temperament to be natural, not similar to the French. In Milan, Stendhal met the poet Byron
Frederic Stendhal, whose biography was very sad, began literary work in Italy and published his first books: “The Lives of Haydn, Mozart and Metastasio” (1815) and “The History of Painting in Italy” (1817).
In Italy, the Carbonari Republican movement begins, which Stendhal supports and finances. But in 1820 his Carbonari friends came under persecution, and he had to leave for France.
Life in Paris
The writer Stendhal, whose biography was very difficult, began to earn a living by working in newspapers and magazines.
But the Parisian authorities were already aware of his acquaintances. It had to be published in English and French magazines without the author’s signature.
Twenties of the XIX century. marked by active creativity and publications.
The book “Treatise on Love”, pamphlets “Racine and Shakespeare”, the first novel “Armans” and the short story “Vanina Vanini” are published. Publishers offer to publish a guide to Rome, and this is how the book “Walks in Rome” appears.
Stendhal showed the novel “Red and Black” to the world in 1830. The time of the novel coincides with the era of restoration in which the author lived. And Stendhal read the basis for the plot in a newspaper, in a crime column.
Despite the fruitful work, Stendhal's psychological and financial condition leaves much to be desired. He does not have a stable income and is haunted by thoughts of suicide. The writer writes several wills.
Diplomatic and creative work
Political changes in France in 1830 allowed Stendhal to enter public service. He was appointed ambassador to Italy, to Trieste, and later to Civita Vecchia. He will end his life in consular work.
Routine, monotonous work and living in a small port town brought boredom and loneliness to Frederick. To have fun, he began to travel around Italy and go to Rome.
Living in Italy, Frederic Stendhal continues literary activity. In 1832-1834. "Memoirs of an Egoist" and the novel "Lucien Levene" were written. The autobiographical novel “The Life of Henri Brulard” was published in 1836.
Period 1836-1839 F. Stendhal spends a long vacation in Paris. Here he writes “Notes of a Tourist,” published in Paris in 1838, and his last completed book, “The Parma Monastery.”
The last years of life and creativity
Shortly before his death, the writer was able to return to Paris, having secured leave from the department. At this time, he was already seriously ill and weak that he could hardly write, and therefore dictated his texts.
The gloomy mood did not leave F. Stendhal. He thinks about death and foresees that he might die on the street.
And so it happened. In March 1842, the writer was taking a walk when he was struck down by an apoplexy. He fell in the middle of the street and died a few hours later.
Only three of his friends came to see off the coffin with the body of the unrecognized genius.
French newspapers reported only about the burial of an “unknown German poet” in Montmartre.
Stendhal's tombstone, at his request as a sign of love for Italy, contains a short inscription: “Henri Bayle. Milanese. He lived, he wrote, he loved.”
Attitudes towards religion and the formation of views
As a child, Stendhal was raised by the Jesuit Ryan. After studying with him and reading the Bible, Henri began to hate clergy and religion and remained an atheist for the rest of his life.
The morality of asceticism and humility is alien to him. According to the writer, hypocrisy has gripped French society. No one believes in the dogmas of the Catholic Church, but is forced to assume the guise of a believer. The complete takeover of the Church by the minds of the French is nothing more than a manifestation of despotism.
The writer's father was a smug bourgeois, and Stendhal's world was formed on opposing views. The basis was a free personality, with his own special feelings, character and dreams, not recognizing established concepts of duty and decency.
The writer lived in an era of change, observed and participated himself. The idol of that generation was Napoleon Bonaparte. The thirst for strong experiences and the energy of action constituted the atmosphere of the era. Stendhal admired Napoleon's talent and courage, which influenced his worldview. The characters of Stendhal's literary heroes are depicted in accordance with the spirit of the era.
Love in the life of a writer
In Italy, on his first trip, Frederic Stendhal met his hopeless and tragic love- Matilda Visconti, wife of the Polish general Dembowski. She died early, but managed to leave a mark on his life and a memory that he carried throughout his life.
In his diary, Stendhal wrote that there were 12 women in his life that he would like to name.
Talent recognition
“Literary fame is a lottery,” the writer said. Stendhal's biography and work were not interesting to his contemporaries. Proper assessment and understanding came 100 years later, in the 20th century. Yes, he himself noted that he writes for a small number of lucky people.
Against the backdrop of Balzac's celebrity in 1840, Stendhal's interesting biography was unknown; he was not on the list of French writers.
The diligent writers of that time, now safely forgotten, were published in tens of thousands of copies. F. Stendhal's "Treatise on Love" was sold in only 20 copies. The author joked about this, calling the book a “shrine” because few people dare to touch it. The landmark novel “Red and Black” was published only once. Critics considered Stendhal's novels unworthy of attention, and the heroes lifeless automata.
Apparently, the reason lies in the discrepancy between existing stereotypes in literature and the genre of his work. Predilection for individuals with absolute authority like Napoleon was contrary to the rules of the time.
The lack of recognition during his lifetime did not prevent F. Stendhal from becoming one of the greatest short story writers of his time.
Henri Beyle took his literary pseudonym from the name of the city of Stendhal in Germany. The famous art critic Winckelmann, who lived in the 18th century, was born in this city, whose ideas influenced the German romantics.
F. Stendhal called his profession: “Observation of the behavior of the human heart.”
In January 1835, Stendhal was awarded the Legion of Honor.
The title of the novel “Red and Black” is symbolic and controversial; discussions among scientists and literary critics do not stop. According to one version, red is the color of the revolutionary era in which the author happened to live, and black is a symbol of reaction. Others compare red and black with chance that determines a person's fate. And still others see in the combination of colors the problem of choosing the main character Julien. To be a military man (red), as during the Empire, or a priest (black), which was more honorable during the Restoration. The union of red and black is not only contrast, opposition, but also similarity, the mutual transition of one into the other, conflict and contiguity of life and death.
Evaluation of the work of F. Stendhal
Frederick Stendhal himself, short biography which was described in the article, considered himself a romantic, and in his works he placed first place inner world and the experiences of the characters. But the inner world was based on a clear analysis, understanding of social life, and realistic thinking.
In his attitude to life, which was reflected in his work, Stendhal tested all events and concepts personal experience, and experience grows from our personal feelings and experiences. The only source of knowledge, he believed, is our sensations, therefore, there cannot be morality not connected with it.
The driving force and powerful incentive for the characters' behavior lies in the thirst for fame and condemned approval.
The creator of the realistic-psychological novel genre, Frederic Stendhal, used in his novels the theme of contrasting young and old heroes, where youth and energy oppose stupidity and despotism. The main, beloved heroes of his novels come into conflict with the society of the ruling bourgeoisie and the victorious “purist”. Rough social environment, full of rigid views and habits, hinders the development of independent thought and a free personality.
The writer is considered one of the advanced and early practitioners of realism.
The work of F. Stendhal has two main thematic areas:
- Italy and books about art.
- Description of French reality at the time he lived, after the French Revolution.
True fame came to the author of “Red and Black” only after his death. During Stendhal's lifetime, few people read his books. However, the work of this prose writer was appreciated by such masters of words as Balzac, Goethe, Byron, Pushkin. The biography of the writer Stendhal is presented in this article.
early years
Henri-Marie Bayle was born in 1783 into a family that took seriously the destructive noble and ecclesiastical prejudices that justified class privilege. Catholicism was highly revered by the father of the future writer. Henri-Marie Bayle himself, having matured, hated the church.
So, the creator of “Red and Black” was born into a wealthy bourgeois family. From his childhood memories he brought back images of two houses. The first one was unpleasant, with dark stairs and an unbearable environment. The second one is bright and cozy. The first house belonged to Henri-Marie Bayle's father. The second is to the grandfather of the future writer, Dr. Gagnon.
Chérubin Beyle - the father of our hero - made a career, had good position in society. He served as a prosecutor and a lawyer in parliament, which brought him a good income. He was body and soul devoted to the “old regime.” Henri-Marie Bayle, the only representative of his respected family, became a republican, in which the aforementioned maternal grandfather played some role. Gagnon was a man of progressive views; it was he who introduced his grandson to the works of Voltaire and other educators. The doctor had a rare teaching talent.
In 1794, the street on which there was native home the future author of “The Parma Monastery” and other remarkable works, was renamed in honor of Rousseau, a writer who once stayed here back in the sixties. Bayle Sr. was far from an idle man. He worked tirelessly from the age of seventeen, studied at the same time, passed exams in law, and only by the age of 34 did he get married. But this is not about him, but about his brilliant son, who in childhood experienced a serious tragedy - the death of his mother. This event became key in his life.
The death of his mother made Henri an atheist and anti-clerical. In addition, her departure provoked hostility towards her father. However, Stendhal never loved his parent, which he wrote about more than once in his memoirs. Cheruben practiced rather harsh methods of education, loved him more as a successor to his family name than as a son.
Hated teacher
Henri's first mentor was Jean Ryan. However, before him there was Pierre Joubert, but he quickly died. Ryan was a Jesuit, gave the boy Latin lessons and forced him to read the Bible, which aroused even greater hostility towards the church. “He was a small, thin man with a deceitful look,” is one of Stendhal’s statements about his teacher.
The writer's childhood occurred at a time when the church still had considerable weight in politics and public life. Ryan presented his student with theories of the universe. But only those that were approved by the church, and they had nothing in common with science. The boy was frankly bored in his lessons. “I became angry, gloomy, unhappy,” the French writer Stendhal said about his childhood. Only the educated and well-read grandfather Gagnon enjoyed the favor of young Henri.
From an early age, Henri-Marie Bayle read a lot. He secretly entered his father’s library and took another “dangerous” book from the top shelf. It is worth saying that among the prohibited literature was Don Quixote. It is difficult to say what the danger of Cervantes’s work was. Perhaps the book of the great Spaniard did not correspond to the morals of the Catholic Church. The father threatened to confiscate the book about the cunning hidalgo. Meanwhile, the grandfather secretly advised the boy to read Moliere.
Mathematics
At a school located in his hometown, Bayle mastered only Latin. At least, the writer claimed so in his memoirs. Additionally, he studied philosophy, mathematics, and logic.
In 1799, Bayle left for the capital, where he intended to continue his education. Mathematics became the meaning of life for him several years before moving. Firstly, entering the Polytechnic School meant leaving the hated father's house. Secondly, mathematics is devoid of ambiguity. Stendhal, whose books began to hate hypocrisy since childhood. But he did not enter the Polytechnic School. A coup d'etat took place, which carried the young man into a whirlpool of completely different events.
Paris
In November 1797, a coup took place in France. The Directory was deprived of power. The new government was headed by Napoleon. This event marked the end of the revolutionary period. A despotic regime was established, Bonaparte declared himself First Consul. Henri Bayle, like thousands of other young people, was quite concerned about the grandiose historical events.
Upon arrival in Paris, he settled in a hostel from the Polytechnic School and after a few days he realized that he hated the capital. He was irritated by the crowded streets, inedible food, and the lack of familiar landscapes. Bayle realized that he was attracted to study at a Parisian institution only because he saw it as a way to escape from his parental home. And mathematics was just a means. And he changed his mind about entering the Polytechnic School.
Bayle enlisted in the active army - in the dragoon regiment. Influential relatives obtained an assignment for the young man to the northern part of Italy. The future writer loved this country with all his heart.
Dramaturgy
Bayle soon became disillusioned with Napoleon's policies. In 1802 he resigned and went to Paris, where he lived for three years. In the capital, he began to actively educate himself: he studied philosophy, the history of literature, and the English language. During this period, he had a dream of becoming a playwright. By the way, love for theater arts She mastered it in her adolescence, while living in her father’s house. One day a Parisian troupe came to his hometown on tour. Henri not only did not miss a single performance, but also fell in love with the capital’s actress. He tracked her, languished, dreamed of meeting her, in a word, he knew unrequited love.
Return to the army
Bayle did not become a “second Moliere”. Moreover, in Paris he fell in love again, and again with an actress. The future Stendhal followed her to Marseille. And in 1825 he returned to serve in the army, which allowed him to visit Germany and Austria. During campaigns, the quartermaster service officer found time to write notes. Some of them were lost while crossing the Berezina.
Surprisingly, Stendhal had no combat experience. Only the experience of an observer, which later came in handy in literary creativity. He visited Smolensk, Orsha, Vyazma. Witnessed the Battle of Borodino. I saw Moscow burning.
Italy
After the fall of Napoleon, the hero of today's story went to a region where he always felt happy and spiritual. He spent seven years in Milan. Here Stendhal wrote his first works, among them “The History of Painting in Italy.” At this time, he became interested in the work of the famous German art critic and even took a pseudonym in honor of his hometown.
In Italy, Bayle became close to the Republicans. Here he met Matilda Visconti, a woman who left a deep imprint on his soul. She was married to a Polish general. Besides, she died early.
In the twenties, persecution of Republicans began in Italy, among whom were many of Stendhal’s friends. He had to return to his homeland. which was installed in the north of Italy, aroused acute hostility in him. Later, Stendhal would reflect the events he witnessed in the 1920s in the book “The Parma Monastery.”
Stendhal's work
Paris met the writer unfriendly. Rumors about his connections with Italian republicans have already penetrated the French capital. Nevertheless, he regularly published his works, although under someone else's name. The author of these notes was identified only a hundred years later. In 1823, the essays “Racine and Shakespeare” and “On Love” were published. By that time, Stendhal had acquired a reputation as a witty debater: he visited regularly.
In 1827, Stendhal's first novel, Armans, was published. Several works were also created in a realistic spirit. In 1830, the writer completed work on the novel “Red and Black”. This work is described in more detail below.
Civil service
In 1830, Stendhal's position changed for the better in France: he entered service as consul in Trieste. He was later transferred to Civitavecchia, where he worked until last days own life. In this small port city, the French writer was lonely and bored. The bureaucratic routine left little time for creativity. However, he often visited Rome.
During a long vacation in Paris, Stendhal wrote some notes and completed his last novel. His work attracted the famous novelist Balzac.
Last years
There are several versions regarding the cause of the writer’s death. According to one of them, Stendhal died of syphilis. It is known that he was ill for a long time and used potassium iodide and mercury as medications. At times he was so weak that he could not write. The version about syphilis has no confirmation. It is worth saying that until the beginning of the 20th century, the diagnosis of this disease had not yet been developed.
In March 1842, the writer lost consciousness on the street. He died a few hours later. Most likely, Stendhal died of a stroke. The classic of world literature was buried in the Montmartre cemetery.
List of works by Stendhal:
- "Armans".
- "Vanina Vanini"
- "Red and black".
- "Parma Monastery".
This list, of course, did not include great amount articles on art. The writer expressed his aesthetic credo in works about the works of Shakespeare, Racine, and Walter Scott.
"Red and black"
The question of the symbolism of the colors in the title is still open to this day. The most common belief is that the combination of red and black means a choice between a career in the church and the army. The work is based on a story Stendhal read in a newspaper. The book “Red and Black” became widely known only in late XIX century.
"Parma Monastery"
The novel was published in 1839. At the beginning of the work, the author describes the delight of the Italians caused by liberation from the Habsburgs, in which main role played by the writer's compatriots. But soon in the north of the country persecution of freethinkers and traitors begins, one of which is main character. There is a lot in the novel battle scenes. The author showed the war in all its absurdity, which became a literary innovation for that time.
1850
1864 1880
1789
IN 1796
↓One of the most outstanding French writers of the 19th century, Henri Marie Bayle, who wrote under the pseudonym Stendhal, during his lifetime did not enjoy either critical recognition or success among the general reader. Almost all of his numerous works of an artistic, historical and critical nature went unnoticed, only occasionally causing reviews, not always favorable. Nevertheless, Mérimée, who was influenced by Stendhal, highly valued him, Balzac admired him, Goethe and Pushkin enjoyed reading his novel “The Red and the Black.”
Stendhal's destiny was posthumous fame. His friend and executor Romain Colombe 1850 s undertook a complete publication of his works, including journal articles and correspondence. From that time on, Stendhal entered French literature as one of its greatest representatives.
The school of French realists of the 50s recognized him, along with Balzac, as their teacher; I. Taine, one of the inspirers of French naturalism, wrote an enthusiastic article about him ( 1864 ); E. Zola considered him a representative of the new novel, in which man is studied in his deep connection with the social environment. A scientific study of Stendhal began, mainly his biography. IN 1880 -years appear in the light of it autobiographical works, rough sketches, unfinished stories that R. Colomb did not include in his publication. Already in the 19th century, his novels were translated into many languages.
In Russia, Stendhal was appreciated very early, earlier than in his homeland. A.S. Pushkin and some of his contemporaries drew attention to “Red and Black”. L. Tolstoy spoke very positively about it, who was especially struck by the military scenes of the “Parma Monastery”. Gorky considered him one of the greatest masters of the European novel. IN Soviet Russia All of Stendhal's works, even unfinished passages, were translated into Russian, and his novels and short stories were republished dozens of times. His main works have been translated into many other languages of the countries of the former USSR. Stendhal is undoubtedly one of our most beloved foreign writers.
Henri Marie Bayle was born in the south of France, in the city of Grenoble. Stendhal's father, Chérubin Beyle, a lawyer at the local parliament, and his grandfather, Henri Gagnon, a doctor and public figure, like most of the French intelligentsia of the 18th century, were carried away by the ideas of the Enlightenment. My father had in his library a “large encyclopedia of sciences and arts” compiled by Diderot and D-Alembert, and was fond of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. My grandfather was an admirer of Voltaire and a convinced Voltairian. But with the beginning of the French Revolution ( 1789 ) their views have changed a lot. The family had wealth, and the deepening of the revolution frightened her. Stendhal's father even had to go into hiding, and he ended up on the side of the old regime.
After the death of Stendhal's mother, the family went into mourning for a long time. The father and grandfather fell into piety, and the boy’s upbringing was entrusted to the priest, hiding under the hospitable roof of the Baileys. This priest, Abbot Ralyan, whom Stendhal recalled with indignation in his memoirs, tried in vain to instill religious views in his pupil.
IN 1796 In the same year, Stendhal entered the Central School that opened in Grenoble. The task of these schools, established in some provincial cities, was to introduce public and secular education in the republic in order to replace the previous one - private and religious. They had to arm the younger generation useful knowledge and an ideology corresponding to the interests of the emerging bourgeois state. At the Central School, Stendhal became interested in mathematics and, upon completion of the course, was sent to Paris to enter the Polytechnic School, which trained military engineers and artillery officers.
But he never entered the Polytechnic School. He arrived in Paris a few days after the coup of the 18th Brumaire, when the young General Bonaparte seized power and declared himself first consul. Preparations immediately began for a campaign in Italy, where reaction again triumphed and Austrian rule was established. Stendhal was enlisted as a sub-lieutenant in a dragoon regiment and went to his duty station in Italy. He served in the army for more than two years, however, he did not have to participate in a single battle. He then resigned and 1802 year returned to Paris with the secret intention of becoming a writer.
Stendhal lived in Paris for almost three years, persistently studying philosophy, literature and English. In fact, only here he receives his first real education. He becomes acquainted with modern French sensualistic and materialistic philosophy and becomes a convinced enemy of the church and all mysticism in general. While Bonaparte was preparing the imperial throne for himself, Stendhal hated the monarchy for the rest of his life. IN 1799 year, during the coup of the 18th Brumaire, he was pleased that General Bonaparte “became king of France”; V 1804 year, the coronation of Napoleon, for which the Pope came to Paris, seems to Stendhal an obvious “union of all deceivers.”
Meanwhile, I had to think about making money. Many of the comedies Stendhal began remained unfinished, and he decided to make a living through commerce. After serving for about a year in some trading enterprise in Marseilles and feeling forever disgusted with trade, he decided to return to military service. IN 1805 In 2006, continuous wars with the European coalition began again, and Stendhal was enlisted in the commissariat. From that time on, he continuously traveled around Europe following Napoleon's army. IN 1806 year he enters Berlin with French troops, in 1809 -m - to Vienna. IN 1811 year he spends his holidays in Italy, where he conceives his book “The History of Painting in Italy”. IN 1812 by Stendhal at will goes to the army that has already invaded Russia, enters Moscow, sees the fire of the ancient Russian capital and flees with the remnants of the army to France, retaining for a long time the memories of the heroic resistance of the Russian troops and the valor of the Russian people. 1814 year he was present during the occupation of Paris by Russian troops and, having received his resignation, left for Italy, which was then under Austrian oppression.
He settles in Milan, in the city he fell in love with 1800 year, and has been living here almost continuously for about seven years. As a retired Napoleonic officer, he receives a half pension, which allows him to somehow survive in Milan, but is not enough to live in Paris.
In Italy, Stendhal published his first work - three biographies: “The Lives of Haydn, Mozart and Metastasio” ( 1814 ).
IN 1814 year, Stendhal first became acquainted with the romantic movement in Germany, mainly through A.V. Schlegel’s book “A Course in Dramatic Literature,” which had just been translated into French. Accepting Schlegel's idea of the need for decisive literary reform and the fight against classicism for the sake of a freer and more modern art, he, however, does not sympathize with the religious-mystical tendencies of German romanticism and cannot agree with Schlegel in his criticism of all French literature and enlightenment. Already with 1816 Stendhal became interested in Byron's poems, in which he saw an expression of modern public interests and social protest. Italian romanticism, which emerged around the same time and was closely associated with the Italian national liberation movement, aroused his ardent sympathies. All this was reflected in next book Stendhal - "History of Painting in Italy" ( 1817 ), in which he most fully outlined his aesthetic views.
At the same time, Stendhal published the book "Rome, Naples and Florence" ( 1817 ), which attempts to characterize Italy, its political situation, morals, culture and Italian national character. To make this picture of an entire country vivid and convincing, he sketches vivid scenes of modern life and retells historical episodes, revealing the brilliant talent of the narrator.
WITH 1820 years began the persecution of the Italian Carbonari. Some of Stendhal's Italian acquaintances were arrested and imprisoned in Austrian prisons. Terror reigned in Milan. Stendhal decided to return to Paris. In June 1821 year he arrived home and immediately plunged into the atmosphere of stormy political and literary struggle.
At this time, the reaction began again with extraordinary force in France. Villel's ministry, devoted to the king, carried out activities that deeply outraged the liberals. Taking advantage of the scanty “freedoms” provided by the constitution, the liberals fought in the chambers, in the press, and on the stages of theaters. Activists and press organs who had recently been loyal to the king joined the opposition. IN 1827 The year after the elections, which gave a majority to the liberals, the Villelle government resigned. But Charles X did not want to give in and decided to carry out a coup d'etat in order to completely restore absolutism. As a result, a revolution broke out in Paris, overthrowing the old monarchy in three days.
Stendhal was keenly interested in the political struggle taking place in France. The Bourbon Restoration caused his indignation. Arriving in Paris, he openly took part in the liberals' struggle against reaction.
In Paris, life was more expensive than in Milan, and Stendhal had to engage in daily literature to earn money: write small articles for French and English magazines. He barely found time to write a novel.
His first work, published after returning to Paris, was the book “On Love” ( 1822 ). This book is a psychological treatise in which Stendhal tried to characterize the various types of love common in various classes of society and in various historical eras.
During the restoration in France there was a dispute between the classics and the romantics. Stendhal took part in these disputes, publishing two pamphlets "Racine and Shakespeare" ( 1823 And 1825 ). The brochures attracted the attention of literary circles and played a role in the struggle between two literary movements.
IN 1826 year, Stendhal wrote his first novel - "Armans" ( 1827 ), where he depicts modern France, its “high society”, an idle aristocracy, limited in interests, thinking only about its own benefits. However, this work of Stendhal, despite its artistic merits, did not attract the attention of readers.
It was one of the most difficult periods in Stendhal's life. The political state of the country plunged him into despondency, his financial situation was very difficult: work in English magazines ceased, and books provided almost no income. Personal affairs brought him to despair. At this time he was asked to compile a guide to Rome. Stendhal happily agreed and for short term wrote the book "Walking in Rome" ( 1829 ) - in the form of a story about a trip to Italy by a small group of French tourists.
Impressions from modern Rome formed the basis of Stendhal's story "Vanina Vanini, or some details regarding the last Venta of the Carbonari, revealed in the Papal States." The story was published in 1829 year.
In the same year, Stendhal began writing his novel “The Red and the Black,” which made his name immortal. The novel was published in November 1830 year with date" 1831 ". At this time Stendhal was no longer in France.
Among the wealthy bourgeoisie, self-interest and the desire to imitate dominate upper classes, - original and political mores can only be found among the people. Passions can be noticed only when they break out in some act punishable by law. This is why, in the eyes of Stendhal, the Judicial Gazette is an important document to study modern society. He found the problem he was interested in in this newspaper. This is how one of the best works Stendhal: "Red and Black". The subtitle of the novel is “Chronicle of the 19th Century.” By this “century” we should understand the period of the Restoration, since the novel was begun and mainly written before the July Revolution. The term "Chronicle" here refers to a true account of Restoration society.
M. Gorky characterized this novel remarkably: “Stendhal was the first writer who, almost the day after the victory of the bourgeoisie, began to insightfully and vividly depict the signs of the inevitability of the internal social decay of the bourgeoisie and its dull myopia.”
July 28th 1830 year, on the day of the July Revolution, Stendhal was delighted to see the tricolor banner on the streets of Paris. In the history of France came new era: The big financial bourgeoisie came to power. Stendhal quickly recognized in the new king Louis Philippe a deceiver and strangler of freedom, and considered the former liberals who had joined the July Monarchy to be renegades. However, he began to pursue public service and soon became the French consul in Italy, first to Trieste and then to Civita Vecchia, a seaport near Rome. Stendhal remained in this position until his death. He spent most of the year in Rome and often went to Paris.
IN 1832 year he began his memoirs about his stay in Paris with 1821 By 1830 year - "Memories of an Egotist", in 1835 - 1836 -m - an extensive autobiography, brought only to 1800 year - "The Life of Henri Brulard". IN 1834 In the same year, Stendhal wrote several chapters of the novel Lucien Leuven, which also remained unfinished. At the same time, he became interested in old Italian chronicles he accidentally found, which he decided to process into short stories. But this plan was realized only a few years later: the first chronicle “Vittoria Accoramboni” appeared in 1837 year.
During a long vacation in Paris, Stendhal published "Notes of a Tourist" - a book about his travels in France, and a year later the novel "The Monastery of Parma" was published, which reflected his excellent knowledge of Italy ( 1839 ). This was the last work he published. The novel on which he worked in the last years of his life, Lamiel, remained unfinished and was published many years after his death.
Stendhal's worldview, in general terms, had already taken shape in 1802 -1805 years when he read with great enthusiasm the French philosophers of the 18th century - Helvetius, Holbach, Montesquieu, as well as their more or less consistent successors - the philosopher Destutt de Tracy, the creator of the science of the origin of concepts, and Cabanis, a doctor who proved that mental processes depend from physiological processes.
Stendhal does not believe in the existence of God, in religious prohibitions and in the afterlife, and rejects ascetic morality and the morality of submission. He strives to verify every concept he encounters in life and in books with data from experience and personal analysis. He builds his ethics on the basis of sensualistic philosophy, or rather, he borrows it from Galventius. If there is only one source of knowledge - our sensations, then we should reject any morality that is not connected with sensation, that does not grow out of it. The desire for fame, the well-deserved approval of others, according to Stendhal, is one of the most powerful incentives for human behavior.
Subsequently, Stendhal's views evolved: some indifference to social issues, characteristic of him in the era of the Empire, was replaced by an ardent interest in them. Influenced by political events and liberal theories during the Restoration, Stendhal began to think that constitutional monarchy was an inevitable stage on the path from the despotism of the Empire to the Republic, etc. But despite all that Political Views Stendhal remained unchanged.
A characteristic feature of modern French society, Stendhal believed, is hypocrisy. This is the government's fault. It is this that forces the French to hypocrisy. No one in France believes in the dogmas of Catholicism anymore, but everyone must assume the appearance of a believer. No one sympathizes with the reactionary policies of the Bourbons, but everyone should welcome them. From school, he learns to be a hypocrite and sees this as the only means of existence and the only opportunity to calmly go about his business.
Stendhal was a passionate hater of religion and especially the clergy. The power of the church over minds seemed to him the most terrible form of despotism. In his novel The Red and the Black, he portrayed the clergy as a social force fighting on the side of reaction. He showed how future priests are trained in the seminary, instilling in them crudely utilitarian and selfish ideas and by all means attracting them to the side of the government.
The influence of Stendhal's work on the further development of literature was broad and imaginative. The reason for this worldwide fame lies in the fact that Stendhal, with extraordinary insight, revealed the main, leading features of modernity, the contradictions tearing it apart, the forces fighting in it, the psychology of the complex and restless XIX century, all those features of the relationship between man and society that were characteristic not only of France.
With deep truthfulness, making him one of the greatest realists, he showed the movement of his era, freeing itself from the bonds of feudalism, from the domination of the capitalist elite, making its way to still vague, but inevitably attractive democratic ideals. With each novel, the scope of his images increased, and social contradictions appeared in great complexity and irreconcilability.
Stendhal's favorite heroes cannot accept the forms of life that emerged in the 19th century as a result of the revolution that led to the rule of the bourgeoisie. They cannot come to terms with a society in which feudal traditions have uglyly reckoned with the triumphant “purity”. The preaching of independence of thought, energy that rejects absurd prohibitions and traditions, the heroic principle that tries to break through to action in an inert and rough environment, is hidden in this revolutionary in nature, excitingly truthful creativity.
That is why even now, so many years after Stendhal’s death, his works are read in all countries by millions of people, whom he helps to understand life, appreciate the truth and fight for a better future. That is why our readers recognize it as one of the largest artists of the XIX century, who made an invaluable contribution to world literature.
Studying the difficult, largely contradictory biography of Stendhal, it becomes clear that he was a courageous, persistent and passionate person.
Henri Marie Bayle was born in Grenoble, a beautiful city in the south-east of France. This event in the family of the lawyer Cheruben Bayle and his wife Adelaide-Henrietta Bayle occurred on January 23, 1783.
Unfortunately, when the boy was 7 years old, his mother died suddenly. Education fell on the shoulders of the father and aunt of the future writer. However, according to Stendhal himself, the main person in his life was his grandfather, Henri Gagnon. Only to him did he owe his upbringing, education, extensive knowledge and, most importantly, the ability to think.
Having received sufficient education at home, Stendhal went to study at the local Central School. He did not stay there long - only three years, and after that he was released to the capital of France to enter the Polytechnic School. But he was not destined to become a student. The implementation of his plans was prevented by the coup of the 18th Brumaire.
Inspired by the courage and heroism of the young Napoleon Bonaparte, who led that conspiracy, he entered military service. Stendhal served in the dragoon regiment for two years and resigned with the intention of returning to Paris and engaging exclusively in education and literary activities.
Paris
The French capital greeted him favorably and gave him three years to receive a real education. He studied English, philosophy, history of literature, wrote and read a lot. During the same period, he became a convinced enemy of the church and everything connected with mysticism and the otherworldly.
In 1805, Stendhal was forced to return to military service. From 1806-1809 he participated in all European battles of the Napoleonic army. In 1812, voluntarily, on his own initiative, he went to war with Russia. He survived the Battle of Borodino, witnessed the death of Moscow with his own eyes and, together with the remnants of the once great Napoleonic army, fled across the Berezina.
The French writer always rightly admired the spirit and valor of the Russian people. In 1814 he moved to Italy.
Creation
The writer lived in Milan for seven years. A brief biography of Frederic Stendhal notes that it was during this period that he wrote his first serious works: “The Lives of Haydn, Mozart and Metastasio”, “The History of Painting in Italy”, “Rome, Naples and Florence” and many others. There, in Italy, for the first time his books began to be published under the pseudonym “Stendhal”.
In 1821, due to the policies of violence and intimidation reigning in Italy, he was forced to flee to his homeland. In Paris, experiencing a difficult financial situation, he worked as a literary and art critic. This did not make his plight any easier, but it helped him stay afloat.
In 1930 he was appointed to a government position - French consul in Trieste. In the same year, his most famous novel, “Red and Black,” was published.
On March 23, 1842, the classic of French literature died. It happened on the street while walking.
Other biography options
- Literally five months before his death, he wrote in his diary that, most likely, death would overtake him while walking. And so it happened.
- The day after he passed away French writer newspapers wrote that the funeral of the German poet Friedrich Stendhal, unknown in wide circles, took place.
- In Italy, Stendhal had close contact with the great English poet