Environmental problems of the chemical industry. Report on chemistry on the topic: “environmental problems of the chemical industry

29.09.2019

The main problems of modern chemistry

2. Chemical industry and environmental problems of chemistry

The chemical industry is one of the most rapidly developing industries. It belongs to the industries that form the basis of modern scientific and technological progress. In structure chemical industry With all the importance of basic chemistry, the leading position has passed to the industry of plastics, chemical fibers, dyes, pharmaceuticals, detergents and cosmetics.

Reagents and materials produced by the chemical industry are widely used in technological processes in a wide variety of industries. IN modern era The chemical industry has become a kind of indicator that determines the degree of modernization of the economic mechanism of any country.

It is advisable to distinguish 5 groups of production within the Russian chemical industry:

1. Mining and chemical industry, including the extraction of primary chemical raw materials.

2. Basic chemistry, specializing in the production of mineral fertilizers, acids, soda and other substances that constitute, as it were, “food” for other sectors of the economy.

3. Production of polymer substances.

4. Processing of polymer materials.

5. A heterogeneous group of other, slightly interconnected branches of this industry: photochemical, household chemicals, etc. Zelenin K.N., Sergutina V.P., Solod O.V. Taking the chemistry exam. St. Petersburg, 2001. pp. 2-3. .

Household chemicals are a sub-sector of the chemical industry that has currently undergone significant development. Everyone, in one way or another, almost constantly either uses the “fruits” of the chemical industry, or is faced with activities that require knowledge of safe handling of substances. Good housewife will never place a bottle of acetic acid next to other similar food containers. An educated person always reads the instructions before working with household liquids such as chlorine bleach or glass cleaners, and knows that after covering the floor with new linoleum or carpet, it is always necessary to ventilate the room. All these are techniques for safe handling of substances. For more details, see: Artamonova V. Shampoos: chemistry and biology in one bottle // Chemistry and life. 2001. No. 4. pp. 36-40. . The ability to prepare solutions, knowledge of methods for purifying substances, the properties of the most commonly found compounds, their effect on human health - the younger generation will learn all this in chemistry lessons at school. For more details, see: “ Round table» at the Third Moscow Pedagogical Marathon educational subjects April 8, 2004 “Where to start studying chemistry, or How to get interested in chemistry” // Chemistry (Pervoe September Publishing House). 2004. No. 33. pp. 3-7..

The main problems in the development of the industry are related to the environment. It should be noted that currently the development of industry, including the chemical industry, significantly aggravates environmental problems. Scientific and technological progress develops productive forces, improves human living conditions, and increases its level. At the same time, growing human intervention sometimes introduces changes into the environment that can lead to irreversible consequences in an ecological and biological sense. The result of man's active influence on nature is its pollution, clogging, and depletion.

As a result economic activity humans, the gas composition and dust content of the lower layers of the atmosphere changes. Thus, when waste from industrial chemical production is released, a large amount of suspended particles and various gases enter the atmosphere. Chemical compounds that are highly active in biological terms can cause long-term effects on humans: chronic inflammatory diseases of various organs, changes nervous system, an effect on the intrauterine development of the fetus, leading to various abnormalities in newborns. For example, according to the Volgograd Center for Hydrometeorology, over the past 5 years the level of pollution with dust, nitrogen oxides, soot, ammonia, and formaldehyde has increased 2-5 times. This is mainly due to imperfection technological processes. High pollution with hydrogen chloride and organochlorine substances in the southern industrial zone of Volgograd is explained by the frequent lack of raw materials at chemical enterprises, which leads to the operation of equipment at reduced loads, at which it is very difficult to maintain technological standards. See: Alexandrov Yu.V., Borzenko A.S. , Polyakov A.V. Population health as a criterion of the social and ecological state of the territory // Volga Ecological Bulletin: Vol. 4. Volgograd, 2003. P. 34..

The main contribution to air pollution in the city of Volgograd comes from petrochemical enterprises (35%). The amount of harmful substances emitted by petrochemical enterprises: hydrogen sulfide - 0.4 thousand tons per year, phenol - 0.3 thousand tons per year, ammonia - 0.5 thousand tons per year, hydrogen chloride - 0.2 thousand tons per year Ibid. P. 35. .

All of the above is explained by a number of factors, ranging from the low quality of raw materials to the unsatisfactory condition of process equipment and dust and gas collection devices in enterprises as a whole.

Industrial enterprises, for example, Khimprom, Kaustik, the Volzhsky nitrogen-oxygen plant, an organic synthesis plant, and numerous storage ponds of other enterprises cause enormous damage to the floodplain. Particular harm is caused to soils with a low content of humus and organic matter, as well as carbonate chernozems. In them, thin fractions of carbonates that are unstable to the effects of acid precipitation may predominate as adhesives. And the removal of the lipid fraction under the influence of organic solvents emitted by enterprises into the atmosphere can, together with other factors, lead to the loss of the agronomically valuable structure of irrigated lands and their withdrawal from agricultural use. Chemicals can enter food, water and air through the soil. See: Kovshov V.P., Golubchik M.M., Nosonov A.M. Use of natural resources and nature conservation. Saransk, 2002. P. 56. .

Industrial waste enters water bodies and quickly destroys the ecological connections that have developed in nature over thousands of years. With chronic impacts, degradation of aquatic ecosystems located in the area where liquid waste storage facilities are located occurs. Chemicals contained in wastewater can migrate into groundwater and then enter open water bodies. Thus, more than 50% of the components detected (in wastewater) came from wastewater storage tanks into groundwater and 38% into the World Ocean. Liquid wastewater from chemical production also has an adverse effect on the processes of natural self-purification of water in the seas and oceans. Ibid.. Thus, violation of wastewater treatment regulations and the placement of wastewater in storage tanks and evaporators is accompanied by intense pollution of objects environment, in particular, the seas and oceans of the planet.

It should be noted that in the last 5-7 years the quality of our country’s waters has improved somewhat. This is explained by the fact that many leading industrial enterprises have curtailed their production programs. So, in 1980-91. in Volga water, mercury was determined in the range of 0.013-0.069 μ/l, significantly exceeding the MPC. Then (before 1995) mercury was detected in lower concentrations - up to 0.0183 μg/l, and after 1996 it was not detected. Currently, many (but not all!) indicators of the Volga from the point of view of economic and cultural water use do not exceed the maximum permissible concentration.

Environmental problems can only be solved by stabilizing economic situation and the creation of such an economic mechanism for environmental management, when the payment for environmental pollution will correspond to the costs of its complete cleanup.

In general, we can highlight the following directions solutions to environmental problems created by the chemical industry:

Ш compliance with regulations, state standards and other regulatory documents in the field of environmental protection;

Ш operation of treatment facilities, control equipment;

Ш implementation of plans and measures for environmental protection;

Ш compliance with the requirements, norms and rules during the placement, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning of chemical industry facilities;

Ш fulfillment of the requirements specified in the conclusion of the state environmental assessment.

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Reasons for environmental impact

In terms of intensity of impact on the environment, industrial production has one of the strongest impacts. The main reason is outdated production technologies and excessive concentration of production in one territory or within one enterprise. Most large enterprises do not have an environmental protection system or it is quite simple.

Note 1

Most industrial waste is returned to the environment as waste. IN finished products Basically, 1-2% of raw materials are used, the rest is thrown into the biosphere, polluting its components.

Main sources of pollution

Depending on the nature of the impact of industry on the environment, industrial production complexes are divided into:

fuel and energy,
metallurgical,
chemical forest
building

The main air pollution comes from sulfur dioxide gas. [Comment]

Sulfur dioxide gas is a combination of sulfur and oxygen.

This type of pollution is destructive. During the release process, it accumulates in the atmosphere sulfuric acid, which further results from the occurrence of acid rain. The main sources of pollution are products of the automotive industry that use sulfur-containing coals, oil and gas in their operation.

In addition, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy and the chemical industry have a huge impact on the environment. As a result of exhaust gases, the concentration of harmful substances increases every year.

According to statistical data, the share of harmful substances in the United States is 60% of the total volume of all harmful substances.

The growth in production is quite serious. Every year, industrialization presents humanity with new technologies that accelerate industrial capacity. Unfortunately, protective measures are no longer sufficient to reduce the resulting level of pollution.

Measures to prevent environmental disasters

Most environmental disasters occur either as a result of human negligence or wear and tear of equipment. The funds that could have been saved from accidents prevented in due time could have been used to reconstruct the fuel and energy complex. This, in turn, would significantly reduce the level of energy intensity of the economy.

As a result of irrational environmental management, irreparable damage is caused to nature. In order to analyze the key measures to prevent pollution, it is necessary, first of all, to interrelate the results of economic activity and the environmental friendliness of manufactured products and their production technology.

This event requires significant costs from production, which must be included in the planned production. An enterprise needs to separate costs into three components:

production costs,
environmental costs,
costs of producing a product to environmental quality or replacing a product with a more environmentally friendly one.

In Russia, the main industry is the production of oil and gas. Despite the fact that production volumes at the present stage tend to decrease, the fuel and energy complex is the largest source of industrial pollution. Environmental problems begin already at the stage of raw material extraction and transportation.

Every year there are more than 20 thousand accidents associated with oil spills, which enter water bodies and are accompanied by the death of flora and fauna. In addition, accidents cause significant economic losses.

In order to prevent the spread of environmental disaster as much as possible, the most environmentally friendly way to transport oil is through pipelines.

This type of transportation includes not only a pipe system, but also pumping stations, compressors and much more.

Note 2

Despite the environmental friendliness and reliability of this system, the process does not proceed without accidents. Since about 40% of the pipeline transport system is worn out and its service life has long expired. Over the years, defects appear on the pipes and metal corrosion occurs.

So one of the most serious accidents in history lately is an oil pipeline breakthrough. As a result of this accident, about 1000 tons of oil ended up in the Belaya River. According to statistics, every year the Russian environment suffers damage from 700 incidents related to oil spills. These accidents lead to irreversible processes in the environment.

Oil production and drilling equipment operate in rather difficult conditions. Overloads, static and dynamic stress, high pressure lead to equipment wear.

Particular attention should be paid to outdated pumping machines. When using multiphase pumps, environmental safety and economic efficiency increase. In addition, it becomes possible to utilize the resulting gas in a more economical and environmentally friendly way. Today, gas from the well is burned, although this gas is a fairly valuable raw material for the chemical industry.

According to scientists, over several years the load on the environment has increased 2-3 times. The consumption of clean water is growing, which is mercilessly wasted in industrial production and agriculture.

The problem of clean water has become so acute at the present stage of human development that often the level of water supply determines the level of industry and the growth of cities.

Despite disappointing forecasts, states in developing countries began to pay great attention to cleaning and monitoring environmental safety. New production does not receive permission without installing and commissioning treatment facilities.

In environmental matters, a serious issue of government regulation is needed.

Today there is no need to convince anyone of the enormous importance issues related to environmental protection play for all of humanity. This problem is complex and multifaceted. It includes not only purely scientific aspects, but also economic, social, political, legal, and aesthetic.

The processes that determine the current state of the biosphere are based on chemical transformations of substances. The chemical aspects of the problem of environmental protection form a new section of modern chemistry, called chemical ecology. This direction is considering chemical processes occurring in the biosphere, chemical pollution of the environment and its impact on the ecological balance, characterizes the main chemical pollutants and methods for determining the level of pollution, develops physical and chemical methods for combating environmental pollution, searches for new environmentally friendly sources of energy, etc.

Understanding the essence of the problem of environmental protection, of course, requires familiarity with a number of preliminary concepts, definitions, judgments, a detailed study of which should contribute not only to a deeper understanding of the essence of the problem, but also to the development of environmental education. The geological spheres of the planet, as well as the structure of the biosphere and the chemical processes occurring in it are summarized in diagram 1.

Usually several geospheres are distinguished. The lithosphere is the outer hard shell of the Earth, consisting of two layers: the upper, formed by sedimentary rocks, including granite, and the lower, basalt. The hydrosphere is all the oceans and seas (the World Ocean), making up 71% of the Earth's surface, as well as lakes and rivers. The average depth of the ocean is 4 km, and in some depressions it is up to 11 km. The atmosphere is a layer above the surface of the lithosphere and hydrosphere, reaching 100 km. The lower layer of the atmosphere (15 km) is called the troposphere. It includes water vapor suspended in the air, moving when the planet's surface is unevenly heated. The stratosphere extends above the troposphere, at the boundaries of which the northern lights appear. In the stratosphere at an altitude of 45 km there is an ozone layer that reflects life-destructive cosmic radiation and partially ultraviolet rays. Above the stratosphere extends the ionosphere - a layer of rarefied gas made of ionized atoms.

Among all the spheres of the Earth, the biosphere occupies a special place. The biosphere is the geological shell of the Earth together with the living organisms that inhabit it: microorganisms, plants, animals. It includes the upper part of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere, the troposphere and the lower part of the stratosphere (including the ozone layer). The boundaries of the biosphere are determined by the upper limit of life, limited by the intense concentration of ultraviolet rays, and the lower limit, limited by the high temperatures of the earth's interior; Only lower organisms - bacteria - reach the extreme limits of the biosphere. Occupies a special place in the biosphere ozone protective layer. The atmosphere contains only vol. % ozone, but it created conditions on Earth that allowed life to arise and continue to develop on our planet.

Continuous cycles of matter and energy take place in the biosphere. Basically the same elements are constantly involved in the cycle of substances: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur. From inanimate nature they pass into the composition of plants, from plants - into animals and humans. Atoms of these elements are retained in the circle of life for hundreds of millions of years, which is confirmed by isotope analysis. These five elements are called biophilic (life-loving), and not all of their isotopes, but only light ones. Thus, of the three isotopes of hydrogen, only . Of the three naturally occurring isotopes of oxygen biophilic only, and from carbon isotopes - only.

The role of carbon in the emergence of life on Earth is truly enormous. There is reason to believe that during the formation of the earth's crust, part of the carbon entered its deep layers in the form of minerals such as carbides, and the other part was retained by the atmosphere in the form of CO. The decrease in temperature at certain stages of the formation of the planet was accompanied by the interaction of CO with water vapor through the kcal reaction, so that by the time liquid water appeared on Earth, atmospheric carbon must have been in the form of carbon dioxide. According to the carbon cycle diagram below, atmospheric carbon dioxide is extracted by plants (1), and through food connections (2) carbon enters the body of animals:

The respiration of animals and plants and the decay of their remains constantly return enormous masses of carbon to the atmosphere and ocean waters in the form of carbon dioxide (3, 4). At the same time, there is some removal of carbon from the cycle due to partial mineralization of the remains of plants (5) and animals (6).

An additional, and more powerful, removal of carbon from the cycle is the inorganic process of weathering of rocks (7), in which the metals they contain under the influence of the atmosphere are transformed into carbon dioxide salts, which are then washed out by water and carried by rivers to the ocean, followed by partial sedimentation. According to rough estimates, up to 2 billion tons of carbon are bound annually when rocks are weathered from the atmosphere. Such a huge expense cannot be compensated by various freely flowing natural processes(volcanic eruptions, gas sources, the effect of thunderstorms on limestones, etc.), leading to the reverse transfer of carbon from minerals to the atmosphere (8). Thus, both the inorganic and organic stages of the carbon cycle are aimed at reducing the content in the atmosphere. In this regard, it should be noted that conscious human activity significantly influences the overall carbon cycle and, affecting essentially all directions of processes occurring during the natural cycle, ultimately compensates for leakage from the atmosphere. Suffice it to say that due to the combustion of coal alone, more than 1 billion tons of carbon were returned to the atmosphere annually (in the middle of our century). Taking into account the consumption of other types of fossil fuels (peat, oil, etc.), as well as a number of industrial processes leading to the release of , we can assume that this figure is actually even higher.

Thus, the human influence on carbon transformation cycles is directly opposite in direction to the total result of the natural cycle:

The Earth's energy balance is made up of various sources, but the most important of them are solar and radioactive energy. During the evolution of the Earth, radioactive decay was intense, and 3 billion years ago there was 20 times more radioactive heat than now. Currently, the heat of the sun's rays falling on the Earth significantly exceeds the internal heat from radioactive decay, so that the main source of heat can now be considered the energy of the Sun. The sun gives us kcal of heat per year. According to the above diagram, 40% of solar energy is reflected by the Earth into space, 60% is absorbed by the atmosphere and soil. Part of this energy is spent on photosynthesis, part goes to the oxidation of organic substances, and part is preserved in coal, oil, and peat. Solar energy excites climatic, geological and biological processes on Earth on a grandiose scale. Under the influence of the biosphere, solar energy is converted into various forms of energy, causing enormous transformations, migrations, and the circulation of substances. Despite its grandeur, the biosphere is an open system, as it constantly receives a flow of solar energy.

Photosynthesis includes a complex set of reactions of different nature. In this process, the bonds in the molecules and are rearranged, so that instead of the previous carbon-oxygen and hydrogen-oxygen bonds, new type chemical bonds: carbon-hydrogen and carbon-carbon:

As a result of these transformations, a carbohydrate molecule appears, which is a concentrate of energy in the cell. Thus, in chemical terms, the essence of photosynthesis lies in the rearrangement of chemical bonds. From this point of view, photosynthesis can be called the process of synthesis of organic compounds using light energy. The overall equation of photosynthesis shows that in addition to carbohydrates, oxygen is also produced:

but this equation does not give an idea of its mechanism. Photosynthesis is a complex, multi-stage process in which, from a biochemical point of view, the central role belongs to chlorophyll, a green organic substance that absorbs a quantum of solar energy. The mechanism of photosynthesis processes can be represented by the following diagram:

As can be seen from the diagram, in the light phase of photosynthesis, the excess energy of “excited” electrons gives rise to the process: photolysis - with the formation of molecular oxygen and atomic hydrogen:

and the synthesis of adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP) from adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP) and phosphoric acid (P). In the dark phase, the synthesis of carbohydrates occurs, for which the energy of ATP and hydrogen atoms arising in light phase as a result of the transformation of light energy from the Sun. The overall productivity of photosynthesis is enormous: every year the Earth's vegetation sequesters 170 billion tons of carbon. In addition, plants involve billions of tons of phosphorus, sulfur and other elements in the synthesis, as a result of which about 400 billion tons of organic substances are synthesized annually. Nevertheless, for all its grandeur, natural photosynthesis is a slow and ineffective process, since a green leaf uses only 1% of the solar energy falling on it for photosynthesis.

As noted above, as a result of the absorption of carbon dioxide and its further transformation during photosynthesis, a carbohydrate molecule is formed, which serves as a carbon skeleton for the construction of all organic compounds in the cell. Organic substances produced during photosynthesis are characterized by a high supply of internal energy. But the energy accumulated in the final products of photosynthesis is not available for direct use in chemical reactions occurring in living organisms. The conversion of this potential energy into active form is carried out in another biochemical process - respiration. Main chemical reaction The process of respiration is the absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide:

However, the breathing process is very complex. It involves the activation of hydrogen atoms of the organic substrate, the release and mobilization of energy in the form of ATP and the generation of carbon skeletons. During the process of respiration, carbohydrates, fats and proteins, in reactions of biological oxidation and gradual restructuring of the organic skeleton, give up their hydrogen atoms to form reduced forms. The latter, when oxidized in the respiratory chain, release energy, which is accumulated in active form in the coupled reactions of ATP synthesis. Thus, photosynthesis and respiration are different, but very closely related aspects of the general energy exchange. In the cells of green plants, the processes of photosynthesis and respiration are closely linked. The process of respiration in them, as in all other living cells, is constant. During the day, along with respiration, photosynthesis occurs in them: plant cells convert light energy into chemical energy, synthesizing organic matter, and releasing oxygen as a byproduct of the reaction. The amount of oxygen released by a plant cell during photosynthesis is 20-30 times greater than its absorption during the simultaneous process of respiration. Thus, during the day, when both processes occur in plants, the air is enriched with oxygen, and at night, when photosynthesis stops, only the respiration process is preserved.

The oxygen necessary for breathing enters the human body through the lungs, whose thin and moist walls have large surface(about 90) and are penetrated by blood vessels. Getting into them, oxygen forms with hemoglobin contained in red blood cells - erythrocytes - a fragile chemical compound - oxyhemoglobin and in this form is carried by red arterial blood to all tissues of the body. In them, oxygen is split off from hemoglobin and is included in various metabolic processes, in particular, it oxidizes organic substances that enter the body in the form of food. In tissues, carbon dioxide joins hemoglobin, forming a fragile compound - carbhemoglobin. In this form, and also partially in the form of salts of carbonic acid and in physically dissolved form, carbon dioxide enters the lungs with the flow of dark venous blood, where it is excreted from the body. Schematically, this process of gas exchange in the human body can be represented by the following reactions:

Typically, the air inhaled by a person contains 21% (by volume) and 0.03%, and the air exhaled contains 16% and 4%; per day a person exhales 0.5. Similarly to oxygen, carbon monoxide (CO) reacts with hemoglobin, and the resulting compound is Heme. CO is much more durable. Therefore, even at low concentrations of CO in the air, a significant part of the hemoglobin becomes bound to it and ceases to participate in the transfer of oxygen. When the air contains 0.1% CO (by volume), i.e. at a ratio of CO and 1:200, equal amounts of both gases are bound by hemoglobin. Because of this, when inhaling air poisoned by carbon monoxide, death from suffocation can occur, despite the presence of excess oxygen.

Fermentation, as the process of decomposition of sugary substances in the presence of a special kind of microorganisms, occurs so often in nature that alcohol, although in insignificant quantities, is a constant component of soil water, and its vapors are always contained in small quantities in the air. The simplest fermentation scheme can be represented by the equation:

Although the mechanism of fermentation processes is complex, it can still be argued that phosphoric acid derivatives (ATP), as well as a number of enzymes, play an extremely important role in it.

Rotting is a complex biochemical process, as a result of which excrement, corpses, and plant remains return to the soil the bound nitrogen previously taken from it. Under the influence of special bacteria, this bound nitrogen ultimately turns into ammonia and ammonium salts. In addition, during decay, part of the bound nitrogen turns into free nitrogen and is lost.

As follows from the above diagram, part of the solar energy absorbed by our planet is “conserved” in the form of peat, oil, and coal. Powerful shifts of the earth's crust buried huge plant masses under layers of rocks. When dead plant organisms decompose without access to air, volatile decomposition products are released, and the residue is gradually enriched in carbon. This accordingly affects the chemical composition and calorific value of the decomposition product, which, depending on its characteristics, is called peat, brown and coal (anthracite). Like plant life, animal life of past eras also left us a valuable legacy - oil. Modern oceans and seas contain huge accumulations of simple organisms in the upper layers of water to a depth of about 200 m (plankton) and in the bottom region of not very deep places (benthos). The total mass of plankton and benthos is estimated at a huge figure (~ t). As the basis of nutrition for all more complex marine organisms, plankton and benthos are currently unlikely to accumulate as remains. However, in distant geological epochs, when the conditions for their development were more favorable, and there were much fewer consumers than now, the remains of plankton and benthos, as well as, possibly, more highly organized animals, which died in masses for one reason or another, could become the main building material for oil formation. Crude oil is a water-insoluble, black or brown oily liquid. It consists of 83-87% carbon, 10-14% hydrogen and small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. Its calorific value is higher than that of anthracite and is estimated at 11,000 kcal/kg.

Biomass is understood as the totality of all living organisms in the biosphere, i.e. the amount of organic matter and the energy contained in it of the entire population of individuals. Biomass is usually expressed in weight units in terms of dry matter per unit area or volume. The accumulation of biomass is determined by the vital activity of green plants. In biogeocenoses, they, as producers of living matter, play the role of “producers,” herbivorous and carnivorous animals, as consumers of living organic matter, play the role of “consumers,” and destroyers of organic residues (microorganisms), bringing the breakdown of organic matter to simple mineral compounds, are “decomposers.” A special energy characteristic of biomass is its ability to reproduce. According to the definition of V.I. Vernadsky, “living matter (a set of organisms) like a mass of gas spreads over earth's surface and exerts a certain pressure in the environment, bypasses obstacles that impede its progress, or masters them, covers them. This movement is achieved through the reproduction of organisms." On the land surface, an increase in biomass occurs in the direction from the poles to the equator. In the same direction, the number of species participating in biogeocenoses also increases (see below). Soil biocenoses cover the entire land surface.

Soil is a loose surface layer of the earth's crust, modified by the atmosphere and organisms and constantly replenished with organic residues. Soil thickness, along with surface biomass and under its influence, increases from the poles to the equator. The soil is densely populated by living organisms, and continuous gas exchange occurs in it. At night, as the gases cool and compress, some air enters it. Oxygen from the air is absorbed by animals and plants and is part of chemical compounds. Nitrogen introduced into the air is captured by some bacteria. During the day, when the soil heats up, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide are released from it. All processes occurring in the soil are included in the cycle of substances in the biosphere.

Hydrosphere of the Earth, or the World Ocean, occupies more than 2/3 of the planet's surface. The physical properties and chemical composition of ocean waters are very constant and create an environment favorable for life. Aquatic animals excrete it through respiration, and algae enrich the water through photosynthesis. Photosynthesis of algae occurs mainly in the upper layer of water - at a depth of up to 100 m. Ocean plankton accounts for 1/3 of the photosynthesis occurring on the entire planet. In the ocean, biomass is mostly dispersed. On average, the biomass on Earth, according to modern data, is approximately t, the mass of green land plants is 97%, animals and microorganisms are 3%. There is 1000 times less living biomass in the World Ocean than on land. The use of solar energy on the ocean area is 0.04%, on land - 0.1%. The ocean is not as rich in life as it was thought recently.

Humanity makes up only a small part of the biomass of the biosphere. However, having mastered various forms of energy - mechanical, electrical, atomic - it began to have a tremendous impact on the processes occurring in the biosphere. Human activity has become such a powerful force that this force has become comparable to the natural forces of nature. An analysis of the results of human activity and the impact of this activity on the biosphere as a whole led Academician V.I. Vernadsky to the conclusion that at present humanity has created a new shell of the Earth - “intelligent”. Vernadsky called it "noosphere". The noosphere is “the collective mind of man, concentrated both in its potential capabilities and in its kinetic influences on the biosphere. These influences, however, over the centuries were spontaneous and sometimes predatory in nature, and the consequence of such influence was threatening environmental pollution, with all the ensuing consequences."

Consideration of issues related to the problem of environmental protection requires clarification of the concept " environment". This term means our entire planet plus a thin shell of life - the biosphere, plus outer space that surrounds us and affects us. However, for simplicity, the environment often means only the biosphere and part of our planet - earth's crust. According to V.I. Vernadsky, the biosphere is “the region of existence of living matter.” Living matter is the totality of all living organisms, including humans.

Ecology as the science of relationships between organisms, as well as between organisms and their environment special attention focuses on the study of those complex systems (ecosystems) that arise in nature based on the interaction of organisms with each other and the inorganic environment. Hence, an ecosystem is a collection of living and nonliving components of nature that interact. This concept applies to units of varying extent - from an anthill (microecosystem) to the ocean (macroecosystem). The biosphere itself is a giant ecosystem of the globe.

Connections between ecosystem components arise primarily on the basis of food connections and methods of obtaining energy. According to the method of obtaining and using nutritional materials and energy, all organisms of the biosphere are divided into two sharply different groups: autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs are capable of synthesizing organic substances from inorganic compounds (, etc.). From these energy-poor compounds, cells synthesize glucose, amino acids, and then more complex organic compounds - carbohydrates, proteins, etc. The main autotrophs on Earth are the cells of green plants, as well as some microorganisms. Heterotrophs are not able to synthesize organic substances from inorganic compounds. They need the delivery of ready-made organic compounds. Heterotrophs are the cells of animals, humans, most microorganisms and some plants (for example, fungi and green plants that do not contain chlorophyll). In the process of feeding, heterotrophs ultimately decompose organic matter into carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts, i.e. substances suitable for reuse by autotrophs.

Thus, a continuous cycle of substances occurs in nature: chemical substances necessary for life are extracted by autotrophs from the environment and returned to it again through a series of heterotrophs. To carry out this process, a constant flow of energy from outside is required. Its source is the radiant energy of the Sun. The movement of matter caused by the activity of organisms occurs cyclically, and it can be used again and again, while the energy in these processes is represented by a unidirectional flow. The energy of the Sun is only transformed by organisms into other forms - chemical, mechanical, thermal. In accordance with the laws of thermodynamics, such transformations are always accompanied by the dissipation of part of the energy in the form of heat. Although the general scheme of the cycle of substances is relatively simple, in real natural conditions this process takes on very complex forms. Not a single type of heterotrophic organism is capable of immediately breaking down the organic matter of plants into final mineral products (, etc.). Each species uses only part of the energy contained in organic matter, bringing its decomposition to a certain stage. Residues unsuitable for a given species, but still rich in energy, are used by other organisms. Thus, in the process of evolution, chains of interconnected species have formed in the ecosystem, successively extracting materials and energy from the original food substance. All species that form the food chain exist on organic matter generated by green plants.

In total, only 1% of the radiant energy of the Sun falling on plants is converted into the energy of synthesized organic substances, which can be used by heterotrophic organisms. Most of the energy contained in plant foods is spent in the animal body on various processes vital activity and, turning into heat, dissipates. Moreover, only 10-20% of this food energy goes directly to the construction of new substance. Large losses of useful energy predetermine that food chains consist of a small number of links (3-5). In other words, as a result of energy loss, the amount of organic matter produced at each subsequent level of food chains decreases sharply. This important pattern is called rule of the ecological pyramid and on the diagram it is represented by a pyramid, in which each subsequent level corresponds to a plane parallel to the base of the pyramid. There are different categories of ecological pyramids: the pyramid of numbers - reflecting the number of individuals at each level of the food chain, the pyramid of biomass - reflecting the corresponding amount of organic matter, the pyramid of energy - reflecting the amount of energy in food.

Any ecosystem consists of two components. One of them is organic, representing a complex of species that form a self-sustaining system in which the circulation of substances takes place, which is called biocenosis, the other is an inorganic component that gives shelter to the biocenosis and is called bioton:

Ecosystem = bioton + biocenosis.

Other ecosystems, as well as geological, climatic, and cosmic influences in relation to a given ecological system act as external forces. The sustainability of an ecosystem is always related to its development. According to modern views, an ecosystem has a tendency to develop towards its stable state - a mature ecosystem. This change is called succession. The early stages of succession are characterized by low species diversity and low biomass. An ecosystem in the initial stage of development is very sensitive to disturbances, and a strong impact on the main flow of energy can destroy it. In mature ecosystems, flora and fauna increase. In this case, damage to one component cannot have a strong impact on the entire ecosystem. Hence the mature ecosystem has high degree sustainability.

As noted above, geological, climatic, hydrogeological and cosmic influences in relation to a given ecological system act as external forces. Among the external forces influencing ecosystems, human influence occupies a special place. The biological laws of the structure, functioning and development of natural ecosystems are associated only with those organisms that are their necessary components. In this regard, a person, both socially (personality) and biologically (organism), is not part of natural ecosystems. This follows at least from the fact that any natural ecosystem in its emergence and development can do without humans. Man is not a necessary element of this system. In addition, the emergence and existence of organisms is determined only by the general laws of the ecosystem, while man is generated by society and exists in society. Man as an individual and as a biological being is a component of a special system - human society, which has historically changing economic laws distribution of food and other conditions of its existence. At the same time, a person receives the elements necessary for life, such as air and water, from the outside, since human society is an open system into which energy and matter come from the outside. Thus, a person is an “external element” and cannot enter into permanent biological connections with elements of natural ecosystems. On the other hand, acting as an external force, humans have a great influence on ecosystems. In this regard, it is necessary to point out the possibility of the existence of two types of ecosystems: natural (natural) and artificial. Development (succession) natural ecosystems obeys the laws of evolution or the laws of cosmic influences (constancy or catastrophes). Artificial ecosystems- these are collections of living organisms and plants living in conditions that man created with his labor and his thought. The power of human influence on nature is manifested precisely in artificial ecosystems, which today cover most of the Earth’s biosphere.

Human ecological intervention has obviously always occurred. All previous human activity can be considered as a process of subordinating many or even all ecological systems, all biocenoses to human needs. Human intervention could not but affect the ecological balance. More ancient man By burning forests, he upset the ecological balance, but he did it slowly and on a relatively small scale. Such intervention was more local in nature and did not cause global consequences. In other words, human activity of that time took place under conditions close to equilibrium. However, now the human impact on nature, due to the development of science, technology and technology, has taken on such a scale that the disruption of ecological balance has become threatening on a global scale. If the process of human influence on ecosystems were not spontaneous, and sometimes even predatory, then the question of ecological crisis wouldn't be so sharp. Meanwhile, human activity today has become so commensurate with the powerful forces of nature that nature itself is no longer able to cope with the loads it experiences.

Thus, the main essence of the problem of environmental protection is that humanity, thanks to its labor activity turned into such a powerful nature-forming force that its influence began to manifest itself much faster than the influence of the natural evolution of the biosphere.

Although the term “environmental protection” is very common today, it still does not strictly reflect the essence of the matter. Physiologist I.M. Sechenov once pointed out that a living organism cannot exist without interaction with the environment. From this point of view, the term "environmental management" appears to be more stringent. Overall the problem rational use environmental research is to search for mechanisms that ensure the normal functioning of the biosphere.

TEST QUESTIONS

1. Define the concept of “environment”.

2. What is the main essence of the problem of environmental protection?

3. List various aspects environmental problems.

4. Define the term “chemical ecology”.

5. List the main geospheres of our planet.

6. Indicate the factors that determine the upper and lower limits of the biosphere.

7. List the biophilic elements.

8. Comment on the impact of human activities on the natural cycle of carbon transformations.

9. What can you say about the mechanism of photosynthesis?

10. Give a diagram of the breathing process.

11. Give a diagram of fermentation processes.

12. Define the concepts “producer”, “consumer”, “decomposer”.

13. What is the difference between “autotrophs” and “heterotrophs”?

14. Define the concept of “noosphere”.

15. What is the essence of the “ecological pyramid” rule?

16. Define the concepts “biotone” and “biocenosis”.

17. Define the concept “ecosystem”.

The chemical industry is distinguished by the variety of products produced, technologies used and types of raw materials. This predetermined the production of a wide range of man-made emissions, many of which are highly toxic.
Due to the diversity of its processes, the chemical industry is one of the most difficult industries to develop a general strategy for reducing emissions. Some emissions are produced in large quantities and determine environmental situation in the region.
Solving environmental problems in the industry is complicated by the operation of a significant number of morally and physically outdated equipment.
Meanwhile, the chemical industry is characterized by a high level of purification of harmful substances. More than 90% of man-made emissions generated in the industry undergo purification stages. A significant part of the processes is organized using closed cycles and low-waste technologies.
Of the total volume of man-made emissions, solid waste accounts for 13.4%. Liquid and gaseous emissions account for 86.6%.
The structure of gaseous emissions is determined by the following figures, % of the total volume of waste gases: carbon dioxide - 32.6; volatile organic compounds - 24.4; sulfur dioxide - 19.3; nitrogen oxides - 8.8; hydrocarbons - 4.8.
It should be noted that the volume of emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon oxides is largely due to the operation of thermal power plants and boiler houses located on the territory of chemical enterprises.
Of the total amount of waste generated in the chemical and petrochemical industries, about 30% is used as secondary raw materials or is used in other industries, 20% is destroyed or burned, the rest is stored in landfills or industrial landfills.
As already noted, distinctive feature chemical industry is the formation of highly toxic emissions. Of the total amount of solid waste generated annually at chemical industry enterprises, about (0.9-1.0)% belong to the 1st hazard class, (1.8-2.0)% - to the 2nd, (22 .3 - 22.5)% - to the 3rd, the rest (74 - 75)% - to the 4th hazard class.
Sludge from the Novotroitsk Chromium Compounds Plant (Novotroitsk) and JSC Khrompik (Pervouralsk) are classified as hazard class 1. Every year these enterprises produce 90 - 95 thousand tons of sludge. 2.22 million tons of this waste have been accumulated in factory sludge storage tanks.
Hazard class 1 includes vanadium(U) oxide waste. Exceeding the limits on emissions of substances containing vanadium was noted at JSC KAMGEX (Perm).
Mercury-containing waste generated at chemical industry enterprises is also classified as hazard class 1 and accounts for half of the total amount of waste generated at enterprises in the country as a whole. In chlorine production (JSC "Kaustik", Volgograd; JSC "Sayankhimprom", Sayansk; JSC "Caprolaktam", Dzerzhinsk) generated about 300 tons of mercury-containing waste, most of which is stored at enterprises or local landfills.
A significant part of class 2 waste is represented, thousand tons: waste solutions of hydrochloric acid - 140, sulfuric acid - 19.5 and stills - 17.5. Up to 30% of spent sulfuric acid is not used. About 40% of the bottoms of chlorine production are subject to thermal destruction. Finding ways to use gas-free hydrochloric acid in industry is an urgent technical problem.
Large-scale waste of the 3rd class is distilled liquid from soda production enterprises, oil sludge, and zinc-containing waste. The annual volume of soda industry waste is about 135 thousand tons. There are nine soda production factories in Russia. These enterprises have accumulated about 25 million tons of waste.
The main amount of zinc-containing sludge is formed during the neutralization of wastewater from viscose fiber production and at microbiological industry enterprises (2.1 thousand tons per year). Due to the low concentration of zinc, wastewater is not processed and accumulates in storage facilities.
The 4th hazard class includes waste - lignin, phosphogypsum and halite dumps. Lignin is formed at microbiological industry enterprises. 2.1 million tons of lignin have been accumulated at landfills. The problem of its disposal has not yet been resolved.
Phosphogypsum is obtained as a secondary product at factories for the production of mineral fertilizers. To date, more than 90 million tons have been accumulated. The proposed technologies for processing phosphogypsum have not become widespread.
Halite dumps are formed at potash fertilizer production plants. More than 105 million tons have been accumulated in industrial storage facilities.
Storage of waste of hazard class 4 is associated with the alienation of significant areas of land and leads to soil acidification.
Most chemical industry enterprises have recycling water use systems. Due to this, about 90% of fresh water is saved.
The discharge of polluted wastewater is 1.5 - 1.7 km3 per year. Despite the presence of treatment facilities at enterprises, groundwater continues to be polluted through numerous storage tanks. In the area of the Stavropol NPO "Luminofor" the maximum permissible concentration for cadmium, nickel, and zinc in groundwater is exceeded hundreds of times. Underground horizons in Bashkortostan (Sterlitamak, PA Soda) are constantly polluted, in Irkutsk region(PA Angarsknefteorgsintez, Sayanskoye PA Khimprom and JSC Usolskkhimprom) and in the area of other large chemical complexes.
At chemical industry enterprises, the purification of gas emissions is fairly well organized; the total volume of gas emissions is 1/33 of all emissions from stationary industrial sources.
The industry's share accounts for less than 5% of the total volume of fresh water used by Russian industry. Its contribution to the discharge of contaminated wastewater is more significant - "/5 of general industrial discharge.
Currently, the main directions for solving serious environmental problems of the chemical industry have been outlined: the development of new technologies that eliminate or significantly reduce the formation of toxic emissions; creation of closed energy technology and water circulation cycles; use of production by-products and waste as secondary raw materials; improvement of industrial waste treatment systems.

In order to streamline and make all technological processes in chemistry safe, new regulations are being developed. In 2003, the Law “On Technical Regulation” was adopted, providing for the replacement of existing GOSTs with global standards. Each industry regulation will acquire the force of law or be approved by government decree.
In 2006, the Ministry of Industry and Energy of the Russian Federation submitted to the government a draft technical regulation “On the safety of chemical production.” According to Rosstat, the number of fatal diseases due to exposure to hazardous chemicals increases by 5% every year in Russia. The regulations provide for the rules for storage, transportation, sale, use and disposal of chemical products, which are classified according to the type of impact on humans and the degree of impact on the environment - each hazardous substance will be assigned an international hazard class. The regulations are based on the UN and EU requirements for the classification of chemical products and the transportation of dangerous goods.

The chemical industry is one of the most rapidly developing industries. It belongs to the industries that form the basis of modern scientific and technological progress. In the structure of the chemical industry, with all the importance of basic chemistry, the leading position has passed to the industry of plastics, chemical fibers, dyes, pharmaceuticals, detergents and cosmetics.

Reagents and materials produced by the chemical industry are widely used in technological processes in a wide variety of industries. In the modern era, the chemical industry has become a kind of indicator that determines the degree of modernization of the economic mechanism of any country.

It is advisable to distinguish 5 groups of production within the Russian chemical industry:

1. Mining and chemical industry, including the extraction of primary chemical raw materials.
2. Basic chemistry, specializing in the production of mineral fertilizers, acids, soda and other substances that constitute, as it were, “food” for other sectors of the economy.
3. Production of polymer substances.
4. Processing of polymer materials.
5. A heterogeneous group of other, slightly interconnected branches of this industry: photochemical, household chemicals, etc.
6. Household chemicals are a sub-sector of the chemical industry that has currently undergone significant development. Everyone, in one way or another, almost constantly either uses the “fruits” of the chemical industry, or is faced with activities that require knowledge of safe handling of substances. A good housewife will never place a bottle of acetic acid next to other similar food containers. An educated person always reads the instructions before working with household liquids such as chlorine bleach or glass cleaners, and knows that after covering the floor with new linoleum or carpet, it is always necessary to ventilate the room. All of these are techniques for safe handling of substances. The ability to prepare solutions, knowledge of methods for purifying substances, the properties of the most commonly found compounds, their effect on human health - the younger generation learns all this in chemistry lessons at school. The main problems in the development of the industry are related to the environment. It should be noted that currently the development of industry, including the chemical industry, significantly aggravates environmental problems. Scientific and technological progress develops productive forces, improves human living conditions, and increases its level. At the same time, growing human intervention sometimes introduces changes into the environment that can lead to irreversible consequences in an ecological and biological sense. The result of man's active influence on nature is its pollution, clogging, and depletion. As a result of human economic activity, the gas composition and dust content of the lower layers of the atmosphere change. Thus, when waste from industrial chemical production is released, a large amount of suspended particles and various gases enter the atmosphere. Highly biologically active chemical compounds can cause long-term effects on humans: chronic inflammatory diseases of various organs, changes in the nervous system, effects on the intrauterine development of the fetus, leading to various abnormalities in newborns. For example, according to the Volgograd Center for Hydrometeorology, over the past 5 years the level of pollution with dust, nitrogen oxides, soot, ammonia, and formaldehyde has increased 2-5 times. This mainly occurs due to imperfect technological processes. High pollution with hydrogen chloride and organochlorine substances in the southern industrial zone of Volgograd is explained by the frequent lack of raw materials at chemical enterprises, which leads to the operation of equipment at reduced loads, at which it is very difficult to maintain technological standards.

Industrial enterprises, for example, Khimprom, Kaustik, the Volzhsky nitrogen-oxygen plant, an organic synthesis plant, and numerous storage ponds of other enterprises cause enormous damage to the floodplain. Particular harm is caused to soils with a low content of humus and organic matter, as well as carbonate chernozems. In them, thin fractions of carbonates that are unstable to the effects of acid precipitation may predominate as adhesives. And the removal of the lipid fraction under the influence of organic solvents emitted by enterprises into the atmosphere can, together with other factors, lead to the loss of the agronomically valuable structure of irrigated lands and their withdrawal from agricultural use. Through soil, chemicals can enter food, water and air.

Industrial waste enters water bodies and quickly destroys the ecological connections that have developed in nature over thousands of years. With chronic impacts, degradation of aquatic ecosystems located in the area where liquid waste storage facilities are located occurs. Chemicals contained in wastewater can migrate into groundwater and then enter open water bodies. Thus, more than 50% of the components detected (in wastewater) came from wastewater storage tanks into groundwater and 38% into the World Ocean. Liquid effluents from chemical industries also have an adverse effect on the processes of natural self-purification of water in the seas and oceans. Thus, violation of wastewater treatment regulations and the placement of wastewater in storage tanks and evaporators is accompanied by intense pollution of environmental objects, in particular, the seas and oceans of the planet.

Environmental problems can only be solved by stabilizing the economic situation and creating an economic mechanism for environmental management in which the payment for environmental pollution will correspond to the costs of its complete cleanup.

In general, the following directions for solving environmental problems created by the chemical industry can be identified:

· compliance with regulations, state standards and other regulatory documents in the field of environmental protection;
· operation of treatment facilities, control equipment;
· implementation of plans and measures for environmental protection;
· compliance with requirements, norms and rules during the placement, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning of chemical industry facilities;
· fulfillment of the requirements specified in the conclusion of the state environmental assessment.