In experiments on macaques with the introduction of microelectrodes into area F5 (frontal cortex). Then a similar type of neurons was found in other areas of the cortex - in the associative parietal (inferior parietal) and temporal (superior temporal) cortex. In this regard, there is a popular point of view that the activation of mirror neurons does not occur due to any one neuron, but as a synergistic result of the work of the neural network.

In humans, brain activity consistent with mirror neuron behavior was initially discovered in the frontal and parietal regions by indirect methods such as MRI and electroencephalography (see brain diagram). In 2010 research group M. Iacoboni et al recorded the extracellular activity of 1000 neurons in the frontal and temporal cortex. Some of these neurons responded both to the commission of an action and to the observation of the action being performed.

The costs of research in the field of mirror neurons, according to calculations by The Economist magazine, are growing almost exponentially every year, and the direction itself is predicted to play a role as one of the main trends in the development of science in the coming years.

Mirror neurons are responsible for imitation.

Some scientists call their discovery the most important event in neurobiology in the last ten years. One of them is Vilayanur Ramachandran, who believes that these neurons play a key role in imitation processes and language learning. However, despite their extreme popularity, to date no decent computational model has been proposed to describe how the functioning of mirror neurons embodies cognitive functions such as imitation.

The function that mirror neurons perform is not completely clear and is the subject of scientific debate. These neurons may be involved in empathy, understanding other people's actions, and learning new skills through imitation. Some researchers argue that mirror neurons can build a model of observed events and actions, while others attribute their functions to the acquisition of language-related skills. There is also a point of view that disturbances in their functioning may underlie some mental illnesses, in particular autism. However, the link between mirror neuron dysfunction and autism remains a matter of debate, and it does not appear that mirror neurons are associated with some of the core symptoms of autism.

Mikhail Wartburg
Mirror neurons

“A man alone cannot do it,” Hemingway’s beloved hero exhorted in his dying half-oblivion.
“It can’t, it can’t,” cultural experts, sociologists, psychologists, and neurophysiologists echo him. And here is an amazing series of experiments to study the so-called mirror reflection.
IN " Main topic“This issue talks about the reflection of communications and mutual understanding at the level of countries, peoples, and large groups of people. In the experiments discussed below, reflection phenomena are studied at the level of groups of neurons and local zones in the cerebral cortex of higher mammals.
What is noteworthy is this: although the action begins with neurons, it ends with an exit to the problem of the origin of speech in humans, touching upon the very popular at the time and hotly debated “theory of gesture” - the connection between initial sound utterances and gestures. Speech is the very special ability of our species that gives rise to its truly immense communicative capabilities. And which makes it possible to effectively resolve problems and conflicts in the space of reflexive relationships.
We start with (neural) reflection and end with (universal) reflection.

Who has not watched another person try to turn a stubborn nut or thread a thread through the eye of a needle? And who hasn’t experienced a strange sensation in the muscles - as if they were straining in an attempt to repeat the movements of this person, as if trying to help him? What is it in us that watches these movements so closely and reproduces them so accurately, albeit mentally?

This question, which has long interested many neuroscientists, recently received an unexpected solution, which, in turn, gave rise to a whole range of new questions and led to the emergence of curious and intriguing hypotheses. It turned out that special neurons, which, due to the specificity of their action, were called “mirror” neurons, were to blame.

These neurons were first discovered by Italian scientists Gallese, Rizzolatti and others from the University of Parma. In the early 1990s, they began studying the brains of marmosets. By implanting electrodes into it, they studied the activity of neurons in one specific zone of the monkey brain - zone F5. In humans, it corresponds to Broca's area in the left hemisphere, which is today believed to be associated with the process of speech. Area F5 in monkeys is located in the part of the cortex that controls the thinking and execution of movements, and neurons in area F5 become active (“fire” signals) when the monkey performs any purposeful motor actions.

And so, while showing the monkeys what they had to do, the experimenters unexpectedly discovered that the neurons in area F5 fired as if the monkeys themselves were performing the actions that they saw a human perform before their eyes. If the objects with which this action had to be performed were simply lying on the ground, the F5 neurons remained passive. In other words, they reacted only to the demonstration, and they reacted like a mirror - mentally repeating the observed action. That’s why researchers called them “mirror neurons.”

The fact that mirror neurons “repeated” the observed action, and were not simply excited when observing it, was confirmed when the experimenters encouraged the monkeys to do the same action with their hands. It turned out that in this case exactly the same neurons are excited as during the display, and the nature of the firing of signals is also the same. On the other hand, mirror neurons turned out to be very selective. Each of their groups reacted to a specific action (and did not react even to slightly different ones), and they reacted in a strictly defined way. All this reinforced the impression that mirror neurons are just mirror neurons: with their help, the brains of the monkeys seemed to comprehend the brains of the experimenters in its external manifestations, in physical actions.

Approximately the same thing happens, apparently, in the brain of a dog when it rushes at a person, when he has only just thought about making a threatening movement. This phenomenon is usually explained by the fact that the dog sees those barely noticeable, even unconscious changes by the person himself, in the stance of the body, the position of the arms and legs, etc., which the brain has already ordered the body to make in preparation for the most threatening movement. But how does she know that these microscopic changes actually herald a threat? Perhaps here, too, the dog’s neurons, mentally reproducing the inconspicuous human movements they saw, create tensions in the dog’s body that are characteristic of it when it attacks itself. In other words, the dog’s brain “reads” the human brain.

The discovery of mirror neurons unexpectedly led Italian researchers directly to a long-standing mystery - whether animals can understand their own kind, and if so, how. It is known that mother baboons often do not respond to the calls of their cubs lost in the forest. The experimenters who discovered this fact explained it by the fact that baboons are not able to understand that the behavior of their kind is similar to their own behavior. Without seeing the cubs, they do not understand what their cries mean.

Scientists see this as one manifestation of a general problem, which can be defined as the problem of “reading” another brain. Undoubtedly, even monkeys are to some extent capable of such “reading” - at least when they see their own kind in front of them. The experiments of Italian scientists described above indicate that monkeys are able to partially “read” even the human brain. People are certainly endowed with this ability - each of us can give many relevant examples. But scientists cannot agree on how this “reading” occurs. Some believe that it is carried out using the “other theory”: our brain, accumulating life experience and generalizing it with the help of reasonable hypotheses, gradually creates a kind of “model” of how another person acts in certain circumstances, what should be expected from him. According to another theory, “reading” another occurs with the help of a kind of imitation: we seem to put ourselves in the place of another and mentally imitate what he should think, feel and do.

The discovery of mirror neurons not only brings to light this fundamental problem, but also tends to give preference to the solution that explains the phenomenon of “reading another” through imitation. (This, by the way, reinforces the position of those scientists who believe that imitation processes play a vital role not only in cultural, but also in biological evolution.) But at first, mirror neurons were discovered only in monkeys. Do people have them too? Of course, this cannot be checked by implanting electrodes into the human brain - people are not monkeys. But indirect experiments conducted by Luciano Fadigio showed that when observing certain movements, the corresponding muscles of the experimental people involuntarily contracted as if they themselves were preparing to make such movements. Then Rizzolati and Grafton used newly developed direct brain imaging techniques to observe neuronal activity. It turned out that people also have something like mirror neurons, and they are concentrated in Broca's area - the same one, if you remember, that corresponds to area F5 in monkeys.

The significance of this discovery is all the more significant since Broca's area, as already mentioned, is associated with speech. Based on this, Italian researchers made a bold assumption that it was mirror neurons that were the main factor in the emergence of speech in humans. In their opinion, these neurons became the first bridge between people.

This could happen in the following way. Observing the actions of another person, the primitive hunter, just like us today, mentally reproduced these actions with the help of mirror neurons. At the same time, these neurons gave orders to his own muscles to perform the same actions. The muscles tensed accordingly, but the actions themselves were not performed - they were suppressed by strong prohibitive impulses, usually supplied in such cases by the spinal cord. Sometimes, however, the tension overcame the prohibition and broke out in an involuntary and short “imitative” action. Such an action, according to Italian scientists, was the embryo of a gesture that made it possible for another to see that he was “understood.” In other words, it was the embryo of communication. At the next stage, speech itself was born from such gestures, the control of which, as before - the control of gestures, was concentrated in the area where mirror neurons are concentrated in people - in Broca's area.

However, in recent months, Gallese’s group seems to have discovered the presence of mirror neurons in some other areas of the human brain, no longer associated with motor skills, but with sensations. And this prompted Italian researchers to come up with an even more ambitious hypothesis, according to which mirror neurons and their imitation of what is happening in the brain of another person can explain such phenomena as sympathy for another person, compassion, as well as empathy, or “reading.” feelings of another person. The hypothesis is fascinating and intriguing, but it still needs to be confirmed before it can be discussed.

Are mirror neurons supercells or a hyped concept?

I have already written that mirror neurons are the most widely replicated concept in neuroscience. Discovered by Italian researchers in experiments on monkeys in the 1990s, these brain cells involved in motor control are also activated in a mirror-like manner when observing the movements of someone else. In a calm and measured tone, the new study, recently released into the public domain, adds a few touches to what we know about these amazing cells today.

But first, a little about where all the hype around mirror neurons comes from. Neurologist V.S. Ramachandran believes that these cells shaped our civilization; in fact, according to him, they are the basis of everything human, since they are responsible for empathy, speech and appearance human culture, including the spread of fire and tools. According to Ramachandran, autism is a consequence of mirror neurons not functioning properly. (Note parenthetically that a detailed study this year found no conclusive evidence for his views on autism. And other experts have debunked Ramachandran's theory that mirror neurons are inextricably linked to the emergence of culture: the activity of these cells can be changed with simple training tasks, which proves that mirror neurons are just as much shaped by culture as they are influenced by it.)

To get an idea of ​​the scope of this neurological nonsense, try searching for “mirror neurons” on the Daily Mail website. Let's say this year a publication published that the most popular romantic films are popular because they activate our mirror neurons. And another article says that only thanks to mirror neurons, the condition of hospital patients improves when they are visited. In fact, there is no scientific evidence behind any of these statements, and each of them is an example of extreme simplification.

A quick search on Twitter can also demonstrate how deeply ingrained the idea of ​​all-powerful empathic mirror neurons is in the public consciousness. “Mirror neurons are responsible for the fact that we wince when we see someone else’s pain!” - WoWFactz tweeted with deceptive confidence to its 398 thousand followers just this month. “Mirror neurons are so powerful that we can even “mirror” each other’s intentions!” states self-help author Dr. Caroline Leaf in a tweet sent a few weeks ago.

In fact, we don't yet have research showing that mirror neurons are necessary for empathy, and there is reason to believe that empathy is quite possible without them.

Many brain-damaged patients who can no longer speak are still able to understand others' speech, and those who have lost the ability to express their own emotions can still understand others'.

And recently, two London neuroscientists published an introductory article in the respected journal Current Biology entitled “What we know today about mirror neurons.” Against the unhealthy hype that usually surrounds mirror neurons, James Kilner and Roger Lemon of University College London counter with a balanced and objective look at the existing literature on the subject.

They acknowledge that it is difficult to explain mirror neuron activity in the human brain using neuroimaging technologies. So they focus on 25 papers based on the analysis of direct recordings of single-cell brain activity in monkeys. These studies found motor cells with mirror-like properties in the frontal lobes of the brain responsible for controlling movement (the so-called premotor cortex and precentral gyrus), as well as in the parietal lobe, near the top of the head.

Thus, some motor cells show a mirror response only when the monkey sees a living creature in front of it; others also react to movement recorded on video. Some mirror neurons are capricious: they respond only to specific movements; others respond to movements from a much wider range. There are even those that “turn on” in response to the sound of some special movement. And another type of cell exhibits mirror suppression: while observing movement, their activity decreases. Another study in monkeys identified touch-sensitive neurons that fire when the monkey sees another animal touching the same spot (Ramachandran calls these neurons "Gandhi cells" because he believes they break down the boundaries between human beings).

Importantly, Kilner and Lemon highlight data that show how mirror neuron activity in monkeys varies depending on viewing angle, the reward potential of the observed movement, and the purpose of that movement (e.g., whether it is intended to grab some object and eat it). These details are significant because they show that mirror neuron activity is driven not only by incoming sensory information, but also by inferences formed elsewhere in the brain about the meaning of observed phenomena. This is not to diminish the admiration for the work of mirror neurons, but to show that they are not at the beginning of a causal chain - rather, they are embedded in a complex network of brain activity.

Finally, it is important that Kilner and Lemon provide a brief summary of the state of the art regarding the functionality of mirror neurons in humans.

The method of recording the activity of individual brain cells, used in experiments with monkeys, is not applicable to humans - except in exceptional cases, such as necessary brain surgery. The only study of its kind published to date finds the existence of mirror neurons in the frontal cortex and temporal lobe of the human brain.

Neuroimaging studies in humans also indicate the existence of something similar to mirror activity in many of the same areas of the brain where similar activity was found in monkeys. However, these studies focused only on action observation and therefore cannot show whether the same brain areas are engaged in action and action observation.

Other neuroimaging studies have been based on the principle of adaptation (the more neurons are fired, the less excitable they are). If a certain area of ​​the brain has mirroring properties, signs of fatigue in it should appear both after the action and after observing it. In fact, the results of two of the five adaptation studies are mixed, and the existence of mirror properties remains unproven. Perhaps this is because mirror neurons do not adapt at all - but this remains to be clarified.

James Kilner and Roger Lemon are to be applauded for their long-awaited review.

And also that there are many types of mirror neurons. And what we still need to prove is whether they exist in humans, and if so, whether they are similar to apes. As for the functional significance of these cells... Don't be fooled: the journey to understanding has only just begun.

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The scientist who revealed to humanity the secret of mirror neurons spoke about how to improve mutual understanding between people, as well as about new approaches to the treatment of stroke and autism.

DO INDIFFERENT PEOPLE LACK NEURONS?

But all people are different: some are very responsive and sensitive. And there are callous and indifferent people who, it seems, cannot be reached by anything. Perhaps nature deprived them of emotional mirror neurons?

Hardly. The brain is not that simple. In addition to mirror neurons, of course, our consciousness and will work - with their help we can partially extinguish those feelings and emotions that appear due to the action of mirror neurons.

And they play an even bigger role social norms accepted in society. If society supports the ideology of selfishness, individualism: take care first of all of yourself, your own health, material wealth, then you have to be selfish, because it is believed that this is what will lead to success. In this case, the role of your mirror neuron system is reduced by volitional effort, education, and habitual behavior.

Motivation is very important. By the way, in many religions there is a principle: love others as you love yourself. You should not think that such a principle originated from God - in fact it is natural rule, which reflects the human biological structure and is based on the work of mirror neurons. If you don't like people, then living in society will be very difficult. Meanwhile, in Western societies, especially in last centuries, there was a period of strictly individualistic approach. Now, for example, Italy, France, Germany are returning to the understanding that social life no less important than personal.

“DO NOT BE OFFENSED AT MEN”

If we still talk about differences in the structure of the brain, it has been noted that women have more mirror neurons in their emotional system than men, the professor continues. “This explains women’s higher capacity for understanding and empathy. There were experiments when volunteers of both sexes were shown someone in a state of pain, suffering - the female brain reacted much stronger than the male one. This happened as a result of evolution: it is important for nature that it is the mother who spends the most time with the child who is emotionally open, empathetic, happy, and thereby, in a mirror-like manner, helps develop the baby’s emotions.

It turns out that it is pointless to accuse men of being insensitive and to be offended by them?

Yes, there is no need to be offended by us (laughs). This is nature. By the way, there is another interesting experiment showing the difference between men and women. A game is organized: let’s say I’m playing with you against someone else, and then you start deliberately playing against me, being cunning. In this case, I, a man, will begin to get terribly angry, while a woman considers such behavior an innocent joke. That is, a woman is more inclined to forgive and treat many things easier in the end. And a man takes the same betrayal, let’s say, much more seriously and is less responsive.

HOW THOUGHT BRINGS THE SICK ON THEIR FEET

You discovered mirror neurons more than 20 years ago - surely since then, in addition to scientific research, there have been attempts to use your discovery in medicine?

Yes we are working on it practical application discoveries, including in medicine. It is known that motor mirror neurons make us mentally reproduce the same action that we see - if it is performed by another person, including on a TV or computer screen. For example, it has been observed that when people watch a boxing match, their muscles tense and their fists may even clench. This is a typical neuroeffect, and a new technology for recovery from stroke, Alzheimer's disease and other diseases in which a person forgets movements is based on it. We are currently conducting experiments in Italy and Germany.

The point is this: if the patient’s neurons are not completely “broken”, but their work is disrupted, then using a visual stimulus - showing the necessary action under certain conditions - you can activate nerve cells, make them “reflect” the movements and start working as needed again. This method is called “action-observation therapy”, in experiments it gives a significant improvement in the rehabilitation of patients after a stroke.

But the most surprising result was discovered when they tried to use this therapy to restore people after serious injuries, car accidents - when a person is put in a cast, and then he actually needs to learn to walk again. Usually in such cases a painful gait persists for a long time, the patient limps, etc. If you traditionally teach and train, it takes a lot of time. At the same time, if you show a specially created film with appropriate movements, the necessary motor neurons are activated in the victims’ brains, and people begin to walk normally in just a few days. Even for us scientists, this looks like a miracle.

"BROKEN MIRRORS"

Professor, what happens if a person’s mirror neurons themselves are damaged? What diseases does this happen in?

In fact, it is not so easy to damage these neurons en masse; they are distributed throughout the cerebral cortex. If a person has a stroke, only a portion of these neurons are damaged. For example, it is known that when the left side of the brain is damaged, a person sometimes cannot understand the actions of other people.

The most serious damage to mirror neurons is associated with genetic disorders. This most often occurs in autism. Since the brain of such patients has a broken mechanism for “reflecting” the actions and emotions of others, autistic people simply cannot understand what other people are doing. They are unable to sympathize because they do not experience similar emotions when they see joy or worry. All this is unfamiliar to them, it can frighten them, and therefore patients with autism try to hide and avoid communication.

If we managed to find out the cause of the disease, are scientists closer to discovering a cure?

We think that it is possible to restore autistic children as fully as possible if this is done at a very young age. At a very early stage, you need to show very strong sensitivity, even sentimentality with such children: the mother, the specialist must talk a lot with the child, touch him - in order to develop both motor and emotional skills. It is very important to play with your child, but not in competitive games, but in games where success comes only through joint actions: for example, a child pulls a rope - nothing happens, a mother pulls - nothing, and if they pull together, they get some kind of prize . This is how the child understands: you and I together are important, not scary, but useful.

ON THE TOPIC

Who among our smaller brothers will understand us?

Most of us have pets, which for many become real family members. We really want to understand their mood and communicate with them in a more meaningful way. How is this possible thanks to mirror neurons? Do cats and dogs have them?

As for cats, it is very difficult to find out. We would have to implant electrodes into their heads, and conducting experiments on such animals is prohibited in our country. It’s easier with monkeys and dogs: they are more “conscious”. If a monkey knows that it will get a banana for a certain behavior, it will do what scientists are interested in. This can also be achieved with a dog, although it is more difficult. And the cat, as you know, walks on its own and does what it wants,” the professor smiles. - When a dog eats, it does it the way we do. We understand this because we ourselves have the same action. But when a dog barks, our brain is not able to understand what it means. But we have a lot in common with a monkey, and they understand us very well thanks to mirror neurons.

There have also been experiments showing that some songbirds have mirror neurons. They found cells in the motor cortex of their brains that were responsible for certain notes. If a person plays these notes, then the corresponding neurons are activated in the birds' brains.

THIS WILL BE USEFUL

How to cheer yourself and others up

Professor, if we subconsciously perceive the emotions of other people, then it turns out that when we watch horror films or tragic reports on TV, we automatically receive the same emotions? Let's say we get upset and the stress hormone cortisol begins to be produced, which disrupts our sleep, memory, thyroid function, etc.?

Yes, this happens automatically. Even if you try to calm down and control yourself, this may only slightly weaken the reaction, but will not get rid of it.

But, on the other hand, perhaps you can use the same principle of mirror neurons to lift your mood?

You're right. If you communicate with a positive, cheerful person or watch a movie with such a character, then the same emotions arise in your brain. And if you yourself want to cheer up someone, then you have a higher chance of doing it not with a tragically sympathetic expression on your face, but with a benevolent light smile.

P.S. Also, a problem with mirror neurons occurs in psychopaths. For example, the modern image of a successful person is typical picture psychoticism in the manic stage - high performance, low need for sleep and food, lack of feelings and the ability to empathize, movement towards the goal using any available means.

The topic of mirror neurons and empathy has already been raised on the pages of this site, especially in the context of hypnosis. So, let’s summarize the currently available information about mirror neurons.

1. Empathic empathy is an innate ability of the brain, which is largely mediated by mirror neurons.

Many authors have reported that observing the actions of other people contributes to the emergence of a similar style of behavior. Back in 1890, William James described ideomotor actions - when the thought of some action involuntarily increases the likelihood of performing this action. Chartrand et al. (1999) study of the so-called. chameleon effect, which consists in the fact that a person begins to unconsciously imitate the posture, mannerisms, facial expressions and other aspects of the behavior of his communication partners in such a way that his behavior begins to become as similar as possible to the behavior of people in his environment. In addition, it was found that people who are more empathetic by nature exhibit this effect to a greater extent. In many of the experiments below, the authors note that more empathic people have a more active mirror neuron system.

2. The mirror neuron system develops in humans during the first year of life. Its main functions are modeling mental states and imitating the actions of others based on sensory information. The mirror neuron system is thought to mediate our ability for language.

Falck-Ytter et al. (2006) demonstrated that 12-month-old children have a specialized action recognition system that is not observed in 6-month-old children. This system causes tracking and predicting eye movements when a child observes, for example, an adult reaching for an object. The operation of such a system, according to the authors, requires an understanding of the interaction between the hand and the object to which it is directed. A 6-month-old child follows the hand itself, while a 12-month-old child, based on the direction of movement of the hand, guesses which object it is moving towards and turns his eyes to the target object.

Other authors have studied the mechanisms of SZN in the context of imitation. The subjects studied guitar chords by observing and imitating experienced guitarists. While watching their mentors play, the subjects' brains activated in the prefrontal cortex, and this activity increased even more when the subjects tried to imitate the game and repeat chords after their mentors. In addition, at this time there was additional activation of prefrontal area 46, which is traditionally associated with motor planning and motor memory. It is believed that it organizes the process of combining elementary motor acts into a complex action that a person tries to imitate.

3. The mirror neuron system allows you to empathically simulate the mental state of another person and his sensations through observation, “mapping” the observed information to the motor areas of the observer’s brain, in fact, reproducing the same sensations.

4. The mirror neuron system allows you to simulate emotions, movements and sensations in different modalities: auditory, pain, olfactory, gustatory, as well as emotions.

An fMRI experiment (Morrison et al., 2004) demonstrated that experiencing a pinprick and watching another person receive the same pinprick activated the same pain areas in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC area 24b). ).

Jabbi et al. (2007) used fMRI to study empathic empathy for the emotion of disgust, the most important evolutionary emotion. Disgust has been studied in the context of unpleasant odors or tastes. Subjects observed facial expressions that were triggered by disgusting, neutral, or pleasant odors. Activity in the area of ​​the anterior insula and the adjacent frontal operculum (hereinafter referred to as IFO) was assessed. Next, the authors correlated the subjects' level of self-reported empathy with activity in their IFO areas while observing facial expressions. A clear relationship was found between the degree of empathic empathy for both unpleasant and pleasant emotions and the degree of activity in the IFO area, responsible for processing taste and olfactory stimuli. The authors indicate that empathy affects not only negative but also positive feelings, and that the IFO area is involved in the formation of empathic feelings by mapping bodily sensations to the internal state of the body, which is consistent with the putative introceptive function of the IFO.

If previous experiments described the connection between observation and activity of the SZN, then in the following they analyzed a similar connection for auditory signals. In a study by Gazzola et al. (2006), the authors asked subjects to first watch another person perform an action, then let subjects listen to the sound of the same action. fMRI of the brain revealed that in both cases, the subjects experienced activation of the left temporal, parietal and premotor cortex, corresponding to the anatomical location of the SCN, which confirms the presence of an auditory mirror system. Moreover, a special somatotopic pattern of activity was observed in the premotor cortex: the dorsal part of the cortex was more active when performing and listening to the corresponding sounds of hand movements, the ventral part was more active when performing and listening to the corresponding sounds of mouth movements. This system was also activated upon observing these activities. People who were more empathetic had greater activity in this area of ​​the brain, indicating that empathy is linked to the functioning of the mirror neuron system.

There is a well-known experiment in which two groups of subjects were asked to listen to short piano melodies (Bangert et al., 2006). The first group included pianists, the second group included people who could not play the piano. Brain scans revealed that pianists, compared with people who did not play the piano, had much higher activity in the brainstem (Broca's area, Wernicke's area, premotor and other areas) and the corresponding auditory and motor areas. (Update as of May 28, 2017. It must be borne in mind that, according to modern concepts, the identification of Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas is probably outdated. More details: http://neuronovosti.ru/rozenkranzgildenstern_are_dead/). The researchers concluded that advanced playing skills in pianists were manifested in greater activation of the mirror neuron system, as well as activation of specific neural networks, apparently characteristic of the musical brain.

5. The mirror neuron system is involved in recognizing intentions.

The experiment described by Blakemore & Decety (2001) is very illustrative. Two conditional situations were chosen for demonstration to the subjects: “before tea drinking” and “after tea drinking”. In each situation, three series of frames were shown (see Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. The top row of frames is the first situation, the bottom row is the second. On the left is the general context of the situation, in the middle is an isolated movement of the hand, on the right is the movement of the hand in the context of the situation with intention. Blakemore & Decety, 2001.

The first showed the general setting of the kitchen table, set for tea drinking (in the first situation) or with signs of the end of tea drinking (in the second situation) - the context of the situation.

The second series of shots shows the movement of a hand reaching for a cup standing alone on the table. These frames are intended to trigger in the observer the process of internal modeling of the act of grasping that will take place in such a situation, in order to filter out this activity during brain scanning later.

In the third series of frames, the same movement (a hand reaching for a cup) occurred in the context of a set table (i.e., the first two series of frames were “combined”). In the first situation, the hand reached for a full cup standing on a set table. In the second situation - behind an empty cup, standing among other dishes, on which food remains are visible. It is understood that in the first situation the person takes the cup with the intention of drinking tea, and in the second situation - to remove the dirty dishes from the table.

Rice. 2. Activity zones are marked with an arrow. Blakemore & Decety, 2001.

While viewing these frames, the subjects underwent a brain scan, after which, during information processing, components responsible for visual and motor processing were analyzed and filtered. As a result, the researchers detected activity in the area corresponding to the anatomical location of the SCN (see Fig. 2). The researchers hypothesized that this activity corresponded to awareness of the intention of the person whose hand the subjects observed: why the person took the cup - to drink tea or to clear the table.

6. The activity of the internal modeling process depends on the competence and experience of the observer.

Rice. 3. Color videos of classical ballet and capoeira movements performed by professional dancers. Twelve different movements for each style (a - ballet, b - capoeira). Calvo-Merino et al., 2005.

In an experiment by Calvo-Merino et al. (2005) two groups of dancers participated: some were professional ballet dancers, others danced capoeira. The subjects were shown two dance videos—ballet and capoeira (Figure 3)—during which they underwent an fMRI brain scan.

The results revealed that in professional dancers, the activity of the brain regions corresponding to the mirror neuron system (premotor cortex, superior parietal cortex on the right, posterior superior parietal cortex on the left) was significantly more pronounced when they observed dance movements that they themselves mastered (Fig. 4-6).

Rice. 4. Calvo-Merino et al., 2005.

Rice. 5. Effect of experience on the neuronal response to movement observation after correction. Calvo-Merino et al., 2005.

Rice. 6. Calvo-Merino et al., 2005.

The researchers concluded that the brain's response to an observed action depends on the motor skills of the observer himself. Although the subjects saw the same videos, their brains responded most strongly to the movements that they could perform themselves. In addition, according to the researchers, the SZN encodes not just individual components of movements, but entire patterns and combinations, since the dance movements that the subjects observed had many common muscle elements and were, in principle, accessible to all subjects. However, these videos elicited a neural response that differed depending on the experience of the observer. In addition, it was once again demonstrated that the motor areas responsible for the preparation and execution of muscle movement were also activated when observing this movement. In other words, the mirror neuron system does not simply respond to the visual kinematics of movements, but transforms the observed movement into specific motor abilities of the observer. This finding supports simulation theory (Gallese & Goldman, 1998).

7. Empathic feeling depends on mental attitudes.

In an experiment by Lamm et al. (2007) authors examined the influence of mental attitudes on empathic empathy for the pain of others. As part of the pre-instruction, a group of subjects were told that they would see videos showing a new method of treating patients with a certain neurological disease. The method involves patients listening to special very loud and unpleasant sounds that cause pain. Because the method is new, some of these patients have benefited from it and some have not. Subjects were asked to observe the patients' faces, which showed an expression of pain while the patients were listening to sounds. There were two pairs of factors in the experiment: first, subjects were told about the success (or failure) of treatment for the patient they saw on video; secondly, while watching the video, the subjects were asked to either imagine themselves in the patient’s place, or imagine from the position of an observer how the patient feels this pain. During the experiment, fMRI scans of the subjects' brains were carried out, as well as other measurements, including questionnaires on the level of pain, emotions and empathic empathy. The authors assessed areas of brain activity, the level of personal discomfort of the subjects and the level of their empathic empathy.

The scans revealed an extensive neural network that was activated in subjects when observing patients' facial expressions and reflected sensory, cognitive and emotional processing (Figure 6).

Rice. 6. Hemodynamic response when observing pain. Lamm et al., 2007.

It was found that the subjective attitude of the subjects significantly influenced their level of empathic empathy and personal discomfort. The greatest empathy, altruistic motivation to help and the least discomfort were associated, firstly, with knowledge of the success of treatment, and secondly, with the subjective “observer position” - when the subjects were asked not to imagine themselves in the patient’s place, but to imagine what the patients themselves felt . Accordingly, when subjects tried to put themselves in the patients' shoes (Fig. 7), and also when they were told about the ineffectiveness of such painful treatment in a particular case (Fig. 8), when observing grimaces of pain, the subjects showed the greatest personal discomfort and the least empathic empathy . Moreover, in the brain there was activation of centers responsible for fear, the motivation of escape and self-defense, for example, the amygdala nucleus (Fig. 9).

Rice. 7. Areas of the brain that are active when putting yourself in the patient’s shoes. Lamm et al., 2007.

Rice. 8. Brain areas active when imagining treatment failure. Lamm et al., 2007.

Rice. 9. Activity of the amygdala when imagining oneself in the patient’s place. Lamm et al., 2007.

In other words, it has been demonstrated that the level of his own discomfort, empathy, and most importantly, motivation depends on how a person relates to the observed emotions of another person.

8. Empathy and the work of the SZN are the basis of hypnotherapy rapport.

The mirror neuron system combines neural networks responsible for imitation, modeling mental states (movements, emotions, sensations, etc.), recognizing intentions and speech. Empathy, as opposed to logical analysis, is the brain's way of recreating the emotional state of the interlocutor by mapping relevant sensory data to the corresponding parts of the brain. Modern hypnosis can be defined as a state of consciousness combined with the dynamics of sensory perception, occurring within the framework of a specific therapeutic relationship. Ericksonian hypnosis is, in essence, a special way of interaction between people, and the therapeutic relationship is a wrapper for the emotional and cognitive elements of this process.

Milton Erickson developed and successfully implemented many techniques that are metaphorically consistent with the neurophysiology of the mirror neuron system. These techniques, primarily adjustment (harmonization), are used by all Ericksonian therapists (Antonelli et al., 2010; Rossi & Rossi, 2006).

literature:

• Antonelli, C., Luchetti, M. Mirror neurons and empathy: proposal of a novel paradigm for hypnosis. Contemporary Hypnosis 2010; 27(1):19-26.
• Banert, M., Peschel, T., Schlaug, G., Rotte, M., Drescher, D., Hinrichs, H., Heinze, H. J., Altenmüller, E. Shared networks for auditory and motor processing in professional pianists: Evidence from fMRI conjunction. NeuroImage 2006; 30: 917–926.
• Blakemore, S. J., Decety, J. From the perception of action to the understanding of intention. Nature, August 2001; 2:561–567.
• Calvo-Merino, B., Glaser, D. E., Passingham, R. E., Haggard, P. Action Observation and Acquired Motor Skills: An fMRI Study with Expert Dancers. Cerebral Cortex 2005, 15, 8: 1243 – 1249.
• Falck-Ytter, T., Gredeback, G., von Hofsten, C. Infants predict other people’s action goals. Nature Neuroscience 2006; 9, 7: 878–879.
• Gallese, G., Goldman, A. Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mind-reading. Trends Cogn Sci 1998; 2:493–501.
• Gazzola, V., Aziz-Zadeh, L., Keysers, C. Empathy and somatotopic auditory mirror system in humans. Current Biology 2006; 16: 1824–1829.
• Jabbi, M., Swart, M., Keysers, K. Empathy for positive and negative emotions in the gustatory cortex. NeuroImage 2007; 34: 1744–1753.
• Lamm, C., Batson, C. D., Decety, J. The neural substrate of human empathy: effects of perspective-taking and cognitive appraisal. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2007; 19(1): 42–58.
• Morrison, I., Lloyd, D., di Pellegrino, G., Roberts, N. Vicarious responses to pain in the anterior cingulate cortex: Is empathy a multisensory issue? Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 2004; 4 (2): 270–278.
• Rossi, E. L., Rossi, K. L. The neuroscience of observing consciousness and mirror neurons in therapeutic hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 2006; 48: 263–278.

Vladimir Snigur

Psychotherapist, hypnotherapist, simultaneous interpreter, member of the International Society of Hypnosis (ISH), member of the Association of Specialists in Clinical Hypnosis (ASoCG). He studied hypnosis from Professor M.R. Ginzburg, Jeffrey Zeig (PhD) and other European and American specialists. An expert in the field of nonverbal communication, worked with specialists from Paul Ekman International. Participant of international conferences and seminars on psychotherapy. Holder of a black belt in Aikido Aikikai.
Telephone:+7 926 042 42 23
Mail:[email protected]
Website: VladimirSnigur.ru
Hypnosis training:

Editorial: Mikhail Gusev, Elena Breslavets

A quarter of a century ago, in the small Italian town of Parma, a great discovery was made that shed light on how people understand each other. The issue of understanding has been raised more than once within the framework of philosophy, psychology and sociology, but an event that occurred in 1992 made it possible to consider this phenomenon as a neurophysiological mechanism.

It was this year that a group of scientists led by Giacomo Rizzolatti first published data on a special group of motor neurons. The cells identified in the monkey showed activity not only during any manipulation of the animal, but also when observing a similar action, as if reflecting the activity of another individual. For their originality, such neurons received a very poetic name - mirror neurons (and their totality was called the mirror neuron system, SSN).

From a monkey...

In early studies by Rizzolatti and colleagues, mirror neurons were identified invasively in macaques in area F5 of the precentral cortex and later in the inferior parietal cortex. During the experiments, the activity of the animal's cortex was recorded when performing an action (for example, a monkey took a piece of food in its paw) and when observing it (the researcher performed a similar action while the monkey watched it.)

In addition to the neuronal activity itself, another feature was identified that made it possible to divide these cells into two groups: “strictly corresponding” and “generally corresponding.” Mirror neurons with strict correspondence were active both when the animal observed an action and during the execution of actions that were strictly identical to the observed one. Generally matching cells showed activity during observation of an action that was not identical to the one performed, but had the same purpose (for example, the monkey picked up food with his entire left paw, while the researcher only picked up two fingers of his right hand).

In subsequent studies, Italian scientists tried to establish what the function of these neurons was. But before moving on to this issue, it is necessary to distinguish between such close concepts as movement, motor act and activity. Movement is understood as a simple movement of body parts that does not have a goal (for example, taking food in the palm of your hand). A series of sequential movements aimed at achieving a goal constitutes a motor act (find food with a glance, pick it up in the palm of your hand and bring it to your mouth). And a group of motor acts pursuing a common goal - activity (for example, eating food).

At first, scientists hypothesized that the mirror neuron system helps recognize the purpose of a motor act, and this idea was confirmed by two series of experiments. In the first series, the same activity of motor cells in the macaque cerebral cortex was revealed when receiving not only visual information about the action (for example, the animal observes the breaking of a nut shell), but also when receiving exclusively auditory information (for example, the animal hears the sound of a breaking shell).

In the second series of experiments, the activity of mirror neurons was studied in two states: in the first case, the monkey watches the motor act being performed completely from beginning to end, and in the second, the monkey sees only the beginning of the motor act, and its completion occurs behind the screen. The results showed that most of the motor neurons were excited even in the second condition.

In other words, if the macaque had enough information to create a representation of the observed action, the mirror neurons showed the same activity as if the action had been observed in full, which confirms the hypothesis put forward about the role of mirror neurons in understanding the purpose of the motor act.

Somewhat later, experiments were conducted in which the monkey performed similar actions with different goals (“take food - put it in a container” and “take food - eat”). In both cases they were sequentially activated different groups cells of one area, i.e. mirror neurons showed activity not only with a specific action (“to take food”), but also with various intentions (“to put” and “to eat”).

In other words, the “chain” firing of motor neurons allows the observing monkey to predict how a sequence with a certain beginning will unfold further, as well as to predict the general intention of the actions.

...to a person...

Over the next decade, many scientists found indirect evidence (using fMRI, PET, EEG and other technologies) of the presence of such SLI in humans.

Mirror neurons of the frontoparietal region of the human cerebral cortex, homologous to those of the monkey, perform the same functions: understanding the purpose of motor acts of other people and what the final intention of the action was (which has also been proven by a number of experiments). In addition, it was revealed that the functionality of SZN is much broader - they provide imitation (imitation) and understanding of other people's emotions (empathy).

The same group of Italian scientists who laid the foundation for the study of mirror neurons determined that an individual’s ability to copy a motor act observed for the first time (i.e., translate what he received) visual information these cells are also involved in the motor “copy”. But the establishment of this fact led to the emergence of a question: what is the mechanism of imitation learning?

It was assumed that two processes take place: first, the simulated action is divided into elements and transformed into corresponding potential movements and motor acts performed by the observer, then these potential movements and motor acts are organized into a temporal and spatial pattern that repeats that shown by the demonstrator.

Probably, the first step of imitation learning is carried out with the help of the SCN, while the second is provided by the activity of the prefrontal cortex (in particular, area 46), which remembers and combines motor elements in a new pattern.

The value of imitation is not limited to this - this ability is necessary for social interaction. If you have a certain degree of observation, you have probably noticed more than once that during communication, many people involuntarily, to one degree or another, repeat facial expressions, gestures or postures of each other (the so-called “chameleon effect”), and in some cases, emotions, those. showed empathy.

To confirm this observation, various scientists have conducted fMRI studies of disgust-related brain activity over the course of several years. This emotion is often chosen by neuroscientists for simple reasons: it is very easy to evoke unpleasant smell and it is inherent in all people, regardless of gender, age, race and other factors.

In experiments on volunteers, one group of whom inhaled unpleasant and pleasant odors, and the other observed their facial expressions, activity was detected in the insula, amygdala and cingulate gyrus both in the case of direct experience of disgust and in the case of its observation. Similar data were obtained in another experiment, this time with a painful stimulus of moderate intensity.

In this regard, a hypothesis has emerged that emotions are recognized through the activation of those structures that mediate the feeling of emotions in oneself. The greatest contribution to this hypothesis was made by Damasio and his colleagues - according to their research, the basis for understanding emotions is the “as if” loop, the main element of which is the island.

...and broken mirrors

A logical continuation of the discovery of the SCN and its function was the emergence of new theories of the emergence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Patients with ASD have difficulties in communication and social contacts, and are unable to understand and use verbal and nonverbal methods of communication, which is likely due to a low level of empathy and an inability to imitate. The proposal that mirror neuron dysfunction is a causative factor in autism has been called the “broken mirror theory” and has several variations.

The first version implies that the key point in the development of ASD is the low ability of patients to imitate actions (which is associated with difficulties in communication), the second is based on the fact that SZN provides not only the ability to imitate movements, but also emotional states (this is associated with low level of empathy), the third, chain version, is based on the assumption that the “breakdown” is at the level of the “chain” mirror neurons described above.

Contrary to some of the charming elegance of the “broken mirror theory,” data obtained from studies of the function of the SCN in patients with ASD have not yet accumulated in sufficient quantities to unambiguously indicate such an origin of autism. Often, research results are contradictory and refute the first two options of the given theory, and the third option is not yet supported by the necessary evidence and leaves many questions.

The discovery, made more than a quarter of a century ago, entailed, like a stone thrown into water, the emergence of large waves of discussions, discoveries and assumptions that diverge further and further. And fortunately, they do not want to subside - after all, it is possible that further research related to the mirror neuron system may shed light on the pathogenesis and then treatment of neurological and mental diseases, as well as help in the development of new methods for the rehabilitation of patients.

Look at dad, ask him to look at your face and start yawning sweetly. You don't have to really yawn. You can just start saying “yawn, yawn, yawn.” The effect will be the same: dad will also gape. Why is this happening? Scientists would have puzzled over this question for a long time if a very interesting incident had not happened to the Italian scientist Giacomo Risolatti in 1996.

Giacomo examined the brain of an experimental macaque: he looked for brain cells (neurons) that are activated when the monkey eats raisins. The search lasted until the evening. Finally these neurons were discovered. They gave electrical signals whenever the macaque brought a raisin to its mouth. It was late, Giacomo was tired, hungry and decided to eat a couple of raisins himself. He took the raisin and brought it to his lips in front of the macaque. Suddenly her neurons gave a very powerful electrical response. They activated as if the macaque itself was eating raisins.

Giacomo realized that he had found these special cells that signal in two cases: 1) when the macaque itself eats raisins, and 2) when it sees someone else eating its raisins. He named these cells mirror neurons, because they seem to “reflect” someone else’s behavior in our heads. Mirror neurons were later found in other monkeys, some birds and, of course, humans. But why are these strange cells needed?

French scientists decided to answer this question. They divided the subjects into two groups. In the first group, real emotions were evoked using different smells (pleasant and disgusting). At the same time they were photographed. And the subjects of the second group were shown only photographs of faces from the first group (without odors). What happened? In the subjects of the second group, the same areas in the brain were activated as in the subjects of the first group. In other words, if a person saw a photograph happy person, his brain “rejoiced”, and if people saw a “sour face”, they themselves felt disgust.

Therefore, if we are surrounded by smart and happy people, we ourselves will also become happier and smarter. And if we have angry, grumpy, rude people next to us, our character can seriously deteriorate.

Mirror neurons help us detect more than just other people's emotions. Here's how Risolatti explains his discovery: “Let's imagine that the person opposite us brings a glass of water to his mouth. How does our brain understand what it is doing? The brain could compare the images of the person and the glass with what is stored in memory, think, remember the laws of physics and make some assumption. But it turns out that it is much easier for our brain to understand what another person is doing by mentally repeating his action. This is what mirror neurons do.” It turns out that mirror neurons allow us to experience what is happening to others as if we were performing this action ourselves. That’s why we like watching movies, sports programs, and ballet so much. Every time we watch a movie, some part of our brain makes us feel that we just turned on pointe 10 times, we were the ones who ran to the finish line first, we were the ones who defeated the villain and saved the beauty from a terrible death. Scientists have established this as follows. They put special sensors on people who were watching TV. It turned out that when people watched a ski race, the muscles in their legs were activated. When they watched boxing, their arm muscles tensed and their fists clenched.

But this is not all that our mirror neurons can do. It turns out that they help us quickly learn something new, even if we don’t understand anything yet. After all, learning through trial and error takes a long time and is sometimes even dangerous. And thanks to mirror neurons, it is very easy for us to imitate: we do it without thinking, as if automatically. Therefore, children love to repeat after someone big and smart (for example, dad). You can repeat each other. For example, if Petka Ivanov suddenly starts soaking bread in compote or smearing plasticine on the wallpaper, his comrades will immediately happily join him. Not only children, but also adults constantly imitate each other: for example, their favorite movie actors, bosses.

Of course, some animals can also imitate (for example, talking parrots or great apes). But people do it more often and more willingly. This was confirmed by Derek Lyon in his remarkable experiment. Derek showed chimps and young children (3-5 years old) how to open a candy box. In addition to the necessary actions that lead to opening the box, Derek performed a bunch of “extra” actions. Then Derek left the box with the subjects, and he himself left the room and began to peep. It turned out that the chimps gradually stopped doing “extra” actions and did only what was needed to get candy. But human children happily reproduced both necessary and unnecessary actions.

Scientists believe that our tendency to copy “meaningless” actions is not so meaningless on the scale of human history: thanks to this, people were able to pass on the experience of distant ancestors to subsequent generations. This is how elements of culture began to be passed on from person to person: holiday songs and dances, prayers, mystical rituals, useful skills. Therefore, it turns out that small mirror neurons are the basis of our great culture!

Artist Anna Gorlach