Galileo Galileo
Born: February 15, 1564.
Died: January 8, 1642 (77 years old).
Biography
Galileo Galilei (Italian: Galileo Galilei; February 15, 1564, Pisa - January 8, 1642, Arcetri) - Italian physicist, mechanic, astronomer, philosopher and mathematician, who significant influence on the science of his time. He was the first to use a telescope to observe celestial bodies and made a number of outstanding astronomical discoveries. Galileo is the founder of experimental physics. With his experiments, he convincingly refuted Aristotle's speculative metaphysics and laid the foundation of classical mechanics.
During his lifetime, he was known as an active supporter of the heliocentric system of the world, which led Galileo to a serious conflict with the Catholic Church.
early years
Galileo was born in 1564 in the Italian city of Pisa, in the family of a well-born but impoverished nobleman, Vincenzo Galilei, a prominent music theorist and lutenist. Full name Galileo Galilei: Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de Galilei (Italian: Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de "Galilei). Representatives of the Galilean family have been mentioned in documents since the 14th century. Several of his direct ancestors were priors (members of the ruling council) of the Florentine Republic, and Galileo's great-great-grandfather, a famous a doctor, also named Galileo, was elected head of the republic in 1445.
There were six children in the family of Vincenzo Galilei and Giulia Ammannati, but four managed to survive: Galileo(eldest child), daughters Virginia, Livia and youngest son Michelangelo, who later also gained fame as a lutenist composer. In 1572, Vincenzo moved to Florence, the capital of the Duchy of Tuscany. The Medici dynasty that ruled there was known for its wide and constant patronage of the arts and sciences.
Little is known about Galileo's childhood. WITH early years the boy was attracted to art; Throughout his life he carried with him a love of music and drawing, which he mastered to perfection. In his mature years, the best artists of Florence - Cigoli, Bronzino and others - consulted with him on issues of perspective and composition; Cigoli even claimed that it was to Galileo that he owed his fame. From Galileo's writings one can also conclude that he had remarkable literary talent.
Galileo received his primary education at the nearby Vallombrosa monastery. The boy loved to study and became one of the best students in the class. He weighed the possibility of becoming a priest, but his father was against it.
In 1581, 17-year-old Galileo, at the insistence of his father, entered the University of Pisa to study medicine. At the university, Galileo also attended lectures on geometry (previously he was completely unfamiliar with mathematics) and became so carried away by this science that his father began to fear that this would interfere with the study of medicine.
Galileo remained a student for less than three years; During this time, he managed to thoroughly familiarize himself with the works of ancient philosophers and mathematicians and earned a reputation among teachers as an indomitable debater. Even then, he considered himself entitled to have his own opinion on all scientific issues, regardless of traditional authorities.
It was probably during these years that he became acquainted with the Copernican theory. Astronomical problems were then actively discussed, especially in connection with the calendar reform that had just been carried out.
Soon, the father’s financial situation worsened, and he was unable to pay for his son’s further education. The request to exempt Galileo from paying fees (such an exception was made for the most capable students) was rejected. Galileo returned to Florence (1585) without receiving his degree. Fortunately, he managed to attract attention with several ingenious inventions (for example, hydrostatic balances), thanks to which he met the educated and wealthy lover of science, the Marquis Guidobaldo del Monte. The Marquis, unlike the Pisan professors, was able to correctly evaluate him. Even then, del Monte said that since the time of Archimedes the world had not seen such a genius as Galileo. Admired by the young man’s extraordinary talent, the Marquis became his friend and patron; he introduced Galileo to the Tuscan Duke Ferdinand I de' Medici and petitioned for a paid scientific position for him.
In 1589, Galileo returned to the University of Pisa, now as a professor of mathematics. There he began to conduct independent research in mechanics and mathematics. True, he was given a minimum salary: 60 crowns a year (a professor of medicine received 2000 crowns). In 1590, Galileo wrote his treatise On Motion.
In 1591, the father died, and responsibility for the family passed to Galileo. First of all, he had to take care of raising his younger brother and the dowry of his two unmarried sisters.
In 1592, Galileo received a position at the prestigious and wealthy University of Padua (Venetian Republic), where he taught astronomy, mechanics and mathematics. Based on the letter of recommendation from the Doge of Venice to the university, one can judge that Galileo’s scientific authority was already extremely high in these years:
Realizing the importance of mathematical knowledge and its benefits for other major sciences, we delayed the appointment, not finding a worthy candidate. Signor Galileo, a former professor at Pisa, who enjoys great fame and is rightly recognized as the most knowledgeable in the mathematical sciences, has now expressed a desire to take this place. Therefore, we are pleased to give him the chair of mathematics for four years with a salary of 180 florins per year.
Padua, 1592-1610
The years of his stay in Padua were the most fruitful period of Galileo's scientific activity. He soon became the most famous professor in Padua. Students flocked to his lectures, the Venetian government constantly entrusted Galileo with the development of various kinds of technical devices, young Kepler and other scientific authorities of that time actively corresponded with him.
During these years he wrote a treatise called Mechanics, which aroused some interest and was republished in a French translation. In early works, as well as in correspondence, Galileo gave the first sketch of a new general theory of falling bodies and the motion of a pendulum.
The reason for a new stage in Galileo's scientific research was the appearance in 1604 of a new star, now called Kepler's Supernova. This awakens general interest in astronomy, and Galileo gives a series of private lectures. Having learned about the invention of the telescope in Holland, Galileo in 1609 constructed the first telescope with his own hands and aimed it at the sky.
What Galileo saw was so amazing that even many years later there were people who refused to believe his discoveries and claimed that it was an illusion or delusion. Galileo discovered mountains on the Moon, the Milky Way broke up into individual stars, but his contemporaries were especially amazed by the 4 satellites of Jupiter he discovered (1610). In honor of the four sons of his late patron Ferdinand de' Medici (who died in 1609), Galileo named these satellites "Medician stars" (lat. Stellae Medicae). They now bear the more appropriate name of “Galilean satellites.”
Galileo described his first discoveries with a telescope in his work “The Starry Messenger” (Latin: Sidereus Nuncius), published in Florence in 1610. The book was a sensational success throughout Europe, even crowned heads rushed to order a telescope. Galileo donated several telescopes to the Venetian Senate, which, as a sign of gratitude, appointed him a professor for life with a salary of 1,000 florins. In September 1610, Kepler acquired a telescope, and in December, Galileo's discoveries were confirmed by the influential Roman astronomer Clavius. Universal recognition is coming. Galileo becomes the most famous scientist in Europe; odes are written in his honor, comparing him to Columbus. On April 20, 1610, shortly before his death, the French king Henry IV asked Galileo to discover a star for him. There were, however, some dissatisfied people. Astronomer Francesco Sizzi (Italian: Sizzi) published a pamphlet in which he stated that seven is a perfect number, and even there are seven holes in the human head, so there can only be seven planets, and Galileo’s discoveries are an illusion. Astrologers and doctors also protested, complaining that the emergence of new celestial bodies was “disastrous for astrology and most of medicine,” since all the usual astrological methods “will be completely destroyed.”
During these years, Galileo entered into a civil marriage with the Venetian Marina Gamba (Italian: Marina Gamba). He never married Marina, but became the father of a son and two daughters. He named his son Vincenzo in memory of his father, and his daughters Virginia and Livia in honor of his sisters. Later, in 1619, Galileo officially legitimized his son; both daughters ended their lives in a monastery.
Pan-European fame and the need for money pushed Galileo to take a disastrous step, as it later turned out: in 1610 he left calm Venice, where he was inaccessible to the Inquisition, and moved to Florence. Duke Cosimo II de' Medici, son of Ferdinand, promised Galileo an honorable and profitable position as an adviser at the Tuscan court. He kept his promise, which allowed Galileo to solve the problem of huge debts that had accumulated after the marriage of his two sisters.
Florence, 1610-1632
Galileo's duties at the court of Duke Cosimo II were not burdensome - teaching the sons of the Tuscan Duke and participating in some matters as an adviser and representative of the Duke. Formally, he is also enrolled as a professor at the University of Pisa, but is relieved of the tedious duty of lecturing.
Galileo continued his scientific research and discovered the phases of Venus, spots on the Sun, and then the rotation of the Sun around its axis. Galileo often presented his achievements (as well as his priority) in a cocky polemical style, which earned him many new enemies (in particular, among the Jesuits).
Defense of Copernicanism
The growing influence of Galileo, the independence of his thinking and his sharp opposition to the teachings of Aristotle contributed to the formation of an aggressive circle of his opponents, consisting of Peripatetic professors and some church leaders. Galileo's ill-wishers were especially outraged by his propaganda of the heliocentric system of the world, since, in their opinion, the rotation of the Earth contradicted the texts of the Psalms (Psalm 103:5), a verse from Ecclesiastes (Ecc. 1:5), as well as an episode from the Book of Joshua ( Joshua 10:12), which speaks of the motionlessness of the Earth and the movement of the Sun. In addition, a detailed substantiation of the concept of the immobility of the Earth and a refutation of hypotheses about its rotation was contained in Aristotle’s treatise “On Heaven” and in Ptolemy’s “Almagest”.
In 1611, Galileo, in the aura of his glory, decided to go to Rome, hoping to convince the Pope that Copernicanism was completely compatible with Catholicism. He was received well, elected the sixth member of the scientific “Academia dei Lincei”, and met Pope Paul V and influential cardinals. He showed them his telescope and gave explanations carefully and carefully. The cardinals created an entire commission to clarify the question of whether it was sinful to look at the sky through a pipe, but they came to the conclusion that this was permissible. It was also encouraging that Roman astronomers openly discussed the question of whether Venus was moving around the Earth or around the Sun (the changing phases of Venus clearly spoke in favor of the second option).
Emboldened, Galileo, in a letter to his student Abbot Castelli (1613), stated that Holy Scripture relates only to the salvation of the soul and is not authoritative in scientific matters: “not a single saying of Scripture has such a coercive force as any natural phenomenon.” Moreover, he published this letter, which caused denunciations to the Inquisition. Also in 1613, Galileo published the book “Letters on Sunspots,” in which he openly spoke out in favor of the Copernican system. On February 25, 1615, the Roman Inquisition began its first case against Galileo on charges of heresy. Galileo's last mistake was his call to Rome to express its final attitude towards Copernicanism (1615).
All this caused a reaction opposite to what was expected. Alarmed by the successes of the Reformation, the Catholic Church decided to strengthen its spiritual monopoly - in particular, by banning Copernicanism. The position of the Church is clarified by a letter from the influential Cardinal Bellarmino, sent on April 12, 1615 to the theologian Paolo Antonio Foscarini, a defender of Copernicanism. The cardinal explains that the Church does not object to the interpretation of Copernicanism as a convenient mathematical device, but accepting it as a reality would mean admitting that the previous, traditional interpretation of the biblical text was erroneous. And this, in turn, will undermine the authority of the church:
First, it seems to me that your priesthood and Mr. Galileo act wisely in being content with what they say tentatively and not absolutely; I always believed that Copernicus said so too. Because if we say that the assumption of the movement of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun allows us to imagine all phenomena better than the acceptance of eccentrics and epicycles, then this will be said perfectly and does not entail any danger. For a mathematician this is quite enough. But to want to assert that the Sun is in fact the center of the world and revolves only around itself, without moving from east to west, that the Earth stands in the third heaven and revolves around the Sun with great speed - to assert this is very dangerous, not only because it means to excite all philosophers and scholastic theologians; this would be to harm the holy faith by representing the provisions of Holy Scripture as false. Secondly, as you know, the [Trent] Council forbade interpreting the Holy Scriptures contrary to the general opinion of the holy fathers. And if your priesthood wants to read not only the Holy Fathers, but also new commentaries on the book of Exodus, Psalms, Ecclesiastes and the book of Jesus, then you will find that everyone agrees that one must take it literally that the Sun is in the sky and rotates around the Earth with great speed, and the Earth is farthest from the sky and stands motionless in the center of the world. Judge for yourself, with all your prudence, can the Church allow the Scriptures to be given a meaning contrary to everything that the Holy Fathers and all the Greek and Latin interpreters wrote?
Memory
Named after Galileo:
The “Galilean satellites” of Jupiter discovered by him.
Impact crater on the Moon (-63º, +10º).
Crater on Mars (6ºN, 27ºW)
An area with a diameter of 3200 km on Ganymede.
Asteroid (697) Galilee.
The principle of relativity and transformation of coordinates in classical mechanics.
NASA's Galileo space probe (1989-2003).
European project "Galileo" satellite navigation system.
The unit of acceleration “Gal” (Gal) in the CGS system, equal to 1 cm/sec².
Scientific entertainment and educational television program Galileo, shown in several countries. In Russia it has been broadcast since 2007 on STS.
Airport in Pisa.
To commemorate the 400th anniversary of Galileo's first observations, the UN General Assembly declared 2009 the Year of Astronomy.
Galileo in literature and art
Bertolt Brecht. Life of Galileo. Play. - In the book: Bertolt Brecht. Theater. Plays. Articles. Statements. In five volumes. - M.: Art, 1963. - T. 2.
Liliana Cavani (director). "Galileo" (film) (English) (1968). Retrieved March 2, 2009. Archived from the original on August 13, 2011.
Joseph Losey (director). "Galileo" (film adaptation of Brecht's play) (English) (1975). Retrieved March 2, 2009. Archived from the original on August 13, 2011.
Philip Glass (composer), opera Galileo.
Haggard (rock band) - The Observer (based on several facts from Galileo's biography)
Enigma released the track “Eppur si muove” in the album A Posteriori.
Date of birth: February 15, 1564
Date of death: January 8, 1642
Place of birth: city of Pisa, region of Tuscany, Duchy of Florence, Italy (Italy)
Galileo Galilei- scientist, physicist and astronomer. Galileo Galilei, who is responsible for perhaps some of the most important discoveries in the field of astronomy, is less known for his achievements in the fields of mathematics, mechanics and philosophy.
Born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa (Italian Duchy of Florence) into a poor noble family. His father, Vincenzo, was a music theorist and lutenist. Mother's name was Julia. The family was large: six children, and Galileo was the eldest of them.
Galileo studied at the Vallombrosa monastery. He grew up exemplary and was the best academically in his class. As soon as he completed his studies, he seriously thought about the future of the priest, but his father was categorically against this.
At the age of 17 he entered the University of Pisa. He is interested in mathematics. Studying medicine. However, after 3 years of training, his father finds himself in very bad financial condition, and the family can no longer pay for Galileo's tuition. For especially talented students there was a benefit that allowed them not to pay tuition. They submitted a request for it, but received a categorical refusal. Galileo never received his degree. Returned to Florence.
Galileo was very lucky and he met a true connoisseur of research and scientific discoveries. This was the Marquis Guidobaldo del Monte. They were friends, and the Marquis sponsored many of Galileo's discoveries. It was thanks to the Marquis that in 1589 Galileo returned to the University of Pisa, but now as a professor of mathematical sciences. In 1590 he wrote a scientific work that changed the world of physics. It was a treatise “On Movement”.
In 1591, his father dies, and the young scientist takes full responsibility for the family onto his shoulders. A year later, he quits his first job and moves to the University of Padua in Venice, where Galileo was offered decent pay for his work. In addition to mathematics, he teaches astronomy and mechanics here. Students were happy to attend his lectures, and the Venetian government continuously orders various kinds of technical devices from him. He corresponds with Kepler and other authorities from the world of science and technology.
His next treatise was “Mechanics”. Galileo also builds the world's first telescope, which changes the entire understanding of environment. A serious step in science and further research. At that time, this was a real sensation, and all wealthy people began to order telescopes en masse, because Galileo’s stories about the celestial space seen through a telescope were like a fantastic fiction, and everyone wanted to see it with their own eyes.
Unfortunately, he did not make much money from this, as he was forced to give money as a dowry when his two sisters got married. Galileo finds himself in debt and accepts an invitation to work as an adviser at the Tuscan court from Duke Cosimo II de' Medici. Thus, a turning point comes in the life of the scientist, not at all for the better, since he moves from Venice, in which the Inquisition was powerless, to less hospitable Florence.
In general, the move to Florence itself did not promise any danger. Working as a counselor was very quiet and calm. But in 1611 the scientist leaves Florence and goes to Rome to intercede for Copernicus. He is trying to convince the Pope that the discoveries of Copernicus are a very important and useful contribution to the development of mankind. The priests organized a warm welcome and even approved of Galileo’s recent invention - his sensational telescope.
2 years later, Galileo continues to defend the point of view of Copernicus. He publishes several of his works, which do not veiledly hint that the church is intended to save the soul, and not to make or stop scientific discoveries. This greatly alarmed the Roman clergy.
In 1615, Rome openly accused Galileo of heresy, and a year later it completely banned heliocentrism. Instead of not escalating the situation, he releases another ridicule, after which the Inquisition begins a lawsuit against Galileo Galilei.
In 1633, the scientist was arrested and put on trial. The death penalty was due, but it was canceled given the fact that Galileo was an old and sick man who voluntarily renounced his own discoveries. Most likely, he was tortured to force him to do this. One way or another, soon the old scientist was sent to Arcetri (on its territory there was a monastery with daughters). Galileo's last years were spent there under house arrest.
Throughout his life, Galileo was so busy with his discoveries that he spent virtually no time on his personal life. He didn’t even marry Marina Gamba, even though she bore him a son and two daughters.
On January 8, 1642, the world-famous scientist died, who made a real revolution in the world of astronomy and physics. He was not given a proper burial, but in 1737 his ashes were transferred to the Basilica of Santa Croce.
Achievements of Galileo Galilei:
The first astronomer to invent and use a telescope, making discoveries that were completely unknown at that time. He saw spots on the Sun, mountains on the Moon, moons of Jupiter, stars in the Milky Way, the rotation of the Sun, the phases of Venus and much more.
He preached a heliocentric system of the world.
He founded experimental physics and laid the basis for classical mechanics.
He invented not only the telescope, but also the thermometer, microscope, compass and hydrostatic balance.
Described the law of indestructibility of matter.
Dates from the biography of Galileo Galilei:
1564 – birth.
From 1581 to 1585 - studied at the University of Pisa.
1586 - invented hydrostatic balances.
1589 - returns as a professor at the University of Pisa.
1590 – published scientific work"About movement."
1591 – Galileo’s father dies.
From 1592 to 1610 he worked at the University of Padua (Venetian period).
1592 - invented the thermometer (at that time it had no scale).
1602 – invented the microscope.
1606 – invented the compass.
1609 – invented the telescope.
1610 - leaves for Florence (1610-1632 - Florentine period).
1611 - Visits the Pope for the first time to petition regarding Copernicus.
1613 – writes works that are designed to protect the interests of Copernicus.
1615 – The Roman priesthood accuses Galileo of heresy.
1616 – heliocentrism is prohibited.
From 1633 - arrest, trial, prison, later - house arrest.
1642 – death.
Interesting Galileo Galilei Facts:
When Galileo carefully observed the rings of Saturn, he thought that these were its moons. This discovery was encrypted as an anagram. Kepler deciphered it incorrectly, deciding that we were talking about the satellites of the planet Mars.
Galileo himself sent his daughters to the monastery when they were 12 and 13 years old. One of the daughters, Livia, did not want to come to terms with the fate of a nun, but Virginia humbly accepted this fate.
The scientist's grandson (the son of his only son) grew up to be a real religious fanatic. He was of the opinion that all of his grandfather’s works were heresy, and eventually burned all of Galileo’s manuscripts.
The Vatican admitted that it was wrong about Galileo only in 1981, and agreed that the Earth does indeed revolve around the Sun.
He gets very good musical education. When he was ten years old, his family moved to hometown his father, Florence, and then Galileo was sent to school in a Benedictine monastery. There, for four years, he studied the usual medieval disciplines with the scholastics.
Vincenzo Galilei chooses an honorable and profitable profession as a doctor for his son. In 1581, seventeen-year-old Galileo was enrolled as a student at the University of Piraeus in the Faculty of Medicine and Philosophy. But the state of medical science at that time filled him with dissatisfaction and pushed him away from a medical career. At that time, he happened to attend a lecture on mathematics by Ostillo Ricci, a friend of his family, and was amazed at the logic and beauty of Euclid's geometry.
He immediately studied the works of Euclid and Archimedes. His stay at the university becomes more and more unbearable. After spending four years there, Galileo left it shortly before completion and returned to Florence. There he continued his studies under the guidance of Ritchie, who appreciated the extraordinary abilities of the young Galileo. In addition to purely mathematical questions, he became acquainted with technical achievements. He studies ancient philosophers and modern writers and for a short time acquires the knowledge of a serious scientist.
Discoveries of Galileo Galilei
Law of pendulum motion
Studying in Pisa with his powers of observation and keen intelligence, he discovers the law of motion of the pendulum (the period depends only on the length, not on the amplitude or weight of the pendulum). Later he proposes the design of a device with a pendulum for measuring at regular intervals. In 1586, Galileo completed his first solo study of hydrostatic equilibrium and constructed new type hydrostatic balance. The following year he wrote a purely geometric work, Theorems of a Rigid Body.
Galileo's first treatises were not published, but quickly spread and came to the fore. In 1588, commissioned by the Florentine Academy, he gave two lectures on the form, position and extent of Dante's Hell. They are filled with mechanical theorems and numerous geometric proofs, and are used as a pretext for the development of geography and ideas for the whole world. In 1589 Grand Duke Tuscany appointed Galileo as professor in the Faculty of Mathematics at the University of Pisa.
In Pisa, a young scientist again encounters educational medieval science. Galileo must learn the geocentric system of Ptolemy, which, along with the philosophy of Aristotle, adapted to the needs of the church, is accepted. He does not interact with his colleagues, argues with them, and initially doubts many of Aristotle's claims about physics.
The first scientific experiment in physics
According to him, the movement of the Earth's bodies is divided into “natural”, when they tend to their “natural places” (for example, downward movement for heavy bodies and “upward” movement) and “violent” movement. The movement stops when the cause disappears. "Perfect celestial bodies"is perpetual motion in perfect circles around the center of the Earth (and the center of the world). To refute Aristotle's assertions that bodies fall at a speed proportional to their weights, Galileo made his famous experiments with bodies falling from the leaning tower at Pisa.
This is actually the first scientific experiment in physics and with it Galileo introduces new method acquiring knowledge - from experience and observation. The result of these studies is the treatise “Falling Bodies,” which sets out the main conclusion about the independence of speed from the weight of a falling body. It is written in a new style for scientific literature - in the form of a dialogue, which reveals the main conclusion about the speed that does not depend on the weight of the falling body.
The lack of a scientific base and low pay force Galie to leave the University of Pisa before the expiration of his three-year contract. At that time, after his father died, he had to take over the family. Galileo is invited to take up the chair of mathematics at the University of Padua. The University of Padua was one of the oldest in Europe and was renowned for its spirit of freedom of thought and independence from the clergy. Here Galileo worked and quickly made a name for himself as an excellent physicist and a very good engineer. In 1593, his first two works were completed, as well as “Mechanics”, in which he outlined his views on the theory of simple machines, invented proportions with which it is easy to perform various geometric operations - enlargement of a drawing, etc. His patents for hydraulic equipment also preserved.
Galileo's lectures at the university voiced official views, he taught geometry, Ptolemy's geocentric system and Aristotle's physics.
Introduction to the teachings of Copernicus
At the same time, at home, among friends and students, he talks about various problems and expounds his own new views. This duality of life Galileo is forced to lead for a long time until he becomes convinced of his ideas in the public space. It is believed that while still in Pisa, Galileo became acquainted with the teachings of Copernicus. In Padua he is already a convinced supporter of the heliocentric system and has as his main goal the collection of evidence in its favor. In a letter to Kepler in 1597 he wrote:
“Many years ago I turned to the ideas of Copernicus and with my theory I was able to completely explain a number of phenomena that generally could not be explained by opposing theories. I have come up with many arguments that refute opposing ideas."
Galilean pipe
At the end of 1608, news reaches Galilee that an optical device has been discovered in the Netherlands that allows one to see distant objects. Galileo, after hard work and processing hundreds of pieces of optical glass, built his first telescope with triple magnification. This is a system of lenses (eyepieces) now called a Galilean tube. His third telescope, with 32x magnification, looks at the sky.
Only after several months of observation, he published amazing discoveries in a book:
The Moon is not perfectly spherical and smooth, its surface is covered with hills and depressions similar to the Earth.
The Milky Way is a collection of numerous stars.
The planet Jupiter has four satellites that orbit around it like the Moon around the Earth.
Despite the fact that the book is allowed to be printed, this book actually contains a serious blow to Christian dogmas - the principle of the difference between “imperfect” earthly bodies and “perfect, eternal and unchangeable” celestial bodies is destroyed.
The motion of Jupiter's moons has been used as an argument for the Copernican system. Galileo's first bold astronomical achievements did not attract the attention of the Inquisition; on the contrary, they brought him enormous popularity and influence as a renowned scientist throughout Italy, including among the clergy.
In 1610, Galileo was appointed "first mathematician and philosopher" in the court of the ruler of Tuscany and his former student Cosimo II de' Medici. He leaves the University of Padua after 18 years of residence there and moves to Florence, where he is freed from any academic work and can only do his own research.
The arguments in favor of the Copernican system were soon supplemented by the discovery of the phases of Venus, the observation of Saturn's rings and sunspots. He visited Rome, where he was greeted by the cardinals and the pope. Galileo hopes that the logical perfection and experimental justification of the new science will force the church to recognize this. In 1612, his important work “Reflections on Floating Bodies” was published. In it, he gives new evidence for Archimedes' law and opposes many aspects of scholastic philosophy, asserting the right of reason not to obey authorities. In 1613, he wrote a treatise on sunspots in Italian with great literary talent. At that time he also almost discovered the rotation of the Sun.
Prohibition of the teachings of Copernicus
Since the first attacks had already been made on Galileo and his students, he felt the need to speak and write his famous letter to Castelli. He proclaimed the independence of science from theology and the uselessness of Scripture in the research of scientists: “... in mathematical disputes, it seems to me that the Bible belongs to last place" But the spread of opinions about the heliocentric system seriously worried theologians and in March 1616, with a decree of the Holy Congregation, the teachings of Copernicus were prohibited.
For the entire active community of Copernicus supporters, many years of silence begin. But the system becomes obvious only when in 1610-1616. The main weapon against the geocentric system was astronomical discoveries. Now Galileo strikes at the very foundations of the old, unscientific worldview, affecting the deepest physical roots of the world. The struggle resumed with the appearance in 1624 of two works, including “Letter to Ingoli.” In this work, Galileo expounds the principle of relativity. The traditional argument against the Earth's motion is discussed, namely that if the Earth were rotating, a stone thrown from a tower would lag behind the Earth's surface.
Dialogue on the two main systems of the world – Ptolemy and Copernicus
In the following years, Galileo was immersed in work on a major book that reflected the results of his 30 years of research and reflection, the experience gained in applied mechanics and astronomy, and his general philosophical views on the world. In 1630, an extensive manuscript entitled “Dialogue on the two main systems of the world - Ptolemy and Copernicus” was completed.
The exposition of the book was structured in the form of a conversation between three people: Salviatti, a convinced supporter of Copernicus and the new philosophy; Sagredo, who is a wise man and agrees with all of Salviatti's arguments, but is initially neutral; and Simplicchio, a defender of the traditional Aristotelian concept. The names Salviatti and Sagredo were given to two of Galileo's friends, while Simplicio was named after Aristotle's famous 6th-century commentator Simplicius, meaning "simple" in Italian.
Dialogue gives insight into almost everyone scientific discoveries Galileo, as well as his understanding of nature and the possibilities of studying it. He takes a materialistic position; believes that the world exists independently of human consciousness and introduces new methods of research - observation, experiment, thought experiment and quantitative mathematical analysis instead of offensive reasoning and references to authority and dogma.
Galileo considers the world to be one and changeable, without dividing it into “eternal” and “variable” substance; denies absolute motion around a fixed center of the world: "May I reasonably ask you the question whether there is any center of the world at all, because neither you nor anyone else has proven that the world is finite and has a definite shape, and not infinite and unlimited." Galileo made great efforts to have his work published. He makes a number of compromises and writes to readers that he does not adhere to the teachings of Copernicus and provides a hypothetical possibility that is not true and should be rejected.
Ban on "Dialogue"
For two years he collected permission from the highest spiritual authorities and the censors of the Inquisition, and at the beginning of 1632 the book was published. But very soon there is a strong reaction from theologians. The Roman Pontiff was convinced that he was depicted under the image of Simplicio. A special commission of theologians was appointed, which declared the work heretical, and the seventy-year-old Galileo was summoned to trial in Rome. The process launched by the Inquisition against him lasts a year and a half and ends with a verdict according to which “Dialogue” is prohibited.
Renouncing your views
On June 22, 1633, in front of all the cardinals and members of the Inquisition, Galileo reads the text of his renunciation of his views. This event ostensibly signals the complete suppression of his resistance, but in reality it is the next big compromise he must make to continue his scientific work. The legendary phrase: “Eppur si muove” (and still it turns) is justified by his life and work after the trial. It is said that he uttered this phrase after his abdication, however, in fact this fact is fiction 18th century.
Galileo is under house arrest near Florence, and, despite almost losing his sight, he is working hard on a new great work. The manuscript was smuggled out of Italy by her admirers, and in 1638 it was published in the Netherlands under the title Lectures and Mathematical Proofs of Two New Sciences.
Lectures and mathematical proofs of two new sciences
The lectures are the pinnacle of Galileo's work. They were written again as a conversation over six days between three interlocutors - Salviati, Sagredo and Simpliccio. As before, Salvati plays the leading role. Simplicio no longer argued, but asked questions only for more detailed explanations.
On the first, third and fourth days, the theory of the movement of falling and thrown bodies is revealed. The second day is devoted to the topic of materials and geometric balance. The fifth lecture gives mathematical theorems, and the last contains incomplete results and ideas about the theory of resistance. He has smallest value among six. Regarding material resistance, Galileo's work is pioneering in this field and plays an important role.
The most valuable results are contained in the first, third and fifth lectures. This highest point, which Galileo achieved in his understanding of motion. Considering the fall of bodies, he sums up:
"I think that if the resistance of the medium were completely removed, all bodies would fall at the same speed."
The theory of uniform rectilinear and equilibrium motion is further developed. The results of his numerous experiments on free fall, movement on an inclined plane and the movement of a body thrown at an angle to the horizon appear. The time dependence is clearly formulated and the parabolic trajectory is explored. Again, the principle of inertia is proven and used as fundamental in all considerations.
When the Lectures are published, Galileo is completely blind. But in the last years of his life he works. In 1636, he proposed a method for accurately determining longitude at sea using the satellites of Jupiter. His dream is to organize numerous astronomical observations from different points earth's surface. To this end, he negotiates with the Dutch commission to accept his method, but is refused and the church prohibits his further contacts. In his last letters to his followers, he continues to make important astronomical points.
Galileo Galilei died on January 8, 1642, surrounded by his students Viviani and Toricelli, his son and a representative of the Inquisition. Only 95 years later were his ashes allowed to be transported to Florence by the other two great sons of Italy, Michelangelo and Dante. His inventive scientific work, passing through the strict criteria of time, gives him immortality among the names of the most bright artists physics and astronomy.
Galileo Galilei - biography of life and his discoveries
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Fortunately, the fires of the Inquisition had already died down in Europe at that time, and the scientist escaped with only the status of “prisoner of the Holy Inquisition.”
short biography
Galileo Galilei (November 15, 1564 – January 8, 1642) remained in history as a brilliant astronomer and physicist. He is recognized as the founder of exact natural science.
Being a native Italian city Pisa, he received his education there - at the famous University of Pisa, studying in the medical specialty. However, after familiarizing himself with the works of Euclid and Archimedes, the future scientist became so interested in mechanics and geometry that he immediately decided to leave the university, all his later life dedicated to the natural sciences.
In 1589 Galileo became a professor at the University of Pisa. A few more years later he began working at the University of Padua, where he remained until 1610. He continued his further work as the court philosopher of Duke Cosimo II de' Medici, continuing to engage in research in the fields of physics, geometry and astronomy.
Discovery and legacy
His main discoveries are two principles of mechanics, which had a significant impact on the development of not only mechanics itself, but also physics in general. We are talking about the fundamental Galilean principle of relativity for uniform and rectilinear motion, as well as the principle of constancy of gravity acceleration.
Based on the principle of relativity discovered by him, I. Newton created such a concept as an inertial frame of reference. The second principle helped him develop the concepts of inert and heavy masses.
Einstein was able to develop Galileo’s mechanical principle for everything. physical processes, first of all, to the light, drawing conclusions about the nature and laws of time and space. And by combining the second Galilean principle, which he interpreted as the principle of the equivalence of inertial forces to gravitational forces, with the first he created general theory relativity.
In addition to these two principles, Galileo was responsible for the discovery of the following laws:
Constant period of oscillation;
Addition movements;
Inertia;
Free fall;
Body movements on an inclined plane;
Movement of a body thrown at an angle.
In addition to these basic fundamental discoveries, the scientist was involved in the invention and design of various applied devices. So, in 1609, using convex and concave lenses, he created a device that was an optical system - an analogue of a modern telescope. With the help of this device he created with his own hands, he began to explore the night sky. And he was very successful in this, finalizing the device in practice and making a full-fledged telescope for that time.
Thanks to his own invention, Galileo was soon able to discover the phases of Venus, sunspots and much more. etc.
However, the scientist’s inquisitive mind did not stop at the successful use of the telescope. In 1610, after conducting experiments and changing the distances between the lenses, he invented the reverse version of the telescope - the microscope. The role of these two devices for modern science cannot be overstated. He also invented the thermoscope (1592) - an analogue of the modern thermometer. As well as many other useful devices and devices.
The scientist’s astronomical discoveries significantly influenced the scientific worldview as a whole. In particular, his conclusions and justifications resolved long disputes between supporters of the teachings of Copernicus and supporters of the systems developed by Ptolemy and Aristotle. The obvious arguments given showed that the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic systems were erroneous.
True, after such stunning evidence (1633), they immediately rushed to recognize the scientist as a heretic. Fortunately, the fires of the Inquisition had already died down in Europe at that time, and Galileo escaped with only the status of a “prisoner of the Holy Inquisition”, a ban on working in Rome (after and in Florence, as well as near it), as well as constant supervision of himself. But the scientist continued his relatively active work. And before the illness that caused loss of vision, he managed to complete another of his famous works, “Conversations and Mathematical Proofs Concerning Two New Branches of Science” (1637).
Galileo Galileo (02/15/1564 – 01/08/1642) was an Italian physicist, astronomer, mathematician and philosopher who made a great contribution to the development of science. He discovered experimental physics, laid the foundations for the development of classical mechanics, and made major discoveries in astronomy.
Early years
Galileo, a native of the city of Pisa, had noble birth, but his family was not rich. Galileo was the eldest child of four (a total of six children were born in the family, but two died). Since childhood, the boy was drawn to creativity: like his father, a musician, he was seriously interested in music, was an excellent painter and understood issues of fine art. He also had a literary gift, which allowed him to later express his scientific research in his writings.
He was an outstanding student at the monastery school. He wanted to become a clergyman, but changed his mind due to the rejection of this idea by his father, who insisted that his son receive a medical education. So at the age of 17, Galileo went to the University of Pisa, where, in addition to medicine, he studied geometry, which fascinated him greatly.
Already at this time, the young man was characterized by the desire to defend his own position, without fear of established authoritative opinions. Constantly argued with teachers on science issues. I studied at the university for three years. It is assumed that at that time Galileo learned the teachings of Copernicus. He was forced to quit his studies when his father could no longer pay for it.
Thanks to the fact that the young man managed to make several inventions, he was noticed. The Marquis del Monte, who was very fond of science and had good capital, especially admired him. So Galileo found a patron, who also introduced him to the Duke of Medici and got him a professorship at the same university. This time Galileo focused on mathematics and mechanics. In 1590, he published his work - the treatise “On Movement”.
Professor in Venice
From 1592 to 1610, Galileo taught at the University of Padua, became the head of the mathematics department, and was famous in scientific circles. Galileo's most active activity occurred at this time. He was very popular among students who dreamed of attending his classes. Famous scientists corresponded with him, and the authorities constantly set new technical tasks for Galileo. At the same time, the treatise “Mechanics” was published.
When discovered in 1604 new star, his scientific research fell on astronomy. In 1609, he assembled the first telescope, with the help of which he seriously advanced the development of astronomical science. Galileo described the surface of the Moon, the Milky Way, and discovered the satellites of Jupiter. His book The Starry Messenger, published in 1610, was a huge success and made the telescope a popular purchase in Europe. But along with recognition and veneration, the scientist is also accused of the illusory nature of his discoveries, as well as his desire to harm the medical and astrological sciences.
Soon, Professor Galileo entered into an unofficial marriage with Marina Gamba, who bore him three children. Having responded to an offer of a high position in Florence from the Duke of Medici, he moves and becomes an adviser at court. This decision allowed Galileo to pay off large debts, but partly played a disastrous role in his fate.
Life in Florence
In a new place, the scientist continued his astronomical research. It was typical for him to present his discoveries in a cocky style, which greatly irritated other figures, as well as the Jesuits. This led to the formation of an anti-Galilean society. The main complaint from the church was the heliocentric system, which contradicts religious texts.
In 1611, the scientist went to Rome to meet with the head of the Catholic Church, where he was received quite warmly. There he introduced the telescope to the cardinals and tried, with caution, to give some explanations. Later, encouraged by a successful visit, he published his letter to the abbot stating that Scripture cannot have authority in matters of science, which attracted the attention of the Inquisition.
Galileo demonstrates the laws of gravity (fresco by D. Bezzoli, 1841)
His 1613 book “Letters on Sunspots” contained open support for the teachings of N. Copernicus. In 1615, the Inquisition opened its first case against Galileo. And after he called on the Pope to express his final point of view on Copernicanism, the situation only worsened. In 1616, the church declared heliocentrism a heresy and banned Galileo's book. Galileo's attempts to correct the situation led to nothing, but they promised not to persecute him if he stopped supporting the teachings of Copernicus. But for a scientist convinced of his rightness, this was impossible.
Nevertheless, for a while he decided to turn his energy in a different direction, taking up criticism of the teachings of Aristotle. The result was his book “The Assay Master,” written in 1623. At the same time, Galileo Barberini's longtime friend was elected Pope. Hoping to lift the ban on the church, the scientist went to Rome, where he was well received, but did not achieve what he wanted. Galileo further decided to continue to defend the truth in his writings, considering several scientific points of view from a position of neutrality. His "Dialogue Concerning the Two World Systems" lays the foundation for the new mechanics.
Galileo's conflict with the church
Having submitted his “Dialogue” to the Catholic censor in 1630, Galileo waited a year, after which he resorted to a trick: he wrote a preface about the rejection of Copernicanism as a teaching. As a result, permission was received. Published in 1632, the book did not contain the author's specific conclusions, although it clearly made sense in the argumentation of the Copernican system. The work was written in accessible Italian; the author also independently sent copies to senior church officials.
A few months later, the book was banned and Galileo was called to trial. He was arrested and held in captivity for 18 days. Thanks to the efforts of his student Duke, the scientist was shown leniency, although he was allegedly still tortured. The investigation lasted two months, after which Galileo was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment, and he also had to renounce his own “delusions.” Became catchphrase“And yet it turns,” which is attributed to Galileo, he did not actually say. This legend was invented by the Italian literary figure D. Baretti.
Galileo before the Judgment (K. Bunty, 1857)
Old age
The scientist did not stay in prison for long; he was allowed to live on the Medici estate, and after five months he was allowed to return home, where he continued to be monitored. Galileo settled in Arcetri near the monastery where his daughters served, and spent his last years under house arrest. Plunged a large number prohibitions that made it difficult for him to treat and communicate with friends. Later they were allowed to visit the scientist one at a time.
Despite the difficulties, Galileo continued to work in non-prohibited scientific areas. He published a book about mechanics, planned to anonymously publish a book in defense of his views, but did not have time. After the death of his beloved daughter, he became blind, but continued to work and wrote a work on kinematics, published in Holland and which became the basis for the research of Huygens and Newton.
Galileo died and was buried in Arcetri; the church prohibited burial in the family crypt and the erection of monuments to the scientist. His grandson, the last representative of the family, having become a monk, destroyed valuable manuscripts. In 1737, the remains of the scientist were transferred to the family tomb. It was only in the late 70s of the last century that the Catholic Church rehabilitated Galileo; in 1992, the mistake of the Inquisition was officially recognized.