technological map history lesson on the topic:
"ESTATES" XVII CENTURIES: “TOP” OF SOCIETY”
Date__________
7th grade:
Lesson objectives: characterize the class system of the Russian state, determine the rights and responsibilities of the main classes.
Lesson type: lesson in learning new knowledge
Equipment : Textbook History of Russia, ed. Andreeva, Fedorova.
Planned learning outcomes:
Subject : Reveal the meaning of the concepts: estate, nobility, Sovereign's court, clergy; Characterize the demands of the nobility and the reasons for their discontent;
Metasubject : Determine the sequence of intermediate goals, taking into account the final result, draw up a plan and algorithm of actions.
Personal : Assimilation traditional values Russian society
PROGRESS OF THE LESSON
Students are introduced to the epigraph and the main question of the lesson.1) Epigraph “And those nobles are sent for all sorts of affairs, and to voivodships, and embassies as ambassadors, and for detective affairs, and in Moscow in the orders of the appanage, and to service people as commanders, as colonels and heads of riflemen.”
2) The main question of the lesson: Like in the 17th century. Has the social position of service people and the clergy changed?
Working with the textbook
Par.16 page 121
3. Learning new material
Work in the lesson is planned according to the following plan:
Lesson Plan
1. Russian nobility.
2. Requirements of the nobility.
3. Service people "according to the instrument."
4. Spiritual class.
Question 1-3. Teacher's story
The society has developedtwo main groups of the feudal class (service people “in the fatherland”):boyars and nobility.
The boyars included service princes (from among the descendants of the Rurikovichs, Gediminovichs and Tatar Horde princes who switched to Russian service and
nobility), as well as representatives of the old Moscow boyars, boyars of appanage principalities and lands annexed to Moscow.
Another, more numerous group of service people “in the fatherland” was the nobility, formed from the servants of the princely and boyar courts. At the lowest level of this hierarchy were the most land-poor noble landowners, who were included in the category of “children of boyars” and “urban nobles.”
By the 17th century the upper part of the feudal class was part of« ranks" of the Sovereign's court and consisted of two categories: "Duma ranks" - boyars, okolnichy and Duma nobles, as well as Moscow ranks - stolniks, solicitors, Moscow nobles. The total number of the Sovereign's court during this period was about 1,200 people. Each rank was entitled to a certain local salary and cash salary, which was paid regularly.
The landowner received the estate for life as long as he could bear military service, and it was passed down by inheritance,if the son at the time of his father’s death had reached 15 years of age and couldserve the state. If a serving person was forced to leave the service for health reasons, then part of himthe former estate was allocated to him for subsistence.
In addition to service people “in the fatherland”, ascomplications of the state military-political system of the Muscovite kingdom during the 16th-17th centuries.a very significant category of service people was formed “by appointment” (by recruiting), whom the state accepted into hired service for military serviceand guard duty. This military service class included Moscow and city archers, gunners, state blacksmiths, and service Cossacks. For the performance of their official duties, this class category received a salary not in land, but in grain and cash allowances and other “dachas”. Since payments from the sovereign treasury were made extremely rarely, these instrumental people were given a small plot of land for “feed” for the artel. In addition, they were allowed to study at their place of duty petty trade and handicrafts.
The sovereign was interested in strengthening the nobility, which was the social support of autocratic power. Under pressure from the nobility, in an atmosphere of violent social unrest, in 1648 the preparation of a new set of laws began, which would take into account the class interests of landowners and the townsfolk elite and would contribute to the further strengthening of the autocratic system.
WORKING WITH A HISTORICAL SOURCE
From the petition of the nobles about the abolition of school years. 1641
…The nobles and children of different cities from all over the world beat Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich of all Rus' with their brows.
Because of them, their old people and peasants run away to different cities, to large estates and to patrimonies, to patriarchal, and metropolitan, and archbishop's... and to the sovereign's palace villages, and to black volosts... And those are many landowners and votchinniki and monasteries are built for their fugitive people and peasants in empty places, and their estates and votchinas become empty. And their same fugitive people and peasants, having survived the lesson years behind those people and hoping for those strong people, where someone will begin to live, coming because of those strong people, and the rest of the people and peasants are persuaded because of them, and their houses are set on fire , and ruin with all sorts of destruction...
And they will check on their runaway peasants, but those peasants of theirs will not receive a lesson, and they cannot achieve a trial or decree on those runaway peasants... And the sovereign would... order them in all matters to be judged according to the code of law of the blessed memory of the Tsar and the Great Prince Ivan Vasilyevich of All Rus'...
Sovereign Tsar and Grand Duke Mikhail Fedorovich of All Rus', listening to the petitions of the nobles and the children of the boyars, pointed out, and the boyars sentenced: to give justice to the peasantry for all ranks of people and for violence. And people of all ranks want to strengthen the runaway foreign peasants behind them. And whoever starts looking for peasants’ bellies and does not have possessions from the peasants, and refuses them and does not give them a trial .
Questions :
1) To whom did the peasants run away from their feudal lords (landowners and patrimonial lords)?
2) Who are the petitioners complaining about?
3) Why were landowners and patrimonial owners interested in attaching peasants to their land? What way out of this situation did they offer?
) Do you think that attaching peasants to the land could contribute to the enrichment of landowners and the state?
5) Which years are called “lesson years”? The Council Code, adopted in 1649, contained a chapter in which all the most important changes in the legal status of the local landowner were fixed. It was established that the owners of the estates could be
both boyars and nobles.
Question No. 4. The teacher suggests recalling the structure of church government and complements the students’ answers.
The Orthodox Church had a branched structure and covered the entire territory of the country.
At the grassroots level there were churches and monasteries. For the most part, these were parish churches, which were centers of religious life in cities and villages. In the 80s XVII century there were about 15 thousand churches, including about 200 cathedrals in major cities.
An important place in the church system was occupied by monasteries, which in the second half of the 17th century. there were about 650.
Top management The church organization consisted of the patriarchal and episcopal houses, which were in charge of the administration of the clergy in the territory of the diocese and throughout Russia. In the state at the beginning of the century there were 12-13 dioceses, in the 70s. XVII century - 19-20, 5 metropolises, archdioceses and bishoprics. In the 80s the number of dioceses increased to 24, including metropolises - to 12.
The head of the Russian Orthodox Church was the patriarch.
The Church was a major feudal lord. Most of the estates with peasants belonged to monasteries, a smaller part - to the patriarchal and bishop's houses, and a small part - to cathedral churches.
The Russian scientist Ya. E. Vodarsky, who studied church organizations of the 17th - early 18th centuries, provided the following data:
in 1653, out of 494 monasteries, 219 (44%) owned estates, in which there were up to 25 peasant households. They were small owners.
The average feudal lords belonged to 163 monasteries (33% of those counted), which owned 26-125 households.
The remaining 112 monasteries had more than 125 peasant households in their estates, including 16 monasteries (13 men's and 3 women's) - more than 1250 households each. Of the latter, the richest was the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. He was the owner of estates with 16.8 thousand peasant households, which were located in many counties of European Russia. The largest owners of land and peasants were the monasteries: Kirillo-Belozersky (5530 households), Yaroslavl Spaso-Preobrazhensky (3879 households), Kostroma Ipatievsky (3657 households), Suzdal Spaso-Evfimievsky and Pokrovsky maiden monasteries, Moscow monasteries: Chudov, Novospassky, Simonov, Novodevichy , Voznesensky et al.
Task and question : 1) Show on the map the cities where the monasteries were located.
2) What changes have occurred in the Russian Orthodox Church and in the position of the church in the state?
Get acquainted with the lesson plan
Listen to the teacher's story
Students are invited to recall the stages of the formation of the Moscow state and the changes that occurred among the feudal lords in connection with this.
Teachers listen and take notes important points in the notebook
Working with a source
Read the source
Questions about the document
Remember the structure of church government
Draw a diagram based on the teacher's story
Students are asked to remember the date of the introduction of the patriarchate in Russia.
(01/26/1589 - Patriarch Job)
Analyze data
Working with the map
4.Final consolidation
1. What phenomena in the life of the Russian state were evidenced by the changes that occurred in the position of the estates?
2. Show the connection between the strengthening of the position of the nobility and the enslavement of the peasantry.
Answer questions
5.Reflection
Have your say on:
1) Today in class I realized...
2) I would like to know more about .....
3) It was difficult…..
Conduct reflection
6. Homework
Additional task: prepare a project on the topic “Privileges of the nobility.”
Record remote sensing
.
(Historical information).
The population of a state may consist of various ethnographic groups, or from one nation, but in any case consists of different public unions(classes, estates).
Estate- a social group that occupies a certain position in the hierarchical structure of society in accordance with its rights, responsibilities and privileges, enshrined in custom or law and transmitted by inheritance.
In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire, which determined the provisions of the estates, continues to operate. The law distinguished four main classes:
nobility,
clergy,
urban population,
rural population.
The urban population, in turn, was divided into five groups:
honorary citizens,
merchants,
shop foremen,
philistines,
small owners and working people,
those. hired workers
As a result of class division, society was a pyramid, at the base of which were broad social strata, and at the head was the highest ruling stratum of society - the nobility.
Nobility.
Throughout the 18th century. There is a process of strengthening the role of the nobility as the ruling class. Serious changes took place in the very structure of the noble class, its self-organization and legal status. These changes took place in several directions. The first of them was the internal consolidation of the noble class, the gradual erasing of differences between the previously existing main groups of service people “in the fatherland” (boyars, Moscow nobles, police nobles, boyar children, tenants, etc.).
In this regard, the role of the Decree on Single Inheritance of 1714 was great, eliminating the differences between patrimonies and estates and, accordingly, between the categories of nobility who owned land under patrimonial and local rights. After this decree, all noble landowners had land on the basis of a single right - real estate.
The role was also great Tables of Ranks (1722) which finally eliminated (at least in legal terms) the last vestiges of localism (appointments to positions “according to the fatherland,” i.e., the nobility of the family and the past service of ancestors) and at the one who becamefor all nobles the obligation to begin service with the lower ranks of the 14th class (ensign, cornet, midshipman) in the military and naval service, collegiate registrar - in the civil service and consistent advancement through the ranks depending on their merits, abilities and devotion to the sovereign.
It must be admitted that this service was really difficult. Sometimes a nobleman did not visit his estates for most of his life, because... was constantly on campaigns or served in distant garrisons. But already the government of Anna Ivanovna in 1736 limited the service life to 25 years.
Peter III Decree on the liberties of the nobility in 1762 abolished compulsory service for nobles.
A significant number of nobles left the service, retired and settled on their estates. At the same time, the nobility was exempted from corporal punishment.
Catherine II, upon her accession in the same year, confirmed these noble liberties. The abolition of compulsory noble service became possible due to the fact that by the second half of the 18th century. the main foreign policy tasks (access to the sea, development of the South of Russia, etc.) had already been solved and the extreme strain of society’s forces was no longer required.
A number of measures are being taken to further expand and confirm noble privileges and strengthen administrative control over the peasants. The most important of them are the Establishment for the Administration of Provinces in 1775 and Charter granted to the nobility in 1785
By the beginning of the 20th century, the nobility continued to be the ruling class, the most united, the most educated and the most accustomed to political power. The first Russian revolution gave impetus to the further political unification of the nobility. In 1906, at the All-Russian Congress of Authorized Noble Societies, the central body of these societies was created - Council of the United Nobility. He had a significant influence on government policy.
Clergy.
The next privileged class after the nobility was the clergy, which was divided into white (parish) and black (monasticism). It enjoyed certain class privileges: the clergy and their children were exempt from the poll tax; conscription; were subject to church court according to canon law (with the exception of cases “according to the word and deed of the sovereign”).
The subordination of the Orthodox Church to the state was historical tradition, rooted in its Byzantine history, where the head of the church was the emperor. Based on these traditions, Peter 1, after the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, did not allow the election of a new patriarch, but first appointed Ryazan Archbishop Stefan Yavorsky as locum tenens of the patriarchal throne with a much smaller amount of church power, and then with the creation of state collegiums, among them the An ecclesiastical board consisting of a president, two vice-presidents, four councilors and four assessors to administer church affairs.
In 1721 the Theological College was renamed Holy Governing Synod. A secular official was appointed to oversee the affairs of the Synod - Chief Prosecutor of the Synod, subordinate to the Prosecutor General.
The bishops who headed church districts - dioceses - were subordinate to the Synod.
After creation Synod, the lands were again returned to the church and the church was obliged to support part of the schools, hospitals and almshouses from its income.
The secularization of church property was completed by Catherine II. By decree of 1764, the church began to be financed from the treasury. Its activities were regulated by the Spiritual Regulations of 1721.
Church governance reforms were carried out not only in the Orthodox Church, but also in Muslim. To manage the Muslim clergy in 1782, it was established Muftiate. The head of all Muslims of the Russian Empire - the mufti was elected Council of High Muslim Priests and was confirmed in this position by the empress. In 1788, the Muslim Spiritual Administration was established in Orenburg (later transferred to Ufa), headed by the mufti.
Urban population.
Posadskoe, i.e. The urban trade and craft population constituted a special class, which, unlike the nobility and clergy, was not privileged. He was subject to the “sovereign tax” and all taxes and duties, including conscription, and was subject to corporal punishment.
Urban population in the first half of the 19th century. divided into five groups: honorary citizens, merchants, guild foremen, townspeople, small owners and working people, i.e. hired workers.
A special group of eminent citizens, which included large capitalists who owned capital of over 50 thousand rubles. wholesale traders and ship owners from 1807 were called first-class merchants, and from 1832 - honorary citizens.
Philistinism- the main urban tax-paying class in the Russian Empire - originates from the townspeople of Moscow Rus', united in the black hundreds and settlements.
The townspeople were assigned to their city societies, which they could leave only with temporary passports, and transfer to others with the permission of the authorities.
They paid a poll tax, were subject to conscription and corporal punishment, did not have the right to enter public service, and when entering military service they did not enjoy the rights of volunteers.
Petty trade, various crafts, and hired work were allowed for the townspeople. To engage in crafts and trade, they had to enroll in guilds and guilds.
The organization of the bourgeois class was finally established in 1785. In each city they formed a bourgeois society, elected bourgeois councils or bourgeois elders and their assistants (governments were introduced in 1870).
IN mid-19th V. The townspeople are exempt from corporal punishment, and since 1866 - from the poll tax.
Belonging to the petty bourgeois class was hereditary.
Registration as a bourgeois was open to persons obliged to choose their type of life, to state (after the abolition of serfdom - to all) peasants, but to the latter only upon dismissal from society and permission from the authorities
The tradesman was not only not ashamed of his class, but was even proud of it...
The word "Meshchanin" comes from the Polish word "miasto" - city.
Merchants.
The merchants were divided into 3 guilds: - the first guild was merchants with capital from 10 to 50 thousand rubles; the second - from 5 to 10 thousand rubles; third - from 1 to 5 thousand rubles.
Honorary citizens were divided into hereditary and personal.
Rank hereditary honorary citizen assigned to the big bourgeoisie, children of personal nobles, priests and clerks, artists, agronomists, artists of imperial theaters, etc.
The title of personal honorary citizen was awarded to persons who were adopted by hereditary nobles and honorary citizens, as well as graduates of technical schools, teachers' seminaries and artists of private theaters. Honorary citizens enjoyed a number of privileges: they were exempt from personal duties, from corporal punishment, etc.
Peasantry.
The peasantry, which in Russia made up over 80% of the population, practically ensured the very existence of society with their labor. It was it that paid the lion's share of the per capita tax and other taxes and fees that ensured the maintenance of the army, navy, the construction of St. Petersburg, new cities, the Ural industry, etc. It was the peasants who, as recruits, made up the bulk of the armed forces. They also developed new lands.
Peasants made up the bulk of the population, they were divided into: landowners, state possessions and appanages belonging to the royal family.
In accordance with the new laws of 1861, the serfdom of landowners over peasants was abolished forever and the peasants were declared free rural inhabitants with civil rights.
Peasants had to pay a poll tax, other taxes and fees, were given recruits, and could be subjected to corporal punishment. The land on which the peasants worked belonged to the landowners, and until the peasants bought it, they were called temporarily liable and bore various duties in favor of the landowners.
The peasants of each village who emerged from serfdom united into rural societies. For the purposes of administration and justice, several rural societies formed a volost. In villages and volosts, peasants were granted self-government.
THE COSSACKS AS A MILITARY CLASS WAS MISSING IN THE MAIN TEXT OF THE MATERIAL
I'M FILLING THIS GAP WITH MY MODERATOR'S INSERT
COSSACKS
military class in Russia in the 18th - early 20th centuries. In the XIV-XVII centuries. free people who worked for hire, persons who performed military service in the border areas (city and guard Cossacks); in the XV-XVI centuries. beyond the borders of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian state (on the Dnieper, Don, Volga, Ural, Terek), self-governing communities of the so-called free Cossacks (mainly from runaway peasants) arose, which were the main driving force uprisings in Ukraine in the 16th-17th centuries. and in Russia in the 17th-18th centuries. The government sought to use the Cossacks to protect borders, in wars, etc., and in the 18th century. subjugated it, turning it into a privileged military class. At the beginning of the 20th century. there were 11 Cossack troops(Don, Kuban, Orenburg, Transbaikal, Tersk, Siberian, Ural, Astrakhan, Semirechenskoe, Amur and Ussuri). In 1916, the Cossack population was over 4.4 million people, over 53 million acres of land. About 300 thousand people fought in World War I
By the middle of the 19th century, in addition to merchants, factory owners, and bankers, new intelligentsia(architects, artists, musicians, doctors, scientists, engineers, teachers, etc.). The nobility also began to engage in entrepreneurship.
Peasant reform opened the way for development market relations in the country. A significant part of entrepreneurship was made up of merchants.
Industrial revolution in Russia at the end of the 19th century. turned entrepreneurs into a significant economic force in the country. Under the powerful pressure of the market, estates and estate privileges are gradually losing their former meaning....
The Provisional Government, by its Decree of March 3, 1917, abolished all class, religious and national restrictions.
First Estate
The feudal lords remained the dominant class in society. Previously, they included only boyars who had their own ancestral land holdings - estates. In the 17th century, within the framework of the feudal class, the foundations of the noble class were born. As the Russian autocracy consolidated, the position of the nobility strengthened - main support royal power. During the 17th century, a complex system of official promotion of nobles in the army, at court and in the government system took shape. Depending on their nobility of origin and success in service, they were transferred from one rank to another. Taking into account their position, service people received the right to own larger or smaller lands with peasants living on them. All this indicated that in the 17th century the nobility gradually turned into a new class.
The tsarist government sought to strengthen the rights of both nobles and boyars to the land and peasants subject to them. For this purpose, the search period for fugitive peasants was increased, first to 10 and then to 15 years. However, this did not help much. The boyars and nobles demanded that the peasants be completely assigned to their masters. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code, which established the eternal right of feudal lords to dependent peasants and prohibited the transfer from one owner to another.
By the end of the century, up to 10% of peasant households in the country belonged to the tsar, the same amount to the boyars, about 15% to the church, and most of all (about 60%) to the nobles.
Thus, by the end of the century, the positions of the main landowners - the boyars - were seriously undermined. The nobility became the main owner of the land and serfs. It supplanted the boyar clan nobility in the sphere of public administration. The previous system of filling senior positions in the state according to family origin (the local system) was finally abolished in 1682. All categories of feudal lords were given equal rights. This meant a serious victory for the nobility in the long-standing rivalry with the old family nobility.
Peasants
The bulk of the population continued to be peasants. Their situation in the 17th century worsened significantly. It was on the peasant shoulders that the heavy burden of the Troubles and numerous wars of this century fell, and the restoration of the destroyed economy. The peasantry was divided into two main groups: landowners and black farmers. The first were the complete property of the boyars, nobles, royal family and the clergy. The latter retained personal freedom, owned vast lands (mainly in Pomerania and Siberia) and bore state duties. The peasants who lived on the lands of the boyars and nobles belonged to only one owner and were completely dependent on his arbitrariness. They could be sold, exchanged, gifted. The property of the serfs belonged to the feudal lord. The most severe and difficult situation was the situation of the peasants who were owned by small feudal lords.
The peasants worked for the feudal lords in corvee labor and paid quitrents in kind and in cash. As we already know, as market relations developed, the role of monetary rent constantly grew. The average length of corvee labor was 2-4 days a week. In the second half of the century, the work of serfs in the first manufactories that belonged to their owners began to be equated with corvee labor. At the same time, dependent peasants bore duties in favor of the state.
By the end of the century, the role of slaves had changed. If previously they were powerless semi-slaves of their masters, now they became clerks, messengers, grooms, tailors, falconers, etc. By the end of the century, this category of dependent population gradually merged with the serfs.
The tax system has changed. If at the beginning of the 17th century the tax (“tax”) was calculated on “ploughed land” and this led to a significant reduction in cultivated land, then by the end of the century, instead of land tax, a household tax was introduced.
The average size of peasant plots was 1-2 dessiatines (1-2 hectares) of land. There were also wealthy peasants, whose plots reached several tens of hectares. Famous entrepreneurs, merchants, and traders came from such families.
Urban population
In the 17th century, the urban population grew. In every big city there were at least 500 households. In new cities, primarily in the southern and eastern outskirts countries, after the fortresses there appeared settlements. Not only Russians lived in them, but also representatives of other peoples of Russia. The townspeople population included artisans and traders, archers, merchants, clergy, nobles and boyars (with their numerous servants).
The dominant positions in city life were occupied by rich artisans and merchants who controlled the townsfolk communities. They tried to shift the entire burden of the tax burden onto the poorest part of the population - small artisans and traders. The position of boyar, noble and monastic servants and serfs, who in their free time from service were engaged in trade and craft, was also privileged. Like their owners, they were residents of white settlements, inhabited by feudal lords and clergy, and did not bear duties in favor of the state. This, in turn, caused constant complaints from the bulk of the townspeople.
A feature of the 17th century was that, as handicraft production grew, it began to use (still on a small scale) hired labor. Not only the townspeople's poor, but also peasant farmers and serfs were hired to work with artisans who were quickly getting rich and no longer wanted to do menial work.
Clergy
By the end of the 17th century, the number of Russian clergy increased significantly. Up to 110 thousand people performed church services in almost 15 thousand churches in the country. And up to 8 thousand monks lived in the monasteries. With the adoption of the patriarchate at the end of the 16th century, the Russian Orthodox Church became completely independent. At the same time, a new church hierarchy emerged. The closest to the believers and the largest layer of the clergy were the parish priests. The highest stratum were bishops, archbishops and metropolitans. The church hierarchy was headed by the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' with his court.
The church was the largest owner of the land. This caused concern among the secular authorities and the envy of many boyars and nobles. In 1649, the Council Code prohibited the church from increasing its land holdings and eliminated the rights of white settlements (which included church holdings) in cities. At the same time, church leaders were deprived of some judicial privileges that had previously belonged to them.
Nevertheless, the church was one of the largest land owners in the country, owning up to 15% of the land.
Cossacks
The Cossacks became a new class for Russia. This was a military class, which included the population of a number of outlying areas of Russia (Don, Yaik, Urals, Terek, Left Bank Ukraine). It enjoyed special rights and benefits under the conditions of compulsory and general military service.
The basis of the economic life of the Cossacks was crafts - hunting, fishing, beekeeping, and later also cattle breeding and agriculture. As in the 16th century, the Cossacks received the bulk of their income in the form of state salaries and military booty.
The Cossacks were able to quickly develop the vast outlying regions of the country, primarily the Don and Yaik lands.
The most important issues in the life of the Cossacks were discussed at their general gathering (“circle”). The Cossack communities were headed by elected atamans and elders. Own - Ataman of the DON Cossacks. Ownership of the land belonged to the entire community. Atamans and elders were elected through elections, in which each Cossack had an equal right to vote.
These orders of popular government differed favorably from the autocratic ones that were gaining strength in the country. In 1671, the Don Cossacks were sworn in to the Russian Tsar.
Thus, in the 17th century, the previously complex social structure Russian society has become significantly simpler.
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Slide captions:
The main classes of Russian society in the 17th century Lesson for 7th grade
Society is the people of one country and the relationships between them. Why do people join together in society? What challenges does society face?
Society is divided into spheres: Politics Economy Culture In each of these spheres there are special groups of people. In Russia, these groups of people were called estates.
Estate - A large group of people with rights and responsibilities that are inherited.
Scheme: Class structure of Russia in the 17th century. Estates Feudal lords Clergy Posad population Peasants Boyars Nobles White Black White settlements Heavy Cossacks Slaves Black Sowed Owners
Feudal lords Boyars Nobles
Boyars - Included * service princes (from among the descendants of the Rurikovichs) * Tatar Horde princes and nobility from Moldavia and Wallachia who switched to Russian service * representatives of the old Moscow boyars * boyars of appanage principalities and lands annexed to Moscow.
Boyars Responsibilities: Performed public service Rights Ownership of land with peasants (patrimonies) on the basis of private property. The estate can be sold, bequeathed, or donated.
The nobility was formed from the servants of the princely and boyar courts: Land-poor nobles-landowners (“children of the boyars” and “city nobles”) “Ranks” of the sovereign’s court: * “Duma ranks” - boyars, okolnichi, and Duma nobles; * “Moscow ranks” - stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles
Nobles: Responsibilities: Performed public service Rights: - owned the estate for life as long as they could perform military service; - the estate was inherited if the son reached 15 years of age at the time of his father’s death and could serve the state.
Service people according to the instrument (by recruitment) The state accepted them into hired service for military and guard duty: Moscow and city archers Pushkars State blacksmiths City Cossacks living in cities and border areas
Cathedral Code of 1649. It contained a special chapter that consolidated all the most important changes in the legal status of local land ownership (for example: both boyars and nobles could be the owners of estates)
The peasantry is the largest class. Palace Landlords Church Chernososhnye (state) (personally free)
The main duties of the peasants: Corvee quitrent (cash and in kind), as well as “land” and “household tax” (to submit)
The Conciliar Code of 1649. Chapter 11 of the Conciliar Code - “The Court of Peasants” - introduced an indefinite search for fugitive peasants. Result: Establishment of complete serfdom.
Posad (city) people Guests (Merchants) (in the 17th century more than 30 people) - the largest entrepreneurs, were close to the tsar, did not pay taxes, and held financial positions. had the right to buy estates for their possessions; Members of the living room and the cloth hundred (about 400 people) occupied a place in the financial hierarchy, but were inferior to the guests in “honor.” They had self-government, their common affairs were carried out by elected heads and elders.
Merchants Responsibilities pay taxes and customs duties to the state Rights entrepreneurship - trade, organization of manufactories
Black townspeople - The main tax-paying population of the city (they paid taxes and carried out duties). The population of the city was divided into: white black settlements settlements
Posad artisans and merchants White settlements Responsibilities: pay taxes to the state. Rights: Entrepreneurship, production of handicrafts Black settlements: Responsibilities: pay dues to boyars, monasteries Rights: entrepreneurship
Clergy Black clergy (monks) Responsibilities: Set an example of serving God Rights: Monasteries owned lands with peasants. White clergy (parish priests) Responsibilities: preach the word of God Rights: had families, property
Hierarchy of Russian estates in the 17th century: peasants, clergy, feudal lords
Conclusion: In the 17th century, a hierarchical feudal society formed in Russia.
RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY
New phenomena in economics
Consequences of the Troubles. The result of the Troubles and foreign invasions was the devastation of the western and central regions of the country. Contemporaries spoke of the southwestern lands as “arable land overgrown with forest,” “a wasteland that was a village.” The sown area here has decreased by almost 30 times. Completely deserted villages accounted for half of their number throughout the country. The main reason for the ruin was the lack of workers: peasants fled from the hard times of war to the north, beyond the Volga, and often went to the Cossacks to the south. But the remaining peasants were of little use either: many of them now had neither livestock, nor tools, nor money. Such peasants were called bobyli. In many regions of the country, the number of bobyl households was more than 40%, and in the western regions of the country - up to 70%.
The ruin of peasant farms was the main reason for the desolation of many estates and the impoverishment of the nobility. Many of the nobles became not only Cossacks, but even slaves for rich boyars. And this threatened to weaken the social base of the monarchy.
Many southern and western cities of Russia were devastated. Crafts, handicraft production, and trade fell into decline. Only in the less affected northern and eastern regions of the country did the consequences of the Troubles manifest themselves to a lesser extent.
The state treasury was also in disrepair. Even the expenses of the first and second militia, and then the formation of a new dynasty, were paid not so much by the state itself, but by rich merchants - Stroganovs, Sveteshnikovs, Nikitnikovs, Guryevs, Shorins.
In these conditions, the authorities were faced with the task of finding sources of economic revival of the country.
Agriculture. One of the main such sources was the distribution of land to the nobles, which should have led to the strengthening of both the noble and peasant economies. To avoid conflicts over the redistribution of land property, Tsar Mikhail confirmed the rights to the land of those nobles to whom it was granted by Vasily Shuisky and False Dmitry II. Already in 1612-1613, the “Council of All the Earth”, and then Mikhail, distributed more than 90 thousand acres of palace lands to the boyars and nobles close to the new court. In 1614-1625, even more land was distributed to the petty bureaucratic nobility, the provincial nobility, and partly to the Cossacks. The development of the Trans-Volga and Siberian territories was carried out, where the three-field system was gradually introduced.
However, land without peasants assigned to it did not have much value. Therefore, throughout the first half of the century, the nobles petitioned the Tsar with a request to rectify the situation. In 1637, Tsar Mikhail increased the period for searching for fugitive peasants to 9 years, and in 1641 - to 10 years for fugitives and up to 15 years for those taken away by other feudal lords (most often boyars).
Peasant taxes were significantly reduced, and the townspeople became the main taxpayer. In-kind quitrent began to acquire less and less importance, while at the same time the role of monetary quitrent was constantly increasing.
Thanks to the measures taken by the authorities, peasant farms were able to recover quite quickly. However, the preservation of subsistence (non-commodity) farming inevitably caused poor food supply for peasants.
A new phenomenon in the development of agriculture was the emerging specialization of individual regions of the country. This led to an increase in commodity circulation. The southern and Volga regions supplied the market with grain in abundance; Western - flax and hemp; Pomeranians - salt and fish; Siberian - furs; Yaroslavl and Kostroma - canvases.
What was also new was that not only merchants, but also monasteries, and in some cases, boyars and even the tsar were forced to engage in entrepreneurship and trade.
Craft. IN In previous years, the development of crafts in Russia was limited by the subsistence nature of the economy: the artisan produced products only to individual orders. In the XVII century, the craft turns into small-scale production for sale on the market. Another feature of the craft is its consolidation, the creation of craft workshops (in contrast to the “home industry” of previous years).
Another innovation was specialization of handicraft production in different areas Russia. Vologda craftsmen were famous for their famous lace, Rostov for enamel, Vazh for cloth, Rshmin for matting, Belozersk for spoons, Vyazma for sleighs, Nizhny Novgorod for locks, etc. Close to Moscow, Serpukhov, Kashira, and Tula became one of the first centers of Russian metallurgy. Metalworking was concentrated in Moscow. The capital was also a traditional center for jewelry work. Begins to be used for the first time in metalworking and river transport hired labor.
Manufactories. New phenomena in handicraft production created the prerequisites for the development of a new type of enterprise - manufactories. They were based on the division of labor and the use of manual craft techniques. The first of the Russian manufactories (Cannon Yard in Moscow) arose at the end of XV century. In the XVII century, state-owned gunpowder manufactories, the Armory, the Gold and Silver Chambers, the Khamovny (weaving) and Velvet (silk) yard appeared. They used forced labor and provided mainly for the army and the royal entourage. To internal and foreign market They delivered almost no products.
Merchant manufactories that produced hemp ropes for the needs of the fleet (mainly sold abroad) were quite large. In addition to Moscow, the Tula-Kashira region and the Urals became centers of manufacturing production. Copper smelting and ironworks were established here. A Dutch merchant built three ironworks near Tula in 1637. A. D. Vinius. The first blast furnaces in Russia were launched here. There were many leather factories, as well as salt industries.
In total, about 60 different manufactories were created during the 17th century. However, in the absence of a large amount of free labor, not all of them turned out to be viable. By the end of the century, there were no more than 30 manufactories in the country. Nevertheless, it was in the 17th century that manufacturing production began, and the first dynasties of industrial entrepreneurs were formed from large merchants - the Nikitnikovs, Sveteshnikovs, Shorins, Filatievs, Stroganovs, Demidovs.
Trade. The main feature of trading in XVII century became the formation all-Russian market, which is understood as strengthening economic ties and exchange of goods between different parts of the country, based on the ecological specialization of the territories. The growth of trade was also facilitated by an increase in monetary dues from peasants. Not only city markets grew, but also rural markets. For the first time, large all-Russian trading fairs - Arkhangelskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya, and by the end of the century - Makaryevskaya. People from all over came here on religious holidays. countries not only sellers of various goods, but also wholesale buyers. Retail trade has developed in cities and villages. There was specialization not only in the production of goods, but also in their sales. Thus, the recognized centers of bread trade were Vologda, Vyatka, Orel, Voronezh, Nizhny Novgorod. The main markets for salt were Vologda and Sol Kamskaya. Selected furs were sold in Sol Vychegda - on the way from Siberia to Moscow.
Actively developed foreign trade, still going mainly through Arkhangelsk (up to 75%) in a western direction and through Astrakhan in an eastern direction. Until the middle XVII centuries, foreign merchants had the right to trade independently on the domestic Russian market. This led to numerous protests from Russian merchants. In 1649, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich banned the British from conducting internal trade and expelled them from the country.
The development of trade was hampered by internal customs barriers that remained from the times of fragmentation. In 1653 it was adopted Customs regulations, liquidated small customs duties. The New Trade Charter of 1667 further limited the rights of foreign merchants: they now had to sell their goods wholesale in border towns. Higher duties were introduced on imported (brought from abroad) goods.
The growth of cities. The 17th century was the time of the emergence of many new cities in Russia. The expansion of the country's borders required their economic development. The companies created during these years played a big role in this. fortified lines, consisting of a chain of fortified cities. Under the protection of these fortifications, the development of the southern steppes, the Urals, Siberia, and the North Caucasus took place. In the middle
century, the Belgorod line (Akhtyrka - Belgorod - Voronezh - Tambov) was created, later - the Simbirsk line (Tambov - Saransk - Simbirsk) and the Zavolzhskaya line. In the 17th century, the construction of many fortresses (ostrogs) began in Siberia. In total, by the end of the 17th century there were 250 cities in Russia (excluding Siberia and Left Bank Ukraine).
Thus, economic development The country in the 17th century was marked by many new features: the strengthening of the role of corvee and quitrent, the transformation of crafts into small-scale production, the development of manufactories, the formation of an all-Russian market, and the growth of cities.
The main classes of Russian society
First estate. The dominant class in society remained feudal lords. Previously they were referred to only boyars, who had their own ancestral land holdings - fiefdoms. In the 17th century, within the framework of the feudal class, the foundations arose noble class. By As the Russian autocracy consolidated, the position of the nobility, the main support of the tsarist power, strengthened. During the 17th century, a complex system of official promotion of nobles in the army, at court and in the government system took shape. Depending on their nobility of origin and success in service, they were transferred from one rank to another. Taking into account their position, service people received the right to own larger or smaller lands with peasants living on them. All this indicated that in the 17th century the nobility gradually turned into a new class.
The tsarist government sought to strengthen the rights of both nobles and boyars to the land and peasants subject to them. For this purpose, the search period for fugitive peasants was increased, first to 10 and then to 15 years. However, this did not help much. The boyars and nobles demanded that the peasants be completely assigned to their masters. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted a new Code, according to which the eternal right of feudal lords to dependent peasants was secured and the transfer from one owner to another was prohibited.
By the end of the century, up to 10% of peasant households in the country belonged to the tsar, the same amount to the boyars, about 15% to the church, and most of all (about 60%) to the nobles.
Thus, by the end of the century, the positions of the main landowners - the boyars - were seriously undermined. The nobility became the main owner of the land and serfs. It supplanted the boyar clan nobility in the sphere of public administration. The previous system of filling senior positions in the state according to birth (system localism) in 1682 it was completely abolished. All categories of feudal lords were given equal rights. This meant a serious victory for the nobility in the long-standing rivalry with the old family nobility.
Peasants. The bulk of the population continued to be peasants. Their situation in the 17th century worsened significantly. It was on the peasant shoulders that the heavy burden of the Troubles and numerous wars of this century fell, and the restoration of the destroyed economy. The peasantry was divided into two main groups: landowners and black farmers. The first were the complete property of the boyars, nobles, royal family and clergy. The latter retained personal freedom, owned vast lands (mainly in Pomerania and Siberia) and bore state duties. The peasants who lived on the lands of the boyars and nobles belonged to only one owner and were completely dependent on his arbitrariness. They could be sold, exchanged, gifted. The property of the serfs belonged to the feudal lord. The most severe and difficult situation was the situation of the peasants who were owned by small feudal lords.
Peasants worked for the feudal lords corvée, paid natural And cash dues. As we already know, as market relations developed, the role of monetary rent constantly grew. The average length of corvee labor was 2-4 days a week. In the second half of the century, the work of serfs in the first manufactories that belonged to their owners began to be equated with corvee labor. At the same time, dependent peasants bore duties in favor of the state.
By the end of the century the role had changed serfs.If Previously, they were powerless semi-slaves of their masters, but now they became clerks, messengers, grooms, tailors, falconers, etc. By the end of the century, this category of dependent population gradually merged with the serfs.
The tax system has changed. If at the beginning of the 17th century the tax (“tax”) was calculated on “ploughed land” and this led to a significant reduction in cultivated land, then by the end of the century, instead of land tax, a household tax was introduced.
The average size of peasant plots was 1-2 dessiatines (1-2 hectares) of land. There were also wealthy peasants, whose plots reached several tens of hectares. Famous entrepreneurs, merchants, and traders came from such families.
Urban population. IN XVII century, the urban population grew. Every big city had Not less than 500 households. In new cities, primarily on the southern and eastern outskirts of the country, suburbs appeared after the fortresses. Not only Russians lived in them, but also representatives of other peoples of Russia. Posad population included artisans and traders, archers, merchants, clergy, nobles and boyars (with their numerous servants).
The dominant positions in city life were occupied by rich artisans and merchants, controlled the townsfolk communities. They tried to shift the entire burden of the tax burden onto the poorest part of the population - small artisans and traders. The position of boyar, noble and monastic servants and serfs, who in their free time from service were engaged in trade and craft, was also privileged. Like their masters, they were residents of white settlements, inhabited by feudal lords and clergy, and did not bear duties in favor of the state. This, in turn, caused constant complaints from the bulk of the townspeople.
A feature of the 17th century was that, as handicraft production grew, it began to use (still on a small scale) hired labor. Not only the townspeople's poor, but also peasant farmers and serfs were hired to work with artisans who were quickly getting rich and no longer willing to do menial work.
Clergy. By the end of the 17th century, the number of Russian clergy increased significantly. Up to 110 thousand people performed church services in almost 15 thousand churches in the country. And up to 8 thousand monks lived in the monasteries. With the adoption of the patriarchate at the end of the 16th century, the Russian Orthodox Church became completely independent. At the same time, a new church hierarchy emerged. The closest to the believers and the most numerous layer of the clergy were parish priests. The highest stratum were bishops, archbishops And metropolitans. Headed the church hierarchy patriarch Moscow and all Rus' with its own yard.
The church was the largest owner of the land. This caused concern among the secular authorities and the envy of many boyars and nobles. In 1649, the Council Code prohibited the church from increasing its land holdings and eliminated the rights of white settlements (which included church holdings) in cities. At the same time, church leaders were deprived of some judicial privileges that previously belonged to them.
Nevertheless, the church was one of the largest land owners in the country, owning up to 15% of the land.
Cossacks. The Cossacks became a new class for Russia. This was a military class, which included the population of a number of outlying areas of Russia (Don, Yaik, Urals, Terek, Left Bank Ukraine). It enjoyed special rights and benefits under the conditions of compulsory and general military service.
The basis of the economic life of the Cossacks was crafts - hunting, fishing, beekeeping, and later also cattle breeding and agriculture. As in the 16th century, the Cossacks received the bulk of their income in the form of state salaries and military booty.
The Cossacks were able to quickly develop the vast outlying regions of the country, primarily the Don and Yaik lands.
The most important issues in the life of the Cossacks were discussed at their general gathering (“circle”). The Cossack communities were headed by elected atamans and elders. Ownership of the land belonged to the entire community. Atamans and elders were elected through elections, in which each Cossack enjoyed an equal right to vote.
These orders of popular government differed favorably from the autocratic ones that were gaining strength in the country. In 1671, the Don Cossacks were sworn in to the Russian Tsar.
Thus, in the 17th century, the previously complex social structure of Russian society was significantly simplified.
Political development of the country
The first Romanovs: strengthening autocratic power. The first Russian Tsar of the new dynasty was Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613-1645). At the beginning of his reign he was barely 16 years old. At that age he could not be an independent politician. In the absence of his father (Filaret was in Polish captivity at that time), the mother of the young Tsar had a great influence on Mikhail’s decisions. Marfa, who after the proclamation of her son as king became the “great empress.” Upon ascending the throne, Mikhail promised not to rule without the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma. The king kept this oath until his father returned from captivity. Filaret, proclaimed patriarch in 1619, also received the title of “great sovereign” and became co-ruler of his son. Until his death in 1633, Filaret was the de facto ruler of Russia. With strong-willed and power-hungry parents, Mikhail was a gentle and kind person. He loved flowers and spent a lot of money purchasing rare plants from Europe. The king was a physically weak man and was often sick.
After Michael's death, his son became the new king. Alexey Mikhailovich(1645-1676), who ascended the throne at the same age as his father - at 16 years old. Alexei was prepared for his reign in advance: at the age of five they began to teach
read, and at seven years old - write, in mature years He not only wrote many documents himself, but also composed small literary works. The boyar was in charge of his training Boris Ivanovich Morozov, who over time acquired great influence over Alexei (and even for the first three years actually ruled the country under the young tsar). Alexey Mikhailovich was a pious man, he welcomed pilgrims, the poor and the disadvantaged. Many contemporaries noted his kindness and benevolence, unusual for Russian rulers, and sometimes his weakness of character. The people called the king The quietest. All this did not prevent him, however, if necessary, from showing determination, will, and toughness.
From first marriage (since Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya) Alexey had 13 children, including sons Fedor And Ivan, and also a daughter Sophia. After the death of his first wife, the king married a second time to Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina. In this marriage the king had a son Peter(future Peter the Great). It was between the children from his first and second marriage that a struggle for power broke out after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich and the short-term reign of his eldest son Fyodor (1676-1682).
Already under the first kings of the Romanov dynasty There was a significant strengthening of royal power. At the same time, the role of estate-representative authorities decreased.
Zemsky Sobors. Mikhail Fedorovich's oath to rule in accordance with the Zemsky Sobor and the Boyar Duma was not accidental: in conditions of economic ruin and the weakness of the central government, the young tsar was forced to seek support from all segments of the country's population. First of all, the Zemsky Sobor should have become such a support. Throughout the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, the main feature of the cathedrals was a significant increase in the representation of the lower classes at them. The deputies elected to the council received “instructions” from their voters, which they had to defend before the tsar. Unlike the reign of Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov, representatives of the nobles and townspeople now played the main role in the Zemsky Sobors. Under Mikhail, Zemsky Sobors met quite often. And in the period before Filaret’s return from captivity, the Zemsky Sobor practically did not stop working. As the tsarist power strengthened, Zemsky Sobors met less and less often.
After Filaret's death, some nobles proposed transforming the Zemsky Sobor into a permanent parliament. However, these plans ran counter to the interests of the autocratic government. Councils began to be convened only to approve projects already prepared by the tsar, and not to discuss plans for the development of the country, as before. And with the strengthening of serfdom, the representation of the lower strata of the population in the Zemsky Sobors became insignificant.
The last Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1653. Since then, autocratic power has relied not on representatives of the estates, but on the bureaucracy and the army.
Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma also gradually lost its former role. At first, the composition of the Duma was expanded by Mikhail Fedorovich - this is how he thanked those who supported his accession. If previously the Boyar Duma included two dozen boyars, then by the end of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich their number increased to 100 people. Moreover, the Duma now included not only the clan nobility, but also representatives of the commoner clans.
The Duma was still called upon to resolve the most important issues - war and peace, approval of laws, introduction of new taxes, etc. Its work was led either by the tsar himself or by a boyar appointed by him.
The increase in the size of the Duma made it too cumbersome and forced the tsar to create a more flexible governing body, consisting of the most trusted persons - the “near” (“small”, “secret”) Duma, which gradually replaced the “big”. The full Boyar Duma began to meet less and less often. The “nearby” Duma concentrated in its hands the solution of many issues of public administration.
Orders. The increase in the country's territory and the complication of economic life led to a significant increase in the number of orders. At different times, there were about 100 orders in the country.
In charge of foreign policy issues Ambassadorial order. He was also in charge of the release of prisoners of war for ransom. In charge of the palace management and property of the king Order of the Grand Palace. State order was responsible for the safety of jewelry and belongings of the royal family. Konyushenny managed numerous royal stables and equipment for royal trips. Bit order was involved in the assignment of nobles and boyars to the royal service (it depended on him what service the feudal lord would end up in - at court, in the army or in government). In charge of land grants and collection of taxes from estates and estates Local order. Yamskaya was responsible for fast and reliable postal communication. With the growing scale of stone construction in the capital and large cities, Order of stone works.
Almost occupied the central place Petition order who considered the petitions and complaints of the royal subjects and therefore stood, as it were, above all others. Under Alexei Mikhailovich it was also created Order of secret affairs, who controlled the activities of all government institutions and was in charge of the household of the royal family. Even the Duma boyars were not included in it. All this led to transformation of the tsar's power into absolute, not limited by other governing bodies.
However, the numerical growth of orders had a negative impact on the management system, confused the already rather unclear responsibilities of their employees, and increased bureaucratic red tape and abuse of official position.
Sometimes the orders were in charge of solving the same or similar tasks. So, legal issues were resolved Robbery, Zemsky and other orders. In charge of military affairs Discharge, Streletsky, Pushkarsky, Inozemsky, Reitarsky, Cossack orders. All this indicated the need to reform the order system and simplify it.
Local control. In the 17th century, the main administrative units remained counties. Their number by the end of the century exceeded 250. The counties, in turn, were divided into smaller units - camps and volosts.
From the very beginning of the century, the tsar placed at the head of the districts and a number of border cities governor, heading not only local military units, but also vested with main administrative and judicial powers. They were responsible to Moscow for collecting taxes and fulfilling duties by the population. Over the course of a century, the practice of appointing voivodes to head local government became widespread. The introduction of voivodeship power at the local level meant a significant limitation of the powers of local governments (zemstvo and provincial huts) introduced during the reforms The chosen one is pleased in the middle of the 16th century.
From the second half of the 17th century, the king began to form new, larger military-administrative units - ranks, uniting groups of fortified cities in the border regions of the country for defense against possible attacks. The introduction of this unit meant the emergence of an intermediate link between the central and district authorities.
Laws. Cathedral Code of 1649. Overcoming the consequences of the Troubles led to a rapid increase in the number of laws adopted. As before, their projects were prepared on behalf of persons close to the Tsar and gained force after the consent of the Boyar Duma and the Tsar. In cases where the bill was especially important, it was approved by the Zemsky Sobor.
The emergence of new laws in the first half of the century, as well as the application of laws of earlier times, required their streamlining, consolidation into a single document - code of laws The compilation of such a code was entrusted to the confidants of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, headed by the prince Odoevsky. When drawing up the Council Code, adopted by the Zemsky Sobor in 1649, not only previous laws were used, but also foreign ones. The young Tsar Alexei also participated in the development of the code of laws.
The Code reflected the increased role of the tsar in the life of the country. For the first time, the concept of “state crime” was introduced into the law (against the honor and health of the tsar and his family, representatives of state power and the church), for which severe punishment was provided.
The Code for the first time approved the full right of the feudal lord to the land and dependent (serf) peasants. An indefinite search for fugitive peasants and a heavy fine for harboring fugitives were established.
Thus, during the 17th century, the autocratic power of the tsar strengthened, relying not on class representation, but on the state apparatus and army; serfdom was finally formalized; The rights and privileges of the nobility, the social support of the tsarist autocracy, increased significantly.
Power and the church. Church schism
Church after the Time of Troubles. The Troubles became a severe test And for the church. Some of the clergy led by the patriarch Ignatius supported False Dmitry I (and the patriarch himself crowned him king). However, most of the clergy showed examples of high service to the Fatherland and the Russian Orthodox Church.
The Poles who were in Moscow during the Time of Troubles not only plundered church utensils and desecrated the relics of saints, but also destroyed almost all 450 Moscow churches during their retreat. As a contemporary Pole wrote, “there were many churches everywhere, both stone and wooden. And we turned all this to ashes in three days.” Killings of church ministers and taking them hostage were a widespread phenomenon. Among those captured was the actual head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Metropolitan Filaret. But all this did not break, but, on the contrary, strengthened the spiritual strength of believers and clergy.
Patriarch Filaret. After an 8-year stay in Polish captivity, Tsar Michael’s father, Metropolitan Philaret, 1619 year returned to Moscow. Participants in the Church Council elected him as the new Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus'. Under him, the role and importance of the church in the life of the state grew significantly. He was, in essence, the second tsar: the tsar and the patriarch heard all reports on state affairs together, and Mikhail never made decisions without the consent of his father. It also happened that on purely state issues, orders were given by one patriarch.
The main thing that Filaret managed to achieve was to strengthen the authority and power of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. However, many issues of a church nature were never resolved either under him or under his successors - the patriarchs Joseph I And Joseph. Among them, the main one was the issue of updating church books and rituals.
Reform of Patriarch Nikon. In the middle of the 17th century, it became clear that in Russian church books, copied by hand from century to century, there were many typos and distortions of the text in comparison with the originals. The customs of polyphony during church services (when the priest, the deacon, and the believers themselves prayed at the same time, sometimes using different prayers), baptism with two fingers, etc. raised many doubts. The opinions of believers were divided on this issue. Some (including Patriarch Joseph) proposed correcting church books and rituals, returning to ancient Russian models. Others (which included Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his inner circle) believed that they should turn not to books a hundred years ago, but to the Greek sources themselves, from which they at one time copied.
After the death of Patriarch Joseph, he was elected the new head of the Russian Orthodox Church at the suggestion of Alexei Mikhailovich. Nikon- Metropolitan of Novgorod. He was instructed to carry out church reform.
In 1653-1655 Church reform began. Baptism with three fingers was introduced, bows from the waist instead of bows to the ground, icons and church books were corrected according to Greek models.
These changes caused protest among wide sections of the population. In addition, the outbreak of war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the sacrifices and losses associated with it were regarded by ordinary people as God's punishment for violating church traditions.
The Church Council convened in 1654 approved the reform, but proposed to bring the existing rituals into conformity not only with the Greek, but also with the Russian tradition.
Increasing disagreements between church and secular authorities. New pat-
The riarch was a capricious, strong-willed and even fanatical man. Having received immense power over the believers, he soon came up with the idea of the primacy of church power over the royal one and, in essence, invited Alexei Mikhailovich to share power with him, following the example of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and Patriarch Filaret. He said that “just as the month has light from the sun,” so the king receives power from the patriarch, who represents God.
The tsar did not want to tolerate these statements and moral teachings of the patriarch for long. He stopped going to patriarchal services in the Assumption Cathedral and inviting Nikon to state receptions. It was a serious blow according to the pride of the patriarch. During one of the sermons in the Assumption Cathedral, he stated O abdication of patriarchal duties and retired to the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery. There Nikon began to wait for the king to repent and ask him to return to Moscow. However, Alexey Mikhailovich acted completely differently. He began to prepare a church trial of Nikon, for which he invited Orthodox patriarchs from other countries to Moscow.
Church Council of 1666-1667. A church council was convened to try Nikon in 1666. The defendant was brought to him under the guard of soldiers. The tsar who spoke stated that Nikon “arbitrarily and without our royal majesty’s command left the church and renounced the patriarchate.” Thus, the king made it clear who exactly was the boss and who owned the real power in the country. The church hierarchs present supported the tsar and condemned Nikon, blessing his deprivation of the rank of patriarch and eternal imprisonment in a monastery.
At the same time, the Council supported church reform and cursed all its opponents (who became known as Old Believers). The participants of the Council decided to transfer the leaders of the Old Believers into the hands of secular authorities. According to the Council Code of 1649, they were threatened with death at the stake.
The cathedral of 1666-1667 deepened split in the Russian Orthodox Church.
Archpriest Avvakum. The archpriest was an outstanding leader of the Old Believers Avvakum (Avvakum Petrov)(1620 - 1682). WITH youth Devoting himself to the church, he was an active supporter and preacher of a godly lifestyle. For some time, Avvakum was one of the members of the “Circle of Zealots of Piety” and met Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who supported them. He perceived Nikon's reforms sharply negatively. For his views, he was deprived of his place in the Moscow Kazan Cathedral, and then arrested and imprisoned in a monastery. Later Avvakum was exiled with his family to Siberia.
Wherever fate took him, Avvakum actively promoted Old Believer ideas and principles. In 1664, he returned to Moscow, where the tsar and other people who knew and sympathized with him tried in vain to convince him to come to terms with church reform. For his refusal at the Church Council of 1666-1667, Habakkuk was condemned by the church and removed from the priesthood, and then again imprisoned. In his last imprisonment, he wrote the famous literary work “Life” and dozens of other works. For his rebellion and intransigence, Avvakum was sentenced to execution by the Church Council of 1681-1682. On April 11, 1682, the “furious archpriest” and his associates were burned alive.
Thus, the church, which strengthened its position after the Time of Troubles, tried to take a dominant position in the country's political system. However, in the context of strengthening autocracy, this led to a conflict between church and secular authorities. The defeat of the church in this clash paved the way for its transformation into an appendage of state power.
Popular movements
Reasons and features of popular protests. Contemporaries called the 17th century "rebellious" The main reasons for the popular uprisings were:
The enslavement of peasants and the growth of feudal duties;
Increasing tax oppression, waging almost continuous wars [which affected the well-being of the population);
Increased administrative red tape;
Attempts to limit Cossack freedom;
Church schism and reprisals against Old Believers.
All this explained the participation in protests against the government of representatives not only of the peasantry (as was the case before), But and the Cossacks, the urban lower strata, the archers, the lower strata of the clergy.
Participation in the fight with power Cossacks and archers, who had not only weapons, but also experience in military operations, gave the popular uprisings of the 17th century the character of a fierce armed struggle, causing great loss of life.
The most serious popular protests began in the middle XVII century.
Salt riot. In response to the government's attempt to replenish the treasury by introducing an additional duty on salt, a major uprising broke out in the capital. June 1 1648 Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was returning from a pilgrimage from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra to the Kremlin. A crowd of Muscovites tried to file a complaint with him against the Moscow “mayor”, the head of the Zemsky Prikaz L. S. Pleshcheeva. He was accused of embezzlement, red tape, pandering to rich townspeople and the population of “white settlements,” and introducing high prices for bread and salt. The performance turned out to be so powerful that the tsar was forced to “hand over his head” (to hand over to the people for punishment) not only Pleshcheev, but also the head of the Pushkarsky order. Boyar B. Morozov, Alexei Mikhailovich’s educator, who actually ruled the state, was dismissed and expelled from Moscow. Following Moscow, uprisings broke out in other Russian cities - Kursk, Kozlov, Yelets, Tomsk, Ustyug the Great.
Taking advantage of the uprising, the nobles and townspeople presented the tsar with a demand to streamline the laws and judicial system and prepare a new Council Code.
Copper riot. Constant wars depleted the royal treasury. To replenish it, it was decided to collect debts from previous years, and also to mint coins not from silver, as before, but from copper. The cost of new money turned out to be 12-15 times less than the old one. As a result, merchants refused to sell goods with the new money. This caused discontent among the population and part of the army, which was also paid with depreciated money.
In July 1662 Having destroyed the estates of some boyars close to the tsar, crowds of townspeople rushed to the out-of-town royal palace in the village of Kolomenskoye. While awaiting the arrival of troops, the king was forced to enter into negotiations with the rebels. He promised to abolish copper money. Believing the tsar, the townspeople headed back to Moscow. However, on the way they met a new crowd of thousands, and the procession to Kolomenskoye resumed. Meanwhile, the king managed to gather troops. The unarmed crowd was put to flight by force of arms. Reprisals began against the participants of the performance. The instigators of the riot were hanged in the center of Moscow. Many of its participants had their hands, feet, and tongues cut off by court sentences. Others were whipped and sent into exile. Nevertheless, the circulation of copper money was cancelled.
The uprising of Stepan Razin. The largest public performance XVII century there was an uprising of Cossacks and peasants led by S. T. Razin.
The introduction of the Council Code of 1649, the search and reprisal of fugitive peasants, the ruin of many villagers and townspeople led to their outflow to the outskirts of the country, primarily to the Don. By the mid-60s, there had accumulated large number refugees from the central regions of the country. Many local Cossacks also remained poor. A miserable existence forced 700 Don Cossacks, led by the ataman Vasily Us in 1666, head towards Moscow with a request to accept them into the royal service. After receiving a refusal, the peaceful campaign of the Cossacks grew into an uprising, in which, in addition to the Cossacks, thousands of peasants took part. Soon the rebels retreated to the Don, where they joined the troops of Stepan Timofeevich Razin.
Stepan Timofeevich Razin (1630-1671) was born into a wealthy Cossack family in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don. Contemporaries noted that Stepan had not only great physical strength, but also an extraordinary mind and willpower. These qualities allowed him to soon become a Don Cossack chieftain. Stepan showed his extraordinary qualities as a military leader in campaigns against the Crimean Tatars and Turks in 1661 - 1663. Razin gained diplomatic experience in negotiations with the Kalmyks, and then with the Persians. Being a supporter of the Cossack “freedom,” Razin could not agree with the restriction of the freedom of the Cossacks undertaken by Alexei Mikhailovich. But the last straw that broke Stepan’s patience was the execution of his older brother Ivan, who deserted from the active army in 1665. After this, Razin’s speech against the tsarist authorities became a matter of time. During the uprising of 1670-1671, Stepan Razin appeared in the guise of an extremely cruel leader who did not spare not only his enemies, but also the Cossacks who disobeyed his orders.
First stage The performances of Razin's troops (1667-1669) are usually called the “campaign for zipuns.” This was a campaign of the rebels “for booty.” Razin's detachment blocked the main economic artery of southern Russia - the Volga, and captured merchant ships of Russian and Persian merchants. The rebels captured the Yaitsky town, and then defeated the Persian fleet. Having received rich booty, in the summer of 1669 Razin returned to the Don and settled with his detachment in the town of Kagalnitsky.
Thousands of disadvantaged people began to come here from everywhere. Feeling strong, Razin announced a campaign against Moscow, where he promised “to beat all the princes and boyars and all the Russian nobility.”
In the spring of 1670 it began second stage Razin's performances. The rebels immediately captured Tsaritsyn and approached the well-fortified Astrakhan, which surrendered without a fight. Having dealt with the governor and nobles, the rebels formed a government in a circle led by atamans Vasily Us and Fedor Sheludyak.
The success of the rebels served as a signal for the population of many Volga cities to go over to Razin’s side: Saratov, Samara, Penza and others. Among the participants in the performance were not only Cossacks and Russian peasants, but also representatives of many peoples of the Volga region: Chuvash, Mari, Tatars, Mordovians. Most of them were attracted to Razin by the fact that he declared each participant in the performance to be a Cossack (i.e., a free person). The total population of the rebel lands was about 200 thousand people.
In September 1670, the rebels besieged Simbirsk, but were unable to take it and retreated to the Don. The punitive expedition against Razin was led by the voivode prince Yu. Baryatinsky. Fearing reprisals, wealthy Cossacks captured Razin and handed him over to the authorities. After torture and trial, the leader of the rebels was quartered.
However, the uprising continued. Only a year later, in November 1671, the tsarist troops managed to occupy Astrakhan and completely suppress the uprising. The scale of reprisals against differences was enormous. In Arzamas alone, up to 11 thousand people were executed. In total, up to 100 thousand rebels were killed and tortured. The country has never known such massacres.
Speech by Old Believers. For the first time in Russia, a church schism led to mass religious protests. The Old Believers movement united representatives of various social strata, who understood in their own way adherence to the traditions of their faith. The forms of protest were also varied: from self-immolation and starvation, refusal to recognize Nikon’s reform, evasion of duties and disobedience to authorities to armed resistance to the tsarist governors. For peasant Old Believers and townspeople, this was a form of social protest.
In just 20 years (1675-1695), up to 20 thousand Old Believers died during mass self-immolations.
The largest armed uprisings of fighters for the old faith were: the Solovetsky uprising of 1668-1676, the schismatic movement during the Moscow uprising of 1682, and the uprising on the Don in the 70-80s.
The uprising of the monks of the Solovetsky Monastery was especially brutally suppressed. The bloody massacre committed by the governors against his defenders was the last event of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, who died in 1676.
However, performances by the Old Believers took place until the end of the century, already under Tsar Peter I.
Thus, the strengthening of feudal oppression, the enslavement of the peasants, attempts to eliminate the remnants of Cossack self-government, the struggle of the royal and church authorities with the “non-believers” led to mass popular uprisings.
Smolensk War. The main enemy of Russia after the Time of Troubles continued to be the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish king did not recognize the rights of Mikhail Fedorovich on throne, considering his son Vladislav the Tsar of Moscow. The Smolensk lands, captured from Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, also remained behind the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish gentry did not abandon plans for a new campaign against Moscow.
Under these conditions, Russia was forced to gather forces for a new war and look for allies. Your support in the fight With Sweden and Türkiye promised Poland.
The reason for the war was the death of the Polish king, a longtime enemy of Russia, Sigismund III. The power struggle that broke out in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth seemed to make the chances of success easier. In June 1632 The Zemsky Sobor decided to start a war with its western neighbor for Smolensk.
The army was led by boyar M.B. Shein, who besieged Smolensk.
However, neither Sweden nor Türkiye supported Moscow. Meanwhile, a contender for the Russian throne, Vladislav, was elected king of Poland. At the head of a 15,000-strong army, he lifted the siege of Smolensk and surrounded She-in’s army. But both sides did not have the strength to continue the fight. At the suggestion of the Poles in 1634 year, a peace was concluded, according to which Russia returned all its employees V during the war, the land, and Vladislav renounced claims to the Moscow throne.
Thus, the war turned out to be unsuccessful for Russia and did not resolve the existing contradictions with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Reunification of Ukraine With Russia. Russian-Polish relations became even more strained in the context of the outbreak of the Ukrainian people’s struggle for independence.
The Ukrainian nation was formed mainly in the 15th century. Ukrainians lived on lands that were previously part of the Old Russian state and had common national, religious, and cultural roots with Russians. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth they experienced triple oppression- feudal, national and religious. The owners of the lands were, as a rule, Poles and Lithuanians, who also belonged to the Catholic faith. Ukrainians were forbidden to speak their native language and profess Orthodoxy. They were treated as cattle (cattle), worthy only of working for their master. All this led to the fact that the contradictions that existed in any feudal society here acquired religious and national forms. The difficult situation of the Ukrainian and Belarusian populations caused constant uprisings against the Poles. In addition to peasants and townspeople, the Golytba (the poorest Cossacks), who were the main military force of the rebels, took part in this struggle. The prosperous Cossacks were recorded by the Poles in registers(lists) and had to defend the borders of the state for a salary.
On first stage During the liberation struggle (spring 1648 - August 1649), the rebels managed to achieve a number of major victories over the Poles. This served as a signal for the rise of the struggle of the Ukrainian and Belarusian populations. After a series of military victories, the rebel troops led by Bogdan Khmelnitsky(1595-1657) entered Kyiv. In August 1649, the Peace of Zboriv was concluded between the Poles and the rebels, according to which the Kiev, Chernigov, Bratslav voivodeships received independent hetman control (Khmelnytsky became hetman), and the number of registered Cossacks increased to 40 thousand. This agreement satisfied mainly the interests of the registered Cossacks, the Cossack elite and wealthy townspeople, so the continuation of the struggle was inevitable.
Second stage(1650-1651) was unsuccessful for the rebels. Their defeat at Berestechko led to the conclusion of the Peace of Belotserkovo (1651), which nullified the conditions of the first period of the war.
On third stage(1652-1654) Bogdan Khmelnitsky turned to the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept Ukraine into the Russian state. On October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor decided to incorporate Ukraine into Russia and declare war on Poland. January 8 1654 a general council was held in Pereyaslavl - Rada, which brought together elected representatives from all classes of the Ukrainian population. The royal ambassador, boyar, was present Buturlin. The decision of those gathered was unanimous - Ukraine became part of Russia, promising “to be with the lands and cities under the sovereign’s high hand forever.” The rights and privileges of the Cossacks and cities of Ukraine were also secured. In particular, the hetman's administration and a large Cossack army were preserved.
Russian-Polish war (1654-1667). Russia's decision to accept Ukraine meant new war with Rech Po-spolita. It began almost immediately after the decisions of the Zemsky Sobor of 1653 and the Pereyaslav Rada. The war lasted almost 15 years with varying success.
After the death of Bohdan Khmelnitsky (1657), a struggle for power began in his circle. New Hetman Ivan Vygovsky, and then his successor Yuri Khmelnitsky concluded agreements with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth recognizing its authority over Ukraine.
The uprising led by B. M. Khmelnitsky and the Russian-Polish war of 1654-1667.
However, the people did not support them. The war exhausted both sides. The strength of Russian weapons, the war with Sweden and the incessant attacks of the Turks forced the Poles to go to prison. 1667 The Truce of Andrusovo, according to which not only the Smolensk and Seversky lands were transferred to Russia, but also its power over the Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev was recognized. Zaporozhye remained under the authority of both states. In addition, recent opponents promised each other assistance in the fight against the constant raids of the Turks and Crimean Tatars.
Russian-Turkish War (1676-1681). In Ukraine, the interests of not only Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but also Turkey collided. In an effort to weaken the position of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Turkey provided some assistance to B. Khmelnitsky, but after the annexation of Ukraine to Russia, it began to fight against the strengthening of Moscow’s position. During the Polish-Turkish war of the 60-70s for Right Bank Ukraine, the Turks managed to achieve recognition of their power over these territories by the hetman of Right Bank Ukraine. This, in turn, became the main reason for the first Russian-Turkish war.
In the summer of 1678, the Sultan sent a 200,000-strong army to the political center of Ukraine - Chigirin. The united Russian-Ukrainian army marched there. After fierce fighting, the city fell.
The protracted Russian-Turkish war was extremely ruinous for both sides. Its completion was the signing of the Bakhchisarai Peace Treaty in 1681, according to which Turkey and Crimea recognized the transition of Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev to Russia.
Crimean campaigns. Realizing that the truce with Turkey was temporary, Russia tried to oppose it with an alliance of European powers. However, this was not possible: in Western Europe there was a protracted war between France. Spain and Holland.
In 1684, the anti-Turkish “Holy League” was created by Austria, Poland and Venice, concerned about the Turkish invasion of Eastern Europe. Russia agreed to participate in this union only after the Truce of Andrusovo was concluded in 1686 "Eternal Peace" with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, recognizing the entry into Russia of Left-Bank Ukraine And Kyiv.
IN 1687 and in 1689 Russia, fulfilling its allied obligations, launched two campaigns against the Crimean Khanate. The Russian army was led by Prince V.V. Golitsyn. At first the trips were successful. But with the onset of the summer heat, the Russian army suffered heavy losses even without battles - from lack of water, food and fodder. People were decimated by diseases.
Despite the lack of military victories, the Crimean campaigns brought political success to Russia: for the first time after the overthrow of Horde rule, it undertook two major military operations against the Crimean Khanate. For the first time, Crimea felt a direct military threat from Russia, which was gaining strength. The Russian state demonstrated to Europe its growing military power.
Development of Siberia. As we know, Western Siberia was annexed to Russia as a result of the defeat of the Siberian Khanate at the end of the 16th century. At the same time, the first cities arose here - Tobolsk, Tyumen, Berezov, Surgut, etc. The economic development of these vast spaces also began. They fled here from
Feudal oppression, peasants, expeditions were sent, traders went for cheap hunting trophies, primarily for furs.
Absence from the territory Eastern Siberia and the Far East of state associations (most local tribes lived in a tribal system) facilitated the peaceful development of these vast expanses by Russian pioneers, and with very small forces.
In the mid-17th century, Russian expeditions became common in Eastern Siberia and the Far East. The first cities and fortified settlements appeared here: the Yakut fort (1632), Albazinsky (1651), Irkutsk winter quarters (1652), Kumarsky (1654), Kosogorsky (1655), Nerchinsky (1658). The Amur region became part of Russia.
By the end of the century, Russian possessions in Asia extended to the coast of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. In the south they were limited to the zone of influence of the Chinese Empire (mainly in the Far East and Transbaikalia), as well as the Kyrgyz tribes (in Central Asia). In order to resolve Russian-Chinese contradictions in the Far East, the Treaty of Nerchinsk was concluded between the two countries in 1689. The southernmost possessions of Russia in Siberia were the cities of Ishim, Kurgan, Kuznetsk, Krasnoyarsk, Selenginsk, which arose in the 17th century. Local power in Siberia was exercised by voivodes. The general administration of the eastern possessions was entrusted at first By order of the Kazan Palace, and then Siberian order.
Thus, during the 17th century, the territory of Russia significantly increased its size due to the annexation of huge eastern possessions in Siberia and the Far East, as well as Left Bank Ukraine.
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