Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. Literary studies studies fiction various peoples the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them.
Literary studies dates back to ancient times. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his book “Poetics,” was the first to give a theory of genres and types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry).
In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “The Art of Poetry”, based on the earlier work of Horace (“The Science of Poetry”). It isolates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.
In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).
IN early XIX century in Germany, the brothers Grimm created their theory.
In Russia, the science of literature as an independent discipline, as a specific system of knowledge and a tool for analyzing literary phenomena with its own concepts, theory and methodology was established by the middle of the 19th century.
Modern literary criticism consists of three independent, but closely related main disciplines:
- literary theory
- history of literature
- literary criticism.
Literary theory explores nature verbal creativity, develops and systematizes laws, general concepts fiction, patterns of development of genders and genres. Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader.
The theory of literature develops in the process of philosophical and aesthetic comprehension of the entire set of facts of the historical and literary process.
^ The history of literature explores the uniqueness of various national literatures, studies the history of the emergence, change, and development of literary movements and movements, literary periods, artistic methods and styles in different eras and among different peoples, as well as the creativity of individual writers as a naturally determined process.
The history of literature examines any literary phenomenon in historical development. Neither a literary work nor a writer’s creativity can be understood without connection with time, with the unified process of literary movement.
The history and theory of literature are closely interconnected. However, their means and techniques are different: literary theory seeks to determine the essence of the developing aesthetic system, gives a general perspective of the artistic process, and the history of literature characterizes specific forms and their specific manifestations.
^ Literary criticism (from the Greek kritike - the art of disassembling, judging) is engaged in the analysis and interpretation of works of art, evaluating them from the point of view of aesthetic value, identifying and approving creative principles one or another literary movement.
Literary criticism is based on the general methodology of the science of literature and is based on the history of literature. Unlike literary history, it illuminates the processes occurring primarily in the literary movement of our time, or interprets the literature of the past from the point of view of modern social and artistic problems. Literary criticism is closely connected both with life, social struggle, and with the philosophical and aesthetic ideas of the era.
Criticism shows the writer the merits and shortcomings of his work. Addressing the reader, the critic not only explains the work to him, but involves him in a living process of joint comprehension of what he has read at a new level of understanding. An important advantage of criticism is the ability to consider a work as an artistic whole and recognize it in the overall process literary development.
In modern literary criticism, various genres– article, review, review, essay, literary portrait, polemical remark, bibliographic note.
The source study base for the theory and history of literature, literary criticism are auxiliary literary disciplines:
- textual criticism
- historiography
- bibliography
Textual criticism studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing. Studying the history of a text at all stages of its existence gives an idea of the sequence of the history of its creation (the “material” embodiment of the creative process - sketches, drafts, notes, variants, etc.). Textual criticism also deals with establishing authorship (attribution).
Historiography is devoted to the study of the specific historical conditions for the appearance of a particular work.
Bibliography is a branch of scientific description and systematization of information about published works. This is an auxiliary discipline of any science (scientific literature on a particular subject), based on two principles: thematic and chronological. There is a bibliography on individual periods and stages, on personalities (authors), as well as a bibliography of artistic and literary criticism. Bibliographies can be scientific auxiliary (with explanatory annotations and brief comments) and recommendatory (containing lists of main publications on certain sections and topics).
Modern literary criticism is a very complex and moving system of disciplines, which is characterized by the close interdependence of all its branches. Thus, literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines; criticism is based on data from the history and theory of literature, and the latter takes into account and comprehends the experience of criticism, while criticism itself over time becomes the material of the history of literature, etc.
Modern literary criticism is developing in close connection with history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, linguistics, and psychology.
2. SPECIFICITY OF FICTION AS A FORM OF SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS. LITERATURE AND SCIENCE
The term “literature” refers to any works of human thought that are enshrined in the written word and have social significance. Literature is distinguished between technical, scientific, journalistic, reference, etc. However, in a more strict sense, literature usually refers to works of fiction, which in turn is a type artistic creativity, i.e. art.
Art is a type of spiritual exploration of reality by a social person, with the goal of forming and developing his ability to creatively transform the world around him and himself. A work of art is the result (product) of artistic creativity. It embodies the artist’s spiritual and meaningful plan in a sensory and material form and is the main keeper and source of information in the field of artistic culture.
Works of art are a necessary accessory to the life of both an individual and human society as a whole.
Ancient forms of world exploration were based on syncretism. Over the course of centuries of human life and activity, various types of art arose. the boundaries of which were not clearly defined for a long time. Gradually, an understanding of the need to differentiate artistic means and images characteristic of different arts.
All types of art spiritually enrich and ennoble a person, imparting to him a lot of different knowledge and emotions. Outside of man and his emotions, art does not and cannot exist. The subject of art, and therefore literature, is a person, his internal and external life and everything that is somehow connected with him.
The general properties of art find a specific manifestation in its different types, which at different times were divided into visual (epic and dramatic literature, painting, sculpture and pantomime) and expressive (lyrical literature, music, choreography, architecture); then into spatial and temporal, etc. Their modern classification involves the division of classical types of art into spatial (architecture), temporal (literature), visual (painting, graphics, sculpture); expressive (music), presentational (theater, cinema); Recently, many arts have appeared that have a synthetic character.
Literature and science
There is a close connection between literature and science, since they are designed to understand nature and society. Fiction, like science, has enormous educational power. But science and literature each have their own subject of knowledge, and special means of presentation, and their own goals.
The distinctive character of poetic thought is that it appears before us in a living, concrete image. A scientist operates with a system of evidence and concepts, and an artist recreates a living picture of the world. Science, observing a mass of homogeneous phenomena, establishes their patterns and formulates them in logical concepts. In this case, the scientist is distracted from the individual characteristics of the object, from its concrete sensory form. When abstracting, individual facts seem to lose their objectivity and are absorbed into a general concept.
In art, the process of understanding the world is different. An artist, like a scientist, when observing life, goes from individual facts to generalizations, but expresses his generalizations in concrete sensory images.
The main difference between a scientific definition and an artistic image is that we can only understand a scientific logical definition, while we seem to see, imagine, hear, feel an artistic image refracted through our feelings.
Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. Modern literary criticism is a complex and moving system of disciplines. There are three main branches of literary criticism. Literary theory studies the general laws of the structure and development of literature. The subject of literary history is primarily the past of literature as a process or as one of the moments of this process. Literary criticism is interested in the relatively simultaneous, “today’s” state of literature; it is also characterized by the interpretation of the literature of the past from the point of view of modern social and artistic tasks. The affiliation of literary criticism with literary criticism as a science is not generally recognized.
Poetics as part of literary criticism
The most important part of literary criticism is poetics- the science of the structure of works and their complexes, the creativity of writers in general, literary movements, as well as artistic eras. Poetics correlates with the main branches of literary criticism: in the plane of literary theory, it gives general poetics, i.e. the science of the structure of any work; in the plane of literary history, there is historical poetics, which studies the development of artistic structures and their individual elements (genres, plots, stylistic images); the application of the principles of poetics in literary criticism is manifested in the analysis of a specific work, in identifying the features of its construction. In many ways, stylistics occupies a similar position in literary criticism. artistic speech: it can be included in the theory of literature, in general poetics (as a study of the stylistic and speech level of structure), in the history of literature (the language and style of a given direction), as well as in literary criticism (stylistic analyzes of modern works). Literary criticism as a system of disciplines is characterized not only by the close interdependence of all its branches (for example, literary criticism is based on data from the theory and history of literature, and the latter takes into account and comprehends the experience of criticism), but also by the emergence of second-line disciplines. There is the theory of literary criticism, its history, the history of poetics (to be distinguished from historical poetics), and the theory of stylistics. The movement of disciplines from one row to another is also characteristic; Thus, literary criticism over time becomes the material of literary history, historical poetics, etc.
There are also many auxiliary literary disciplines: literary archiving, bibliography of fiction and literary literature, heuristics (attribution), paleography, textual criticism, text commentary, theory and practice of editing, etc. In the mid-20th century, the role of mathematical methods (especially statistics) in literary criticism increased , mainly in poetry, stylistics, textual criticism, where it is easier to distinguish commensurate elementary “segments” of structure (see). Auxiliary disciplines are a necessary base for the main ones; at the same time, in the process of development and complexity, they can reveal independent scientific tasks and cultural functions. The connections between literary criticism and other humanities are diverse, some of which serve as its methodological basis (philosophy, aesthetics, hermeneutics, or the science of interpretation), others are close to it in terms of tasks and subject of research (folklore, general art history), and others have a general humanitarian orientation ( history, psychology, sociology). Multifaceted connections between literary studies and linguistics, conditioned not only by the commonality of the material (language as a means of communication and as the “primary element” of literature), but also by some similarity in the epistemological functions of word and image and some similarity of their structures. The fusion of literary criticism with other humanities disciplines was previously fixed by the concept of philology as a synthetic science that studies spiritual culture in all its linguistic and written forms, incl. literary, manifestations; in the 20th century, this concept usually conveys the commonality of two sciences - literary criticism and linguistics, but in a narrow sense it means textual criticism and text criticism.
The beginnings of art history and literary knowledge originate in ancient times in the form of mythological ideas (this is how the ancient differentiation of art is reflected in the myths). Judgments about art are found in the most ancient monuments - in the Indian Vedas (10-2 centuries BC), in the Chinese “Book of Legends” (“Shijing”, 14-5 centuries BC), in the ancient Greek “Iliad” and "Odyssey" (8-7 centuries BC). In Europe, the first concepts of art and literature were developed by ancient thinkers. Plato, in line with objective idealism, examined aesthetic problems, incl. the problem of beauty, the epistemological nature and educational function of art, gave the main information on the theory of art and literature (primarily the division into genres - epic, lyricism, drama). In Aristotle's writings, while maintaining a general aesthetic approach to art, the formation of literary disciplines proper takes place - literary theory, stylistics, especially poetics. His essay “On the Art of Poetry,” containing the first systematic presentation of the foundations of poetics, opened a centuries-old tradition of special treatises on poetics, which over time acquired an increasingly normative character (this is already the “Science of Poetry,” 1st century BC, Horace). At the same time, rhetoric developed, within which the theory of prose and stylistics was formed. The tradition of composing rhetoric, like poetics, survived into the New Age (in particular, in Russia: “A Brief Guide to Eloquence”, 1748, M.V. Lomonosov). In antiquity - the origins of literary criticism (in Europe): the judgments of early philosophers about Homer, the comparison of the tragedies of Aeschylus and Euripides in the comedy of Aristophanes "Frogs". The differentiation of literary knowledge occurs in the Hellenistic era, during the period of the so-called Alexandrian philological school (3-2 centuries BC), when, together with other sciences, literary criticism separated from philosophy and formed its own disciplines. The latter include bio-bibliography (“Tables”, 3rd century BC, Callimachus - the first prototype of a literary encyclopedia), criticism of the text from the point of view of its authenticity, commentary and publication of texts. Deep concepts of art and literature are also emerging in the countries of the East. In China, in line with Confucianism, the doctrine of the social and educational function of art is formed (Xunzi, c. 298-238 BC), and in line with Taoism, the aesthetic theory of beauty in connection with the universal creative principle of “Tao” (Laozi, 6-5 century BC).
In India, problems of artistic structure are developed in connection with the teachings about a special psychology of perception of art - rasa (the treatise "Natyashastra", attributed to Bharata, around the 4th century, and later treatises) and hidden meaning a work of art - dhvani (“The Doctrine of Echoes” by Anandavardhana, 9th century), and since ancient times the development of literary criticism has been closely connected with the science of language, with the study of poetic style. In general, the development of literary criticism in the countries of the East was distinguished by the predominance of general theoretical and general aesthetic methods (along with textual and bibliographic works; in particular, the biobibliographic genre of tazkire became widespread in Persian-language and Turkic-language literatures). Historical and evolutionary studies appeared only in the 19th and 20th centuries. The connecting links between ancient and modern literary studies were Byzantium and the Latin literature of Western European peoples; medieval literary criticism, stimulated by the collection and study of ancient monuments, had a predominantly bibliographic and commentary bias. Research in the field of poetics, rhetoric, and metrics also developed. During the Renaissance, in connection with the creation of original poetics that corresponded to local and national conditions, the problem of language, going beyond rhetoric and stylistics, grew to the general theoretical problem of establishing modern European languages as full-fledged material for poetry (Dante’s treatise “On Popular Speech”, “Defense and glorification of the French language", Du Bellay); the right of literary criticism to address modern artistic phenomena was also asserted (comments by G. Boccaccio to “ Divine Comedy"). However, since new literary criticism grew on the basis of the “discovery of antiquity,” the assertion of originality was contradictorily combined with attempts to adapt elements of ancient poetics to new literature (transferring the norms of Aristotle’s doctrine of drama to the epic in “Discourse on the Poetic Art”, T. Tasso). The perception of classical genres as “eternal” canons coexisted with the Renaissance’s inherent sense of dynamism and incompleteness. During the Renaissance, Aristotle's Poetics was rediscovered (the most important publication was carried out in 1570 by L. Castelvetro), which, together with J. Ts. Scaliger's Poetics (1561), had a strong influence on subsequent literary studies. At the end of the 16th century and especially in the era of classicism, the tendency to systematize the laws of art intensified; at the same time, the normative nature of artistic theory is clearly indicated. N. Boileau in “Poetic Art” (1674), having put aside general epistemological and aesthetic problems, devoted his efforts to the creation of harmonious poetics as a system of genre, stylistic, speech norms, the isolation and obligatory nature of which turned his treatise and related works (“Essay on criticism", 1711, A. Pope; "Epistole on poetry", 1748, A.P. Sumarokov, etc.) almost into literary codes. At the same time, in literary studies of the 17th and 18th centuries there is a strong tendency towards anti-normativity in understanding the types and genres of literature. In G.E. Lessing ("Hamburg Drama") it acquired the character of a decisive attack against normative poetics in general, which prepared the aesthetic and literary theories of the romantics. On the basis of enlightenment, attempts also arise to justify the development of literature by local conditions, incl. environment and climate (“Critical reflections on poetry and painting”, 1719, J.B. Dubos). The 18th century was the time of the creation of the first historical and literary courses: “History of Italian Literature” (1772-82) by G. Tiraboschi, built on a historical consideration of the types of poetry “Lyceum, or Course of Ancient and Modern Literature” (1799-1805) by J. Laharpe. The struggle between historicism and normativity is marked by the works of the “father of English criticism” J. Dryden (“An Essay on Dramatic Poetry”, 1668) and S. Johnson (“Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets”, 1779-81).
At the end of the 18th century, a major shift was observed in European literary consciousness, which shook the stable hierarchy of artistic values. The inclusion of folklore monuments in the scientific horizon of medieval European, as well as eastern literatures, called into question the category of a model, whether in ancient art or in the Renaissance. A sense of the uniqueness of artistic criteria of different eras develops, most fully expressed by I. G. Herder (Shakespeare, 1773). The category of the special comes into its own in literary criticism - in relation to the literature of a given people or period, carrying within itself its own scale of perfection. Among the romantics, the feeling of different criteria resulted in the concept of different cultural eras expressing the spirit of the people and the time. Speaking about the impossibility of restoring the classical (ancient) form, contrasting it with the new form (which arose along with Christianity), they emphasized the eternal variability and renewal of art (F. and A. Schlegel). However, justifying modern art as romantic, permeated with Christian symbolism of the spiritual and infinite, the romantics imperceptibly, contrary to the dialectical spirit of their teaching, restored the category of model (in the historical aspect - the art of the Middle Ages). On the other hand, in the actual philosophical idealistic systems, the crown of which was the philosophy of Hegel, the idea of the development of art was embodied in the concept of the progressive movement of artistic forms, replacing each other with dialectical necessity (for Hegel, these are symbolic, classical and romantic forms); the nature of the aesthetic and its difference from the moral and cognitive was philosophically substantiated (I. Kant); the inexhaustible - “symbolic” - nature of the artistic image was philosophically comprehended (F. Schelling). The philosophical period of literary criticism is a time of comprehensive systems, conceived as universal knowledge about art (and, of course, more broadly - about all being), “subduing” the history of literature, poetics, stylistics, etc.
The current of “philosophical criticism” in Russian literary criticism
In Russia in the 1820-30s, under the influence of German philosophical systems and at the same time, pushing away from them, a movement of “philosophical criticism” developed (D.V. Venevitinov, N.I. Nadezhdin, etc.). In the 1840s, V.G. Belinsky sought to link the ideas of philosophical aesthetics with the concepts of civil service of art and historicism (“sociality”). The series of his articles about A.S. Pushkin (1843-46) was essentially the first course in the history of new Russian literature. Belinsky's explanation of the phenomena of the past was associated with the development of theoretical problems of realism and nationality (understood - as opposed to the theory " official nationality" - in the national democratic sense). By the middle of the 19th century, the field of literary studies in European countries was expanding: disciplines were developing that comprehensively studied the culture of a given ethnic group(for example, Slavic studies); the growth of historical and literary interests is everywhere accompanied by a switch of attention from great artists to the entire mass of artistic facts and from the world literary process to their national literature (“History of the poetic national literature of the Germans,” 1832 - 42, G.G. Gervinus). In Russian literary criticism, in parallel with this, ancient Russian literature was asserted in its rights; increasing interest in it marked the courses of M.A. Maksimovich (1839), A.V. Nikitenko (1845) and especially “The History of Russian Literature, Mainly Ancient” (1846) by S.P. Shevyrev.
Methodological schools of literary criticism
Pan-European methodological schools are emerging. The interest in mythology and folk symbolism awakened by romanticism was expressed in the works of the mythological school (J. Grimm and others). In Russia, F.I. Buslaev, not limiting himself to the study of the mythological basis, traced its historical fate, incl. interaction of folk poetry with written monuments. Subsequently, “younger mythologists” (including in Russia A.N. Afanasyev) raised the question of the origins of myth. Under the influence of the other side of the romantic theory - about art as the self-expression of the creative spirit - the biographical method took shape (S.O. Sainte-Beuve. Literary-critical portraits). Biographism, to one degree or another, runs through all modern literary studies, preparing psychological theories of creativity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Influential in the second half of the 19th century was cultural-historical school. Focusing on the successes of the natural sciences, she sought to bring the understanding of causality and determinism in literary criticism to precise, tangible factors; this, according to the teachings of I. Taine (“History of English Literature”, 1863-64), is the trinity of race, environment and moment. The traditions of this school were developed by F. De Sanguis, V. Scherer, M. Menendesi-Pelayo, in Russia - N.S. Tikhonravov, A.N. Pypin, N.I. Storozhenko. As the cultural-historical method developed, its underestimation of the artistic nature of literature, considered primarily as a social document, strong positivist tendencies, and neglect of dialectics and aesthetic criteria were revealed. On the other hand, radical criticism in Russia, touching on the problems of the history of literature, emphasized the connection of the artistic process with the interaction and confrontation of various social groups, with the dynamics of class relations (“Essays on the Gogol period of Russian literature”, 1855-56, N.G. Chernyshevsky; “ On the degree of participation of nationalities in the development of Russian literature", 1858, N.A. Dobrolyubova). At the same time, the formulation of a number of theoretical problems (the function of art, nationality) by some revolutionary democrats was not free from normativity and simplification. Back in the 1840s, comparative historical literary criticism emerged within the framework of the study of folklore and ancient literature. Later, T. Benfey outlined the theory of the migration school, which explained the similarity of plots by communication between peoples (“Panchatantra”, 1859).
Benfey's theory stimulated both a historical approach to interethnic relations and interest in the poetic elements themselves - plots, characters, etc., but refused to study their genesis and often led to random, superficial comparisons. In parallel, theories arose that sought to explain the similarity of poetic forms by the unity of the human psyche ( folk psychological school H. Steinthal and M. Lazarus) and the animism common to primitive peoples (E.B. Taylor), which served as the basis for anthropological theory for ALang. Accepting the doctrine of myth as the primary form of creativity, Alexander N. Veselovsky directed the research towards specific comparisons; Moreover, in contrast to the migration school, he raised the question of the prerequisites for borrowing - “countercurrents” in the literature being influenced. In “Historical Poetics”, clarifying the essence of poetry - from its history, he establishes the specific subject of historical poetics - the development of poetic forms and those laws according to which certain social content fit into some inevitable poetic forms - genre, epithet, plot (Veselovsky, 54). From the structure of a work of art as a whole, he approached the problems of poetics by A.A. Potebnya (“From Notes on the Theory of Literature,” 1905), who revealed the polysemy of the work, which seems to contain many contents, the eternal renewal of the image in the process of its historical life and the constructive the reader's role in this change. The idea of the “internal form” of a word put forward by Potebnya contributed to the dialectical study of the artistic image and was promising for the subsequent study of poetic structure. In the last third of the 19th century, the cultural-historical method deepened with the help of a psychological approach (with G. Brandes). Arises psychological school(V. Wundt, D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, etc.). The intensification of comparative historical study led to the creation of a special discipline - comparative literature, or comparative studies (F. Baldansperger, P. Van Tieghem, P. Azar. In domestic literary criticism, this direction is represented by V. M. Zhirmunsky, M. P. Alekseev, N. I. Conrad and others). The process of development of literary criticism is becoming global, breaking down centuries-old barriers between the West and the East. In the countries of the East, histories of national literatures appear for the first time, and systematic literary criticism is being established. At the end of the 19th century - and especially actively - from the beginning of the 20th century, Marxist literary criticism was formed, which paid main attention to the social status of art and its role in the ideological and class struggle. Although such representatives of this trend as G.V. Plekhanov, A.V. Lunacharsky and especially G. Lukach recognized the relative independence and sovereignty of artistic factors, in practice Marxist literary criticism led to their impoverished interpretations, especially among the ideologists of the so-called vulgar sociologism , harshly calling the writer to one or another class or social stratum.
Anti-positivist tendency
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in Western literary criticism an anti-positivist tendency has emerged, which took basically three directions. Firstly, the right of intellectual-rational knowledge was disputed in favor of intuitive knowledge in relation to both creative act , and to judgments about art (“Laughter”, 1900, A. Bergson); hence the attempts not only to refute the system of traditional literary categories (types and genera of poetry, genres), but also to prove their fundamental inadequacy to art: they determine not only the external structure of a work, but also its artistry (“Aesthetics...”, 1902, B. Croce ). Secondly, there was a desire to overcome the flat determinism of the cultural-historical school and build a classification of literature based on deep psychological and spiritual differentiations (this is the antithesis of two types of poetry - “Apollonian” and “Dionysian” in “The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music”, 1872, F .Nietzsche). V. Dilthey also sought to explain art by deep processes, insisting on the difference between “ideas” and “experiences” and identifying three main forms in “spiritual history”: positivism, objective idealism and dualistic idealism, or “ideologism of freedom.” This theory (see) was not free from the mechanical attachment of artists to each of the forms; in addition, she underestimated the moments of artistic structure, because art dissolved in the flow of the general worldview inherent in the era. Thirdly, the sphere of the unconscious was fruitfully involved in the explanation of art (S. Freud). However, the pansexualism characteristic of Freud’s followers impoverished the research results (such as the explanation of the artist’s entire work by the “Oedipus complex”). Applying psychoanalytic principles to art in a new way, he formulated the theory of the collective unconscious (archetypes) C. G. Jung (“On the relation of analytical psychology to a literary work”, 1922), under whose influence (as well as J. Fraser and the “Cambridge school” his followers) ritual-mythological criticism developed. Its representatives sought to find certain ritual patterns and collective unconscious archetypes in the works of all eras. Promoting the study of the foundations of genres and poetic devices (metaphors, symbols, etc.), this movement, in general rightfully subordinating literature to myth and ritual, dissolved literary criticism in ethnology and psychoanalysis. A special place in Western literary criticism has been occupied by searches based on the philosophy of existentialism. In contrast to historicism in the understanding of literary development, the concept of existential time was put forward, to which great works of art correspond (Heidegger M. The Origin of a Work of Art. 1935; Steiger E. Time as the Poet’s Imagination, 1939). By interpreting poetic works as self-sufficient, self-contained truth and “prophecy,” the existentialist “interpretation” avoids the traditional genetic approach. Interpretation is determined by the linguistic and historical horizon of the interpreter himself.
“Formal school” in Russian literary criticism
Based on intuitionism and biographical impressionism, on the one hand, and on methods that ignored the specifics of art (cultural-historical school), on the other, arose in the 1910s “formal school” in Russian literary criticism(Yu.N. Tynyanov, V.B. Shklovsky, B.M. Eikhenbaum, to a certain extent close to them V.V. Vinogradov and B.V. Tomashevsky;). She sought to overcome the dualism of form and content by putting forward a new relationship: material (something belonging to the artistic act) and form (the organization of material in a work). This achieved an expansion of the space of form (previously reduced to style or some randomly selected moments), but at the same time, in the sphere of analysis and interpretation, functional ones, incl. philosophical and social, concepts of art. Through the Prague Linguistic Circle, the “formal school” had a significant influence on world literary studies, in particular on the “new criticism” and structuralism (which also inherited the ideas of T. S. Eliot). At the same time, along with further formalization and displacement of aesthetic aspects, there has also emerged a tendency to overcome the noted antinomy, which is insoluble within the framework of the “formal method”. A work of art began to be viewed as a complex system of levels, including both substantive and formal aspects (R. Ingarden). On the other hand, the direction of the so-called objective psychology of art (L.S. Vygotsky) arises, which interprets artistic phenomena as a “system of stimuli” that determine certain psychological experiences. As a reaction to “formal methods” and subjectivist tendencies, a sociological approach to literature developed in the 1960s, but sometimes with a straightforward attribution of literary phenomena to socio-economic factors. The middle of the 20th century is a time of rapprochement and confrontation between various methodological directions; Thus, sociologism, on the one hand, gravitates toward structuralism, and on the other, toward existentialism. In line with post-structuralism, a doctrine is being developed about a text with multiple meanings, hiding an infinite number of cultural codes; Moreover, the sphere of intertextuality created in this way also includes factors that arose not only before the creation of the text in question, but also after it (R. Barthes, based on J. Derrida and J. Kristeva). At a new level, the study of ideology in its closest connections with mythopoetic and metaphorical thinking is also being restored (Clifford Geertz). Experiments in the synthesis of formal and philosophical paradigms of art were proposed by new domestic literary studies (M.M. Bakhtin, D.S. Likhachev, Yu.M. Lsggman, V.V. Ivanov, V.N. Toporov, etc.).
Literary criticism as a science arose at the beginning of the 19th century. Of course, literary works have existed since antiquity. Aristotle was the first who tried to systematize them in his book, the first to give a theory of genres and a theory of types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry). He also belongs to the theory of catharsis and mimesis. Plato created a story about ideas (idea → material world → art).
In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “Poetic Art”, based on the earlier work of Horace. It isolated knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.
In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).
At the beginning of the 19th century, the era of the dominance of romanticism began in ideology, philosophy, and art. At this time, the Brothers Grimm created their theory.
Literature is an art form; it creates aesthetic values, and therefore is studied from the point of view of various sciences.
Literary studies studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them. The subject of literary criticism is not only fiction, but also all the artistic literature of the world - written and oral.
Modern literary criticism consists of:
literary theory
literary history
literary criticism
Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader. Develops general concepts and terms.
Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics.
Poetics - studies the composition and structure of a literary work.
The theory of the literary process - studies the patterns of development of genders and genres.
Literary aesthetics – studies literature as an art form.
Literary history studies the development of literature. Divided by time, by direction, by place.
Literary criticism deals with the evaluation and analysis of literary works. Critics evaluate a work in terms of aesthetic value.
From a sociological perspective, the structure of society is always reflected in works, especially ancient ones, so she also studies literature.
Auxiliary literary disciplines:
textual criticism - studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing, author, place, translation and comments
paleography - the study of ancient text carriers, manuscripts only
bibliography is an auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on a particular subject
library science is the science of collections, repositories of not only fiction, but also scientific literature, union catalogues.
2. Poetics - a system of artistic means and techniques used to create art world in a separate work or in the work of a writer. The doctrine of the laws and principles of creating a literary work. P. - “the science of the system of means of expression in literature. works In the expanded sense of the word, P. coincides with literary theory, in a narrowed one - with one of the areas of theoretical. P. As a field of literary theory, P. studies the specifics of literature. genres and genres, movements and trends, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal communication and the relationship between different levels of art. whole.P. - the science of art. use of language means. Verbal (i.e. linguistic) text of the production. is the only one. the material form of existence of its content. P.'s goal is to highlight and systematize the elements of the text involved in the formation of aesthetics. impressions of a work. P. usually differ in general (theoretical or systematic - “macropoetics”), particular (or actually descriptive - “micropoetics”) and historical.
General pedagogy is divided into three areas that study, respectively, the sound, verbal, and figurative structure of a text; the goal of general P. is to compile a complete systematization. a repertoire of techniques (aesthetically effective elements) covering all three of these areas. Private P. deals with the description of lit. prod. in all the lists. above aspects, which allows you to create a “model” - an individual aesthetic system. effective properties of the work.
HISTORICAL POETICS
If general descriptive poetics covers a large number of works,
to reveal the fact of historical changeability of individual properties of literary texts,
the fact of their uneven activity (significance) in certain eras and the fact
the death of some properties and the appearance of others and develop in connection with this additional
additional research methods and additional categories of description. By-
ethics focused on the historicity of the properties of literature and the history of these
properties, history, understood not only as appearance and disappearance, but also
as a transformation of properties - such poetics took shape in European literature -
Raturology as a relatively independent variety - as poetics
historical. “Historical poetics studies the development of both individual
artistic techniques (epithets, metaphors, rhymes, etc.) and categories (hu-
pre-real time, space, basic contrasts of characteristics),
and entire systems of such techniques and categories characteristic of a particular era-
NORMATIVE poetics
The earliest type of European poetics, which emerged in ancient times, is normative in nature. In the history of literary criticism, it is usually defined as “classical poetics” (Aristotle, Horace), and its later variety as the poetics of classicism (Boileau). Poetics of Aristotle. Let us note two interesting aspects in them. On the one hand, we will talk about the properties and patterns
artistic creativity (understood both as a process and as its results - works) in general. This aspect is well known to us as the subject of modern theories of literature and poetics. On the other hand, it’s about how to compose a literary text and how to achieve the desired result. This aspect is missing in modern literary theories and poetics. Today's poetics address
Vanities are mainly for the reader of literature, not for writers. They are taught to understand and interpret a literary text, but are not interested in how to compose it. For this very reason, poetics, in which the second of the noted aspects is present - addressed to the writer, have received the definition of normative. Normative poetics became especially widespread in the era of classicism, but they did not always take the form of textbooks (treatises). Normative poetics also have one more, less noticeable, property. They were often used for evaluations of emerging works, and any deviations from their instructions were especially condemned.
№3 Literature as an art form, its specificity and functions:
The ancients identified five types of art; the classification is based on a material medium. Music is the art of sounds, painting is the art of colors, sculpture is stone, architecture is plastic forms, literature is the word.
However, already Lesin in the article “Laocoon or on the boundaries of painting” issued the first scientific classification: the division into spatial and temporal arts.
From Lesin's point of view, literature is a temporary art.
Expressive and fine arts are also distinguished (sign principle). Expressive expresses emotions, conveys mood, figurative - embodies an idea.
Expressive art is music, architecture, abstract painting, lyrics.
Fine - painting, sculpture, drama and epic.
According to this classification, literature is an expressive art.
After the emergence of complex arts (theater, cinema), which are a symbiosis, syncretic arts begin to distinguish simple and complex arts.
Thus literature is simple.
Classifying arts according to the number of functions (into monofunctional - performing an aesthetic function and bifunctional - performing aesthetic and pragmatic functions), literature is classified as monofunctional.
As a result, literature is a temporary, expressive-visual, simple and monofunctional art.
Functions of a literary writer:
Transformative
Educational
Social-aesthetic (impact on society)
Cognitive
Language-creative.
Classification B.O. Cormana:
-3rd person
-1 person (plural). “We” is a generalized carrier of consciousness. In such texts the form is observation or reflection.
In the modern classification, these 2 forms are combined and speak of a lyrical narrator.
3. The lyrical hero is the subject of speech through whom the biographical and emotional-psychological traits of the author are expressed.
The lyrical hero is a monologue form of the author's expression in the text.
4. Role hero - the indirect expression of the author in the text through the sociocultural type of the past or present. Role-playing hero is a dialogical form.
6. Interpersonal subject - the form realizes different points of view on the world..
5. Artistic time and space. The concept of chronotope The concept of space-time organization. Types of artistic time and space. The concept of chronotope (M.M. Bakhtin). Functions. Types of chronotopes:
The spatiotemporal organization of a literary work is the chronotope.
Under the chronotope of M.M. Bakhtin understands the “essential interconnection of temporal and spatial relations.”
In literary works, images of time and space are distinguished separately:
Daily allowance
Calendar
Biographical
Historical
Space
Space:
Closed
Open
Remote
Detailed (subject-rich)
Really visible
Presented
Space
In addition, both time and space distinguish between the concrete and the abstract. If time is abstract, then space is abstract, and vice versa.
According to Bakhtin, the chronotope is primarily an attribute of the novel. It has plot significance. The chronotope is the structural support of the genre.
Types of private chronotopes according to Bakhtin:
The chronotope of the road is based on the motif of a chance meeting. The appearance of this motif in the text can cause a plot. Open space.
The chronotope of a private salon is a non-random meeting. Closed space.
Chronotope of the castle (it is not found in Russian literature). The dominance of the historical, tribal past. Limited space.
The chronotope of the estate (not Bakhtin) is a concentric, unprincipled closed space.
The chronotope of a provincial town is eventless time, a closed, self-sufficient space, living its own life. Time is cyclical, but not sacred.
Chronotype of threshold (crisis consciousness, turning point). There is no biography as such, only moments.
Large chronotope:
Folklore (idyllic). Based on the law of inversion.
Trends in modern chronotope:
Mythologization and symbolization
Doubling
Recalling a character's memory
Increasing the meaning of editing
Time itself becomes the hero of the story
Time and space are integral coordinates of the world.
The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality
Organizes the space of the work and leads readers into it
Can relate to different spaces and times
Can build a chain of associations in the reader’s mind and, on this basis, connect works with ideas about the world and expand these ideas.
No. 6. Form and content. The problem of F. and S. is one of the leading issues in the history of aesthetic teachings, the struggle between materialism and idealism, and the struggle between realistic and idealistic movements in art. The problem of F. and S. is organically connected with the main question of aesthetics - the question of the relationship of artistic creativity or, more broadly speaking, artistic consciousness to objective reality.
Aesthetics Hegel, built on the basis of his idealistic dialectics, places the problem of F. and S. in the focus of its attention. In contrast to Kant's formalism, Hegel teaches about art as a meaningful form, namely, as one of the forms of manifestation of the absolute spirit (along with religion and philosophy). The content of art, according to Hegel, is unthinkable in isolation from its form, and vice versa: form (appearance, expression, revelation) is inseparable from the entire richness of the content of the absolute spirit, which in art receives its sensual and contemplative design. The opposites of F. and S., external and internal in art interpenetrate each other, therefore Hegel calls the relationship between them essential. The absolute idea is realized as beauty precisely thanks to the dialectical interpenetration of the categories F. and S. In the dialectic of beauty, Hegel establishes three stages: beauty in general, beauty in nature and beauty in art; harmonious perfection as the unity of F. and S., according to Hegel, is possible only at the stage of beauty in art, while beauty in nature plays the role of only preparation for the highest level. In the history of art, Hegel distinguishes three successive stages, at each of which the relationship between symbolism and symbolism is revealed in different ways. Symbolic art has not yet achieved the unity of symbolism and symbolism: here the form still remains external to the content. Classical art is distinguished by the unity of form and content, their harmonious interpenetration. Romantic art reveals a preponderance of content over form. Hegel examines in detail the relationship between F. and S. in various types of art. At the same time, the types of art in Hegel correspond to the phases of development: architecture - symbolic, sculpture - classical, painting, music and poetry - romantic. The subjectivity of music is overcome, according to Hegel, in poetry, which stands at the pinnacle of art precisely because it most perfectly expresses the spiritual essence as its content in (verbal) form.
Question No. 7. Imagery- the main fundamental property. An image is a living picture that we must perceive through the senses (sensual, not intellectual
perception). An image is created in literature thanks to the word, therefore the word is the figurative material of literature.
Through its means (words) literature conveys other arts. Therefore, literature occupies a central position among other arts.
The image is always specific, detailed, individualized, but still it is some kind of generalization. An image always reflects some part of reality.
Artistic image – one of the main categories of aesthetics, which characterizes the way of displaying and transforming reality inherent only in art. An image is also called any phenomenon creatively recreated by the author in a work of art. Literary type - (hero type) - a set of characters that are similar in their social status or occupation, worldview and spiritual appearance. Such characters can be represented in various works the same or several writers. Literary types are a reflection of spiritual trends development of society, worldview, philosophical, moral and aesthetic views of the writers themselves. Character is the recurring, stable internal properties of a person: worldview, moral principles, life values, habits - everything that allows you to characterize him as a person. People's characters are manifested in their actions and behavior, in relationships with other people. Character and type. This is what life has to do with
of a person. Type primarily expresses the generic mass principle. In character, the emphasis is, on the contrary, on individuality. The type expresses one quality or property; it is psychologically single-stranded. Character is dialectical, contradictory, psychologically complex, multifaceted. The type is always static, devoid of mobility and does not change. Character is dynamic, it changes. Character is capable of self-development. For example, Tatyana Larina and Anna Karenina, which do not behave at all as intended by the author. Type exists outside of time. The character is considered against the background of the historical era, they interact together. But the character always contains a typical representative. Typical and typical are different things. Character has a core that characterizes an era, a generation. Example: “Fathers and Sons” - Bazarov and Pavel Petrovich. Therefore, very often books quickly become irrelevant.
Fairy tales and folklore commonly use types. Sometimes, however, there is a rebirth of a hero. But this is not yet character. Often heroes are carriers of one particular quality. Therefore, speaking surnames are often found in plays. Classicism is built on carriers of the same quality, for example, Fonvizin. For realism it is always important to understand the reasons - there are almost always characters there. Exception - Dead souls, where in the heroes one, in principle, good trait is brought to the point of absurdity. Conventional images include: hyperbolic idealization, grotesque, allegory and symbol. Hyperbolic idealization is found in epics, where the real and the fantastic are combined, there are no realistic motivations for actions. The form of the grotesque: a shift in proportions - Nevsky Prospekt, a violation of scale, the inanimate displaces the living. The grotesque is often used for satire or to indicate tragic principles. Grotesque is a symbol of disharmony. The grotesque style is characterized by an abundance of alogisms and a combination of different voices. Allegory and symbol - two levels: depicted and implied. The allegory is unambiguous - there are instructions and decoding. The symbol is polysemantic, inexhaustible. In a symbol, both what is depicted and what is implied are equally important. There is no indication in the symbol
Types of imagery: Allegory – a type of imagery, the basis of which is allegory: the imprinting of a speculative idea in an objective image. The role of allegory can be played by both abstract concepts (virtue, conscience, truth, etc.), and typical phenomena, characters, mythological characters, even individuals. Symbol – a universal aesthetic category. A symbol is an image endowed with organicity and inexhaustible ambiguity, an image that goes beyond its own limits, indicates the presence of a certain meaning, inseparably fused with it, but not identical to it. The symbol is characterized by semantic depth and semantic perspective. Grotesque – a type of artistic imagery based on fantasy, laughter, hyperbole, a bizarre combination and contrast of the fantastic and the real, the beautiful and the ugly, the tragic and the comic, verisimilitude and caricature. Grotesque creates a special grotesque world - an anomalous, unnatural, strange, illogical world.
№ 8. The picture of the depicted world, the image of the hero of a work of literature in a unique individuality, consists of individual artistic details . Artistic detail – this is a pictorial or expressive artistic detail: an element of landscape, portrait, speech, psychologism, plot.
Being an element of an artistic whole, a detail in itself is the smallest image, a micro-image. At the same time, the detail is almost always part of a larger image. An individual detail, when assigned to a character, can become his permanent attribute, a sign by which this character is identified; such, for example, are Helen’s shining shoulders, the radiant eyes of Princess Marya in “War and Peace”, Oblomov’s robe “made of real Persian fabric”, Pechorin’s eyes, which “did not laugh when he laughed”...
№ 9 Lifelikeness - “direct”, immediate reflection of reality: creating the illusion of complete similarity (identity) of life and its artistic reflection. Artistic convention is an integral feature of any work, associated with the nature of art itself and consisting in the fact that the images created by the artist are perceived as non-identical to reality, as something created by the creative will of the author. Any art conditionally reproduces life, but the measure of this U. x. may be different. Depending on the ratio of plausibility and fiction, a distinction is made between primary and secondary fiction. For primary fiction. a greater degree of verisimilitude is characteristic when the fictionality of the depicted is not declared or emphasized by the author. Secondary U. x. - this is a demonstrative violation by the artist of verisimilitude in the depiction of objects or phenomena, a conscious appeal to fantasy, the use of the grotesque, symbols, etc., in order to give certain life phenomena a special sharpness and prominence.
Convention - the non-identity of the world is thin. works to the real world.
There is a primary convention and a secondary convention (accented). Secondary convention is complete isolation from reality. Its extreme forms are grotesque and fantasy. There is also an intermediate convention (transition to the grotesque, etc.): Raskolnikov’s dream about how an old woman appears laughing at him.
The more the author introduces his own invention, the higher the degree of convention. Literature as a phenomenon arises when the author is aware of convention, when, for example, he stops believing in mythological creatures and understands that this is fiction, a convention. In the meantime, he believes in what he came up with, this is a myth (understanding of the world, the laws by which man lives). As soon as the need arises to connect this with sensory knowledge, aesthetics, literature arises.
№ 10. Theme, problem and idea of the work. Topic - the main circle of those life issues, the writer focused on the cat in his work. Sometimes the theme is even identified with the idea of the work. Themes refer to the most essential components of artistic structure, aspects of form, and supporting techniques. In literature, these are the meanings of keywords, what is recorded by them. Another meaning of the term “theme” is essential for understanding the cognitive aspect of art: it goes back to the theoretical experiments of the last century and is associated not with structural elements, but directly with the essence of the work as a whole. The theme as the foundation of an artistic creation is everything that has become the subject of the author’s interest, comprehension and evaluation.
The problematic is the area of comprehension and understanding by the writer of the reflected reality. The problematic can be called the central part of artistic content, because it, as a rule, contains what we turn to the work for - the author’s unique view of the world. In contrast to the theme, the problematic is the subjective side of artistic content, therefore, the author’s individuality, the original author’s view of the world is maximally manifested in it. Another component of the ideological world of a work is the artistic idea - the main generalizing thought or system of such thoughts. Sometimes an idea or one of the ideas is directly formulated by the author himself in the text of the work. The most common case is when the idea is not formulated in the text of the work, but seems to permeate its entire structure. In this case, the idea requires analytical work for its identification, sometimes very painstaking and complex and not always ending in an unambiguous result. For a correct understanding of the artistic idea and its meaning in the ideological world of the work, the analysis of this aspect of the artistic content must be carried out in close connection with the analysis of other components of the ideological world of the work. One of the most common practical difficulties that arise when analyzing the content is the failure to distinguish or identify themes, problems and ideas. The topic is not yet problematic and evaluative; the topic is a kind of statement: “the author reflected such and such characters in such and such situations.” The problematic level is the level of discussion of a particular value system, the establishment of significant connections between the phenomena of reality, this is the side of the artistic content where the reader is invited by the author to an active conversation. Finally, the area of ideas is the area of decisions and conclusions; an idea always denies or affirms something.
№ 11. Definition of pathos in artistic production and its varieties. The last element included in the ideological world of the work is pathos, which can be defined as the leading emotional tone of the work, its emotional mood. A synonym for the term “pathos” is the expression “emotional-value orientation.” To analyze pathos in a work of art means to establish its typological variety, the type of emotional-value orientation, attitude towards the world and man in the world. Epic-dramatic pathos represents a deep and undoubted acceptance of the world as a whole and oneself in it, which is the essence of the epic worldview. Epico-dramatic pathos is the maximum trust in the objective world in all its real versatility and inconsistency. Note that this type of pathos is rarely presented in literature, and even less often it appears in its pure form. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey can be cited as works based generally on epic-dramatic pathos. The objective basis of the pathos of heroism is the struggle of individuals or groups for the implementation and defense of ideals, which are necessarily perceived as sublime. Another condition for the manifestation of the heroic in reality is the free will and initiative of man: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic. With heroism as pathos based on the sublime, other types of pathos that have a sublime character come into contact - first of all, tragedy and romance. Romance is related to heroism by the desire for a sublime ideal.
But if heroism is a sphere of active action, then romance is a region of emotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The pathos of tragedy is the awareness of a loss, and an irreparable loss, of some important life values - human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc. Literary scholars and aestheticians have long considered the insoluble nature of a particular life conflict to be the objective basis of tragedy. In sentimentality - another type of pathos - we, as in romance, observe the predominance of the subjective over the objective. The pathos of sentimentality often played a dominant role in the works of Richardson, Rousseau, and Karamzin. Moving on to consider the following typological varieties of pathos - humor and satire - we note that they are based on the general basis of the comic. In addition to the subjective, irony as pathos also has objective specificity. Unlike all other types of pathos, it is not aimed at objects and phenomena of reality as such, but at their ideological or emotional understanding in one or another philosophical, ethical, or artistic system.
№ 12. The concept of plot and plot. Plot Components . The word “plot” denotes a chain of events recreated in a literary work, i.e. the life of the characters in its spatio-temporal changes, in changing positions and circumstances. The events depicted by writers form the basis of the objective world of the work. The plot is the organizing principle of the dramatic, epic and lyric-epic genres. The events that make up the plot are related in different ways to the facts of reality that precede the appearance of the work. Components of a plot: motive (connected motives, free motives, repeating or leitmotifs), exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement. In epic and lyrical these components can be arranged in any order, but in dramatic they follow strictly in order. With all the variety of plots, their varieties can be classified into 2 main types: chronicle, i.e. events follow one after another; and concentric, i.e. events are connected not by a chronotopic connection, but by a cause-and-effect associative one, i.e. every previous event is the cause of the subsequent one. Plot is a set of events in their mutual internal connection. The plots in different works can be very similar to each other, but the plot is always uniquely individual. The plot is always richer than the plot, because the plot represents only factual information, and the plot implements subtextual information. The plot focuses only on the external events of the hero’s life. The plot, in addition to external events, includes the psychological state of the hero, his thoughts, subconscious impulses, i.e. any smallest changes in the hero himself and the surrounding environment. Plot components can be considered events or motive.
№ 13 The concept of conflict as the engine of the plot. Types of conflicts . Ways to implement conflict in various kinds of literary works:
The plot is based on conflict. The most important function of the plot is to reveal the contradictions in life, i.e. conflicts.
Conflict - contradiction, clash, struggle, inconsistency.
Stages of conflict development - main plot elements:
Exposition-commencement-action development-climax-denouement
Conflict classification:
Solvable (limited by the scope of the work)
Unsolvable (eternal, universal contradictions)
Types of conflicts:
Man and nature
Man and society
Man and culture
Ways to implement conflict in various kinds of literary works:
In drama, the conflict is more often fully embodied and exhausted in the course of the events depicted. It arises against the background of a conflict-free situation, escalates and resolves before the reader’s eyes (Ostrovsky’s “The Thunderstorm”).
In epic and dramatic works, events unfold against a constant background of conflict. Contradictions exist before events begin, during their course and after their completion. These can be both solvable and unresolvable conflicts (Dostoevsky's "The Idiot", Chekhov's "The Cherry Orchard").
№ 14. Composition Composition is the composition, a certain correlation and arrangement of parts, that is, units of depicted and artistic and expressive means in a certain significant time sequence. Compositional unity and completeness of a work of art, the consistency of all its parts with each other and with the general intention of the writer is a very important condition for achieving artistry . Working on a composition involves: constructing images of characters, as well as other images of the work and their grouping; plotting (if it is an epic or drama production), choosing the form of narration (in the form of a diary, from the author, from the hero, oral narration), the overall composition, that is, bringing all the components into a single whole.
Composition techniques:
The degree of repetition of any elements in the text determines the nature of the text.
Repetition is an integral property of the motive. With the help of repetition, a “ring” composition is organized.
Repeat in time types:
There is linear time, there is cyclic time. In cyclic repetition it has a positive, sacred meaning; it forms religious consciousness. In linear time, repetition has a negative meaning. Our civilization maintains linear time.
Gain:
Reinforcement is a technique that accompanies repetition. Descriptions are often built on a number of homogeneous elements.
Opposition:
When repetition and opposition are combined, a mirror composition arises (the beginning mirrors the end or situations within the text reflect each other)
Literature is impossible without montage; it has always existed, but the concept itself is only applicable in cinematography. In literature there are 2 concepts of “montage”: the concatenation of 2 images, due to which a third meaning appears; comparison and contrast, not subject to the logic of cause and effect, reflecting the author’s associative train of thought.
In all cases of joining plot and non-plot elements (description, author's digressions), editing is used. If editing seems to be the leading technique, then such a composition is editing. If a technique functions throughout the entire text, then such a technique is called a compositional principle.
Types of compositions:
Composition of images
Speech organization
Main components
Optional - ZFK (title + epigraphs).
№ 15. MOTIVE, V in a broad sense this word is the main psychological or figurative grain that underlies every work of art (this is what they say, for example, about the “love motives” of Tyutchev’s lyrics, the “star motives” of Fet’s poetry, etc.).
at more advanced stages of literary development, a poetic work is formed by the fusion of a very large number of individual motives. In this case, the main motive coincides with the theme. So. for example, the theme of Leo Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” is the motif of historical fate, which does not interfere with the parallel development in the novel of a number of other side motifs, often only remotely associated with the theme (for example, the motif of the truth of collective consciousness - Pierre and Karataev; the everyday motif - the ruin of the rich noble family of the Counts of Rostov: numerous love motives: Nikolai Rostov and Sophie, he and Princess Maria, Pierre Bezukhov and Ellen, Prince Andrei and Natasha, etc., etc., mystical and so characteristic in the future in Tolstoy’s work the motif of regenerating death is the dying insights of Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, etc., etc.). The entire set of motifs that make up a given work of art forms what is called plot
a term transferred to literary studies from music, where it denotes a group of several notes, rhythmically shaped. By analogy with this, in literary criticism the term “M.” begins to be used to denote the minimum component of a work of art - indecomposable next content element(Scherer). In this sense, the concept of M. plays a particularly large, perhaps central role in the comparative study of plots of predominantly oral literature
LITERARY STUDY is the science of artistic literature.
Includes a number of dissents, the main of which are the theory of literature and the history of literature. The theory of literature (going back to the norm in this way and often called by this term) studies the essence the nature of literature as a type of art, the specificity of literary forms, genres, styles, directions. Ignoring the particular and specific, it concentrates on the general dimensions of the devices. st-va of literary production and con-stan-tah of the literary process. The history of literature, on the contrary, with-the-pre-everything, revealing in-di-vi- dual, non-secondary features inherent in national literatures, the creative work of individual writers or individual productions de-ni-yam. So, the is-rich of literature, in contrast to the theory, tends to establish non-constant, non-changeable -signs of ba-rock-co or ro-man-tiz-ma, and, for example, its own image of Russian or German bar-rock-co of the 17th century, the development of ro- man-tiz-ma or individual romantic genres in French, Russian or English li-te-ra-tu-re, etc. About the exact place between the theory and the is-t literature for this -ka, studying literary forms in development (for example, tracking the evolution of novel as a genre). Sometimes Literature is considered a li-te-ra-tour-cri-ti-ku, but there is a real tendency to their distribution.
The complex structure of literary production, which, on the one hand, is the most valuable word - weight-but-languages-to-you-phen-no-men, and on the other hand, with-from-but-sit-with various cultural regions -tya-mi (fi-lo-so-fi-ey, re-li-gi-ey, art-kus-st-vom, social life, etc.), obu-words- there are many components of literary studies as a science, and there are broad inter-disciplinary connections in it (especially -but there are close connections between Literary Studies and language-knowledge, with which it forms a single gu-ma-ni-tar-dis-cy- p-li-well - fi-lo-lo-gy). The interaction of Literary Studies with other gu-ma-ni-tar-ny sciences has led to the emergence of various directions in it. le-tions and methods, ac-valuing this or that aspect of literature in its connection with other spheres of culture: for example, social the logical method trak-val literature as a factor of social life; spiritual school, applying to literature the methods of her-me-nev-ti-ki, ras-smat-ri-va-la about-from-ve-de-de-nie as some kind of communication about the internal world of the author, well-give-it in the code -ke; ri-tu-al-no-mi-fo-lo-gi-che-kri-ti-ka, based on the psychological theories of K.G. Yun-ga, trak-to-va-la literary text as an opo-environmental re-creation of mi-fa or religious ri-tua-la; psycho-ho-ana-li-ti-che-kri-ti-ka, transferring methods and ideas of psycho-ho-ana-li-za to literature, inter-ter -pre-ti-ru-et literary pro-iz-ve-de-nie as you-ra-zhe-nie under-create-on-tel-complexes of per-so-na-zha or sa- my av-to-ra.
Literary pro-from-ve-de-ni-em as its own word-weighted pheno-no-men-for-no-ma-et-sya, in part-st-no-sti , stylistics, studying the language of hu-do-st-ven-noy-te-ra-tu-ry: functions of words of high and low styles , in etiz-mov and simple-speech, especially-ben-no-sti the use of words in a translated meaning - meta-for, me-to-ni-miy, etc. Special-fi-ku in ethical speech studies sti-ho-ve-de-nie, for-no-maya-sya class -fi-ka-tsi-ey, op-re-de-le-ni-em its-ob-ra-zia and is-to-ri-ey of the main phenomena of sti-ho-slo-zheniya : rit-mi-ki, met-ri-ki, stro-fi-ki, rhyme-we. Sti-ho-ve-de-de-nie not-rarely-uses ma-te-ma-tical calculations, comp-y-ter-nu-working text-sta; in its accuracy it is closer to the es-t-ven-but-na-scientific, or not to the gu-ma-ni-tar-dis-ci-p -li-us. Ma-te-ri-al-naya st-ro-na of literary pro-iz-ve-de-niya as ru-ko-pi-si or co-kup-no-sti ru-ko-pi-sey, Having their own history, they are subject to the study of textology and paleo-graphy. The need to study the literary process in conjunction with documents documenting it - both written and printed -nyh - is drawn into the field of whether-te-ra-tu-ro-vedic studies such related sciences as art-hi-vo -ve-de-nie and bib-lio-graphy.
Is-to-ri-che-sky essay
The sources of European Literary Studies have the opinion of ancient thoughts, in particular Pla-to-na, which in the tract "Go-su-dar-st-vo" there is a discussion of literature on childbirth, whether-the-tour-tours, before-the-resurrection- general background in the XVIII century trt tria-du clans (epic, drama, ly-ri-ka). From the era of anti-tich-no-sti until the end of the 18th century, the pro-ble-ma-ti-ka theory of literature developed mainly in tracts. ta-tah according to ri-to-ri-ke - dis-qi-p-li-ne, who taught the red-but-re-chia, and in this way - dis-qi-p-li-ne, taught how to compose literary texts. Trak-ta-you in ri-to-ri-ke and in this-ke had a nor-ma-tiv-ny ha-rak-ter: they are pre-pi-sy-va-li pra-vi-la creation of a text, but not making it the subject of scientific analysis in the modern sense of the word. In addition, in the ri-to-ric ru-co-dstvos, fiction literature has not been developed in the modern sense and non-fiction dozhestvennaya so-chi-ne-niya (su-deb-nye speeches, letters, etc.). Nevertheless, the author of these tracts was the ra-bo-tan of a number of ka-te-go-ries, which were transferred to modern Literary Studies. Ri-to-ri-ka sp-so-st-vo-va-la develop-ra-bot-ke theories of prose and style; that's why we built a system of genera and genres, developed a doctrine about the same, etc. . poured expressive media in poetry, co-pos-ta-vil tra-ge-dia and epic, described ha-rak-ter tra-ge-diy-no-go kon-flick -ta, especially-ben-no-sti syu-same-tra-ge-diy, etc. Op-re-de-live in poetry as a sub-ra-zha-nie, Ari-sto-tel in a hundred -pro-ble-mu with-from-the-no-she-ness of literary fiction and reality, which in the future will become one of the prices -trawling in the European ethi-ke and li-te-ra-tu-ro-ve-de-niy.
For-ro-zh-de-nie is-to-rii literature in connection with Alek-san-d-riy-skaya phil-lo-lo-gi-ey, pre-sta-vi-te-li ko -that-swarm on-cha-li work on the collation of texts of pi-sa-te-leys and on the establishment of their canonical beliefs -siy, for-ni-ma-lis ko-men-ti-ro-va-ni-em pro-iz-ve-de-niy, pre-zh-de all po-um Go-mera. In the era of the Renaissance, when the in-te-res returned to ancient literature and to classical Latin and Greek languages, work on the production and commun-ti-ro-va-niu of an-tic-au-to-ditch in-goit-no-vi-las, and in the course of it, were you ra-tu-vedic genres (notes, introduction, article, etc.) etc.), which retain their meaning in modern publishing and commentary work.
In the countries of the East, already in ancient times, their own logical traditions arose, in Russia some times you-va-yut-sya and general problems of the ethical language (the doctrine of dhva-ni in the tracts of Indian theo-re-ti-kov Anan-da-vard- ha-ny, Ab-hi-na-va-gup-you), and frequent questions (the doctrine of uk-ra-she-ni-yah, zhan-rah, form-mah sti-ha - Arabic Arud, etc.).
The formation of Literary Studies as a self-sufficient science in the middle of the 19th century before the emergence of es-te-ti -ki, in which the pre-measure is, in part, literature as a manifestation of beauty. In contrast to the norm-ma-tiv-noy in this way, yes-vav-shey av-to-ru on-bor-concrete pre-pi-sa-niy, es-te- you tried to reveal the general laws of literary creativity and the literary process, thus pre-exposing the very problem ma-ti-ku of modern literary theory. Within the framework of es-te-ti-ki, for the first time the question was posed about the specificity of literature as a form of art: G.E. Les-sing in the tract “Lao-ko-on, or About the borders of life and poetry” (1766) po-ka-zal prin-tsi-pi-al -different differences between literature and visual arts. In “Lectures on es-te-ti-ke” (volumes 1-2, 1835-1838) G.V.F. -te-ri-sti-ka literary genera, which were-la unas-le-do-va-on the modern theory-ri-ey li-te-ra-tu-ry.
In the 19th century, public European schools of science were formed, differing across the world. to-do-logia. One of the first was the mi-fo-lo-gi-che-school, which arose on the wave of the ro-mantic in-te-re-sa to folk -lo-ru and to folk rituals and mi-fams (brothers J. and V. Grimm, A. Kuhn in Germany; J. Cox in Vel-li-ko-bri-ta-nia ; M. Bre-al in France, etc.). Romanticism, with its attitude towards the perception of life and creativity as a single whole , also influenced the establishment of a new bio-graphic method (S. O. Sainte-Beuve). Us-pe-hi-es-st-of-knowledge in the middle of the 19th century, which contributed to the desire for accurate knowledge in all areas. las-tyah sciences, including in the field of Literary Studies, in many ways op-re-de-li-li-zi-ti-vi-st-skie me-to-do-logical principles of the cultural-tour-but-is-to-ri-che-school (I. Ten, F. De Sanc-tis, V. Scherer, G. Lan-son, etc.) : having concentrated on the study of the co-measures of literary evolution, she de-kla-ri-ro-va-la equipment the word-len-ness of the artistic pro-iz-ve-de-niya of the fact-to-ra-mi of the natural-cli-ma-tic and social-ci-al-environment. You-dvi-nu-taya I. V. Goe-te in 1827 the idea of “all-world-li-te-ra-tu-ry” (Weltliteratur) as a single di-na-mich-but -th whole, in which the national framework is overcome and the idea of the impenetrable exchange -mi, about-ra-mi, artistic techniques, was one of the main factors that led to in-ten-siv -but-the-mu-vi-vi-ti-compar-ni-tel-but-is-to-ri-che-sko-go-te-ra-tu-ro-ve-de-niya, with-environment- then-chiv-she-go-xia on the study of inter-national literary connections (T. Ben-fey in Germany, G. M. Po-snett in Ve -li-ko-bri-ta-nii, etc.). In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the principles of bio-graphic method were developed in Russian with the psychological school (E . En-ne-ken in France, J. Vol-kelt in Germany, etc.), who studied the connection between psi-ho-lo-gi-ey sa-te-la and his creation. In the se-re-di-not - the 2nd half of the 19th century, capital is-to-ria of national literature-tours were created: “Is-to-ria according to -these na-tsio-nal-ly-te-ra-tu-ry Germans” G.G. Ger-vi-nu-sa (volumes 1-5, 1835-1842), “Is-to-ria of the English li-te-ra-tu-ry” by I. Te-na (volumes 1-4, 1863-1864), “Is-to-ria of the French li-te-ra-tu-ry” by G. Lan-so-na (1894), etc.
Under the influence of various es-the-tical and philosophical theories (German romantic es-te-ti-ka, phil-o-so-phia of life ) and in po-le-mi-ke with po-zi-ti-vis-mom and cultural-tour-but-is-to-ri-school in Germany in late XIX century, a spiritual school was born (V. Dil-tei, R. Unger, F. Shtrikh, K. Fietor, Yu . Peter-son, O. Val-tsell, etc.). Her goal was the re-construction of the author’s internal world through “feeling” . The ideas of the school found followers in Hungary (J. Hor-vat, A. Serb, T. Ti-ne-man) and Switzerland (E. Er-ma- teen-ger). On its basis, the so-called Swiss-royal school of in-ter-pre-ta-tions (E. Steiger, W. Kaiser) was formed.
On ru-be-same XIX-XX centuries in Western art-knowledge there is a formal method; his whether-te-ra-tu-ro-vedic pre-lom-le-ni-em became, in part-st-no-sti, work on the study of “morpho-pho- logii ro-ma-na” (German scientist V. Di-be-li-us). Given in the formal-no-sti-listical studies (as well as in the es-te-ti-ke of B. Kro-che) us-ta -a new development in the study of the “in-creas-ing” side of literary production has been found in the so-called art -lististic criticism (L. Spitzer in Germany, P. Gui-ro in France, B. Ter-ra-chi-ni in Italy, etc.) .
In the framework of psycho-ho-ana-li-za as a new region of psycho-ho-lo-gy in the 19th-20th centuries for-ro-yes-et-sya psycho-ana-lytic cri-ti-ka, the first pre-sta-vi-te-lem can be considered Z. Freud-yes, using-me-niv- She-th his ideas about the demon-consciousness-on-tel-nom to the inter-pre-ta-tion of literary class. The greatest development of psycho-analytical criticism was found in the USA (F. Pre-scott, K. Aiken, etc.). On the basis of rapprochement with an-tro-po-lo-gi-ey and et-no-lo-gi-ey (J. Frazer and others) and analytical psi -ho-lo-gi-ey K. G. Yun-ga in the 1950s in American Literary Studies voz-ni-ka-et ri-tu-al-no-mi-fo-logical cri-ti-ka (M. Bodkin, N. Fry, etc.), based on research that is repeated in literary production -ve-de-nii mo-ti-you and symbolic images, which are seen as the embodiment of the arche -ti-pov col-lec-tiv-no-go demon-soz-na-tel-no-go.
In the 1920-1950s, in-ten-siv-no developed com-pa-ra-ti-vi-sti-ka: in France - F. Bal-dan-sper-zhe, P. Van Ti-gem (“Is-to-riya li-te-ra-tu-ry of Europe and America from the Renaissance to the present day”, 1946), M. F. Guyar (“Comparative Li-te-ra-tu-ro-ve-de-nie”, 1951); in the USA - V. Fri-de-rich (“Basically, you compare the study of li-te-ra-tu-ry from Dan-te Alig-e-ri to Judgment O'Neill", 1954).
The perception of a literary text as an autonomous phenomenon, isolated from reality, was ha-rak-ter-but for the American new cr-ti-ki, for-mi-ro-vav-shay-sha in the 1930s and for-no-mav-shay to-mi-ni-ruyu- current situation in the USA in the 1940-1950s. (A. Richards, A. Tate, K. Brooks, K. Burke, J.K. Ransome, R.P. Blackmoore). Developing the ideas of a number of literary critics (W. Emp-so-na, T.E. Hu-ma) and poets (T.S. Eliot, E. Pa-un -yes), the new cri-ti-ka is based on the principle-tsi-pi-al-no-multi-significance of literary pro-from-ve-de -niya, reveal-my-method-of-the-house “with-steal-reading.”
In the study of general mechanisms that determine the integrity of European literature throughout its evolution, the important role played by the fundamental works of German scientists: E. Au-er-ba-ha, who is in the book “Mi-me-sis "(1946) traced the stylistic evolution of European literature, united by a common cause whose “mi-me-si-sa” - from -bra-zhe-niya de-st-vi-tel-no-sti; and E.R. Kur-tsiu-sa, once upon a time the continuity of the European literary tradition, coming from antiquity. resected the medieval Latin culture to the New Time in the book “European literature and the Latin Middle Ages” Vieux" (1948).
At the end of the 1950-1970s, the leading on-right-le-ni-em of Literary Studies became im-por-ti-ro-van-ny from lin-gwis-ti-ki and se-mio-ti-ki struk-tu-ra-lism, in the ka-che-st-ve whether-te-ra-tu-ro-vedic me-to-da first-in-first-but different worked in France, as the French version of the new cri-ti-ki (R. Bart, A. J. Gray-mas, C. Bre-mont, Ts. To- do-rov, Yu. Kri-ste-va, etc.), and then spread out in various countries of Europe (in part , in Che-ho-slo-va-kiya - Ya. Mu-kar-zhov-sky) and America. If structure-tu-ra-ism was based on the theory of sign by F. de Sos-su-ra and considered both the literary text and the literary process as a sign -new systems, then on-the-next-to-him a new one on-the-right post-structure-tu-ra-liz-ma, on-the-opposite, is-ho -di-lo from cri-ti-ki (mainly by the French fi-lo-so-f J. Der-ri-da) of the traditional theory of sign as a unity of oz-on-tea- sche-go and oz-on-tea-my re-al-no-sti. A literary text in post-structural Literary Studies co-occurs only with other texts, but not with reality; the main property of the text is about its in-ter-tech-stu-al-ness, pre-la-gaying not-from-bez-but qi -tat-ny ha-rak-ter of any literary work. The main method of post-struct-tu-ra-liz-ma is de-con-st-ru-tsiya po-lu-chi-la raz-ra-bot-ku in me-to-di-ke Yale schools (H. Bloom, P. M. de Man, J. Hartman, J. H. Miller, etc.), focused on identifying the internal pro-ti-in-re-chi-in-sti-ness of the text, about-on-the-same hidden “figures” in it, supposedly from-sy-barking to the re -al-no-sti, and on the de-le itself - to other texts of literary tradition.
While the American and French post-structural literary studies of the 1970s and 1980s were ori-en-ti-ro-va-los on the po-smo-der-ni-st -sky cri-ti-ku of European classical philosophy, German Literary Studies continues to build its me-to-do-logy on the basis of fi -losophical traditions. The philosophy of the Her-me-nev-ti-ka, at the end of the 19th century, had already become the main spirit of the spiritual school, at the beginning of 1960 's gave an impetus to the development of receptive cri-ti-ki (H. R. Jauss, V. Iser, G. Blumberg, G. Trimm, etc. ), put the emphasis on the perception of the literary production of chi-ta-te-lem: the literary text is not understood as “par-ti” -tu-ra” for many chi-ta-tel-skih uses; chi-ta-tel for-mu-li-ru-et “not-na-pi-san-ny meaning of the text.”
Between -ra-to-logia, in the spirit of post-struc-tu-ra-liz-ma ana-li-zi-ru-shaya com-mu-ni-ka-tiv-nu-struct-tu-ru tech -sta (R. Barth, J. Zhe-nette, Dutch scientist J. Lin-tvelt, etc.). In-te-res to the com-mu-ni-ka-tiv-noy at-ro-de literature, to extra-textual in-stan-tsi-yams of the author-ra and chi-ta-te -la also appeared in the activities of the gene-ti-che-kri-ti-ki, which began in the 1970s in France ( A. Gre-ziy-on, J. Bel-men-No-el, P. M. de Bia-zi, etc.): with the help of analysis of redactions and va- ri-an-tov text, she strives to follow the di-na-mich-development of the author's idea, pro-ti-vo- post-stav-mo-go sta-tic-no-mu “to-no-any-thing-to-text”.
Under the influence of psi-ho-ana-li-za, from one side, and struk-tu-ra-liz-ma and post-struk-tu-ra-liz-ma in his the French version - on the other hand, in the 1970s, warehouses fe-mi-ni-st-skaya cri-ti-ka (S. de Beau-vou-ar, E. Sik-su, L. Iri-ga-rai in France; E. Show-alter, B. Kri-sti-an, S. Gu-bar in the USA, etc.), in the 1980s became Shay one of the state-rules in the West, especially in America: from-establishing dominion in literature a man’s “letter”, she turns to the creative work of writing women and ana-li-zi-ru-et specific features of their style.
Interaction of Literary Studies with psi-ho-lo-gi-ey and gra-ni-cha-schi-mi with me-di-tsi-noy es-te-st-ven-ny-mi science -ka-mi (ney-ro-bio-lo-gi-ey and ney-ro-fi-zio-lo-gi-ey) ha-rak-ter-no for sfor-mi-ro-vav-she-go - in the last decade of the 20th century, literary studies (M. Turner, A. Richardson, N. Holland, J. La-koff in the USA; J. Fo-co-nier in France; P. Sto-quell, K. Em-mott in Vel-ko-bri-ta-nia; parai-le, etc.), I consider literature as one of the forms of mental activity and inter-pre-ti-ru- another artistic image (me-ta-for-ry, etc.) as a way of knowing the world.
Re-ak-tsi-ey on the me-dy new cry-ti-ki, trak-to-va-shay literary pro-iz-ve-de-nie as a castle-well-ty, iso-li- Ro-van-ny from real-no-sti “or-ga-nism”, began to emerge in the 1980s. in the Anglo-American Literary “new historicism” (S. Grinblatt, L.A. Montrose): he saw in literature one of many socio-cultural tour-practices, which are in a state of mutual exchange, “circular co-ci-al-energy” -gii.” Among the most influential influences in literary criticism at the end of the 20th century is multi-culturalism, which comes from - from the idea of \u200b\u200babout-ra-tso-vyh pro-iz-ve-de-niy (“she-dev-ditch”) and, on-flocking on the po-tsen-trich-no-sti culture tour-no-go space-st-va, re-smat-ri-va-et is-to-ryu of national li-te-ra-tour (E. Sa-id, R. Brom-li in USA; L. Khatchen in Ka-na-de, etc.).
Modern literary criticism, based primarily on the pre-existing structures of the mit-xia consider your ma-te-ri-al in a wide-ro-com cultural-tour-but-is-to-rich context and with-attract-any- I eat methods of related gu-ma-ni-tar-nyh dis-qi-p-lin. On the one hand, it dissects the boundaries of “hu-do-st-ven-noy literature”, attracting everything to analysis more shi-ro-kiy circle of ma-te-ria-lovs and equalizing texts hu-do-same-st-ven-nye and not-hu-do-same-st-ven-nye (for example, in “new is-that-rism”); on the other hand, it itself strives to get closer to literature, in this plane also destroying the boundaries between “on- uch-no-stu” and “hu-do-s-st-ven-no-stu”.
From the scholars of Literary Studies in Russia - according to these and ri-to-ri-ka of the 17th - early 18th centuries (Metropolitan Macarius, Feo-fa-na Pro-ko-po-vi -cha, etc.), poetic tracts by V.K. Tre-dia-kov-skogo, phil-lo-logical works of M.V. Lo-mo-no-so-va, according to the 1770-1790s on the theory of poetry (A.D. Bai-bakova, 1774) and prose (I.S. Rizh-skogo, V.S. Pod-shi-va-lo-va, both 1796). First is-to-ri-ko-literary experiments but-si-li com-men-ta-tor-sky ha-rak-ter: that-you note-cha-niya A. D . Kan-te-mi-ra to vy-pol-nen-nym per-re-vo-dam collection-ni-ka ana-k-re-on-ti-ki (1736, published 1867) and po-sla -niy Go-ra-tion (1744); Note: A.P. Su-ma-ro-ko-va to “Epi-sto-le about sti-ho-tvor-st-ve” (1747), in which about-com-men-ti-ro-va-ny all encountered in the text named after pi-sa-te-ley, etc. The first major literary work was “Experience in the History of -ri-che-s-word about Russian pi-sa-te-lyah” N.I. No-vi-ko-va (1772).
In the first decades of the 19th century, there was a move away from the theo-re-ti-ko-li-te-ra-tour-thought from the old swarm, ri-to-ri-che-tra-di-tion [its pri-ver-zhen-tsa-mi os-ta-va-lis A.S. Nikol-sky (“Basic-no-va-niya of the Russian slo-ve-no-sti”, part 1-2, 1807), I.S. Rizh-sky (“Nau-ka st-ho-tvor-st-va”, 1811), N.F. Os-to-lopov (“Dictionary of ancient and modern poetry,” part 1-3, 1821), as well as I. M. Born, A. F. Merz-la- kov, N.F. Ko-shan-sky] and re-ori-en-ta-tion of it on new ideas associated with the st-nov-le-ni-es-te- ti-ki: so-chi-ne-niya N.I. Yaz-vits-ko-go, P.E. Ge-or-gi-ev-sko-go, A.I. Ga-li-cha (“Experience in science gracefully”, 1825). A major poetic treatise of this time is “An Experience on Russian Poetry” by A.Kh. Vos-to-ko-va (1812).
The impetus for literary research was given by the publication in 1800 of “Words about the half of Igo-re- ve". In 1801-1802, the first (and only) part of “Pan-te-o-on the Russian av-to-rov” was published - co-b-ra- niya gra-vi-ro-van-nyh port-re-tov with text-sta-mi, co-chi-nyon-ny-mi N.M. Ka-ram-zi-nym. On-chi-na-et-sya active so-bi-ra-nie and study of the production of ancient Russian literature. One of the first general courses on the history of Russian literature was “A Brief Guide to Russian Language” And . M. Bor-na (1808). “A Dictionary of Is-to-Riche about the former pi-sa-te-lyah spirits of the Greek-Russian language” appeared church" (part 1-2, 1818) and "Dictionary of Russian secular pi-sa-te-leys, co-father-st-ve-ni-kovs and foreign-countries -tsev who wrote in Russia" (completely published in 1845) by Metropolitan Ev-geniy (Bol-ho-vi-ti-no-va), "Experience of a short what is the history of Russian li-te-ra-tu-ry” N.I. Gre-cha (1822), “Is-to-ria of ancient Russian language” by M. A. Mak-si-mo-vi-cha (1839), “Experience in the is- ria of Russian li-te-ra-tu-ry” A.V. Ni-ki-ten-ko (1845), “Is-to-ria of the Russian layer-weight, predominantly ancient” by S.P. She-you-ryo-va (1846).
In the 1820-1840s, certain theoretical and historical literary problems (the main principles of new literary trends - ro-man-tiz-ma, at-tu-ral-noy-school-ly, real-iz-ma) developed mainly in magazine-cri-ti-ke (articles by P.A. Vya-zem-sko-go, A.A. Bes-tu-zhe-va, V.K. Kyu-hel-be-ke-ra, N.A. Po-le- vo-th, V.G. Be-lin-sko-go) and only rarely - in the form of a scientific treatise (“About the Roman-ti-che-skaya- ezii" O.M. So-mo-va, 1823; "About the pro-is-ho-de-nii, the-ro-de and the fate-bah-in-the-is-my-ro- man-ti-che-skoy" N.I. Na-de-zh-di-na, 1830).
In the 2nd half of the 19th century in Russian Literary Studies there were three major schools of thought: the mythology school (F.I. Bus-la- Ev, O.F. Miller, A.A. Kot-lya-revsky and A.N. “Slavic views on nature”, volumes 1-3, 1865-1869, as well as A.A. Po-teb-nya, who developed the theory of Bus- lae-va in his studies of mouse, language and folk mythology as inter-related components nen-tov and the ability to form-mi-ro-va-the psychological direction in literary criticism), compare is-to-ri-che-li-te-ra-tu-ro-ve-de-nie (Alexander N. Vese-lov-sky, who developed the general the theory of development according to poetry and the z-lo-living os-but-you is-to-ri-che-skaya according to these), cultural-tur-but-is-to ri-che-skaya school (A. N. Py-pin, creator of the fundamental “Is-to-ria of Russian literature”, volumes 1-4, 1898-99; N.S. Ti-ho-nravov, N.I. Sto-ro-zhen-ko, S.A. Ven-ge-rov and others).
The game continues to play a significant role in the development of literary theory and the development of the is-to-ri-to-literary problems in this period. army of literary criticism (N.G. Cher-nyshev-sky, N.A. Dob-ro-lyubov, D.I. Pi-sa-rev, A.V. Friendly Nin, P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, A.A. Grigorev, N.N. Strakhov, etc.
At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries in the works of A.A. Shah-ma-to-va and V.N. The translation is composed of scientific text. Raz-vi-va-et-sya psycho-ho-lo-gi-che-school (D.N. Ov-sya-ni-ko-Ku-li-kov-sky), as well as outside -right-len-che-skoe Literary Studies (is-to-ri-ko-literary works-you V.S. So-lov-yo-va, V.V. Ro-za-no-va, D.S. Me-rezh-kov-go, K.N. Le-on-t-e-va, I.F. At the beginning of the 20th century, new rules were formed in Russian Literary Studies. A huge influence on domestic and foreign philosophy in the 20th century was the formal school (Yu.N. Ty-nya-nov , V.B. Shklovsky, B.M. Eihen-ba-um, R.O. Yakob-son), in the theories which tion of individual provisions of A.A. According to you and Alek-san Dr. N. Ve-se-lov-skogo, as well as the poetic views of A. Be-lo-go. In the 1920s, psycho-analytical literary studies developed (I.D. Er-makov); the socio-lo-gi-che-method in literary criticism was presented by ra-bo-ta-mi P.N. Sa-ku-li-na, V.M. Fri-che, V.F. Per-re-ver-ze-va.
In the 1920-1950s, significant works were created on the theory of the ethical word (“Com-po-zi-tion of li-ri-che-sti-ho-tvo- re-niy" V.M. Zhir-mun-sko-go, 1921; "Pro-ble-ma sti-ho-crea-no-go language" Yu.N. Ty-nya-no-va, 1924 ; “Theory of li-te-ra-tu-ry. According to this” B.V. To-mashevsky, 1925, etc.), sti-li-sti-ke (ra- bo-you V.V. Vi-no-gra-do-va). Ti-po-lo-gyu ro-man-but-pro-za-icheskogo word-va-ra-ba-you-va-li B.A. Grif-tsov (“Theory of Ro-ma-na”, 1927) and M.M. Bakhtin (“Problems of the creativity of Dos-to-ev-sko-go”, 1929, etc.); An analytical approach to the study of pro-from-ve-de-tion as an ideological wholeness was proposed by A.P. . Skaf-ty-mov (works about L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dos-to-ev-sky, A.P. Che-kho-ve). Mythological studies of literary plot and genre were revealed by O.M. Freydenberg. The structure and genesis of the in-do-European fairy tale is studied in the works of V.Ya. Prop-pa. The use of “precise methods” in Literary Studies, based on any number of analyzes, for no-small B.I. Yar-ho. In-ten-siv-but raz-vi-va-los push-ki-no-ve-de-nie (M.P. Alek-se-ev, D.D. Bla-goy, S.M. Bon- di, B.S. Meilakh, B.V. To-mashevsky, M.A. Tsyav-lovsky, P.E. Fundamental works on the history of ancient Russian literature were created by V.P. Ad-ria-no-voy-Peretz, N.K. Good-zy-eat. A significant contribution to the study of Russian literature of the 18th century was made by G.A. Gu-kov-sky; in the study of foreign and eastern li-te-ra-tours - E.E. Bertels, B.Ya. Vla-di-mir-tsov, A.K. Ji-ve-le-gov, V.F. Shish-ma-roar; vo-pro-sy sti-ho-ve-de-niya raz-ra-ba-you-val A.P. Kvyatkovsky.
In Literary Studies of the 2nd half of the 20th century, you de-la-u-xia works on Russian literature of the Middle Ages and the Peter the Great era (D.S. Li-kha-chev, A A. Mo-rozov, A. M. Pan-chen-ko); is-to-rii of European li-te-ra-tours (L.G. An-d-re-ev, N.Ya. Ber-kovsky, Yu.B. Vipper, I.N. Go-le-ni-schev-Ku-tu-zov, A.V. Karel-sky, A.V. Mi-khai-lov, D.D. Ob-lo-mi-ev-sky and others. ), work in the region of sti-ho-ve-de-niya (M.L. Gas-pa-rov, V.E. Khol-shev-ni-kov). In the USSR, the structural approach to literature has developed since the early 1960s within the framework of se-mio-ti-ki. The os-no-va-te-la-mi of the domestic structural-tur-no-semiotic school (Mo-s-kov-sko-tar-tu-skaya semiotic school) would -or scientists from the University of Tar-tu (Es-to-niya) and from Moscow: Yu.M. Lotman, V.N. To-po-drov, B.A. Us-pen-sky and others. The study of these - epic and folk-lore-no-mi-fo - has become productive in the right way. logical cycles (E.M. Me-le-tin-sky), anti-tich-noy, Byzantine and medieval lit-te-ra-tour (S.S. Averin -tsev, M.L. Gas-parov, M.I. Steb-lin-Ka-men-sky, A.A. Ta-ho-Go-di, V.N. XIX century (S.G. Bo-cha-rov, V.E. Va-tsu-ro, L.Ya. Ginz-burg, V.V. Ko-zhinov, Yu.V. Mann, A.P. . Chu-da-kov) and modern period (M.O. Chu-da-ko-va). The concepts of M.M. have had a great influence on domestic and foreign literary studies. Bakh-ti-na, which began to actively enter into scientific life in the last third of the 20th century: the theory of ro-ma-na, developed on the great is-to-ri-to-literary ma-te-ria-le; ideas about the significance of kar-na-val-no-go laughter in literature, about two types of artistic thinking - dialogue and creativity no-lo-gi-che-skom, etc. In the study of whether-te-ra-tur, V.M. made a great contribution. Alek-se-ev, I.Yu. Krachkovsky, N.I. Kon-rad, I.S. Braginsky, P.A. Grinzer, B.L. Rif-tin, L.Z. Eid-lin.
Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. Literary studies studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them.
Literary studies dates back to ancient times. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his book “Poetics,” was the first to give a theory of genres and types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry).
In the 17th century, N. Boileau created his treatise “The Art of Poetry”, based on the earlier work of Horace (“The Science of Poetry”). It isolates knowledge about literature, but it was not yet a science.
In the 18th century, German scientists tried to create educational treatises (Lessing “Laocoon. On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry”, Gerber “Critical Forests”).
At the beginning of the 19th century in Germany, the Grimm brothers created their theory.
In Russia, the science of literature as an independent discipline, as a specific system of knowledge and a tool for analyzing literary phenomena with its own concepts, theory and methodology was established by the middle of the 19th century.
Modern literary criticism consists of three independent, but closely related basic disciplines:
literary theory
history of literature
literary criticism.
Literary theory explores the nature of verbal creativity, develops and systematizes laws, general concepts of fiction, patterns of development of genders and genres. Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader.
The theory of literature develops in the process of philosophical and aesthetic comprehension of the entire set of facts of the historical and literary process.
^ History of Literature explores the originality of various national literatures, studies the history of the emergence, change, development of literary trends and movements, literary periods, artistic methods and styles in different eras and among different peoples, as well as the creativity of individual writers as a naturally determined process.
The history of literature examines any literary phenomenon in historical development. Neither a literary work nor a writer’s creativity can be understood without connection with time, with the unified process of literary movement.
The history and theory of literature are closely interconnected. However, their means and techniques are different: literary theory seeks to determine the essence of the developing aesthetic system, gives a general perspective of the artistic process, and the history of literature characterizes specific forms and their specific manifestations.
^ Literary criticism(from the Greek kritike - the art of disassembling, judging) deals with the analysis and interpretation of works of art, evaluating them from the point of view of aesthetic value, identifying and approving the creative principles of a particular literary movement.
Literary criticism is based on the general methodology of the science of literature and is based on the history of literature. Unlike literary history, it illuminates the processes occurring primarily in the literary movement of our time, or interprets the literature of the past from the point of view of modern social and artistic problems. Literary criticism is closely connected both with life, social struggle, and with the philosophical and aesthetic ideas of the era.
Criticism shows the writer the merits and shortcomings of his work. Addressing the reader, the critic not only explains the work to him, but involves him in a living process of joint comprehension of what he has read at a new level of understanding. An important advantage of criticism is the ability to consider a work as an artistic whole and recognize it in the general process of literary development.
In modern literary criticism, various genres are cultivated - article, review, review, essay, literary portrait, polemical remark, bibliographic note.
The source base for the theory and history of literature, literary criticism is auxiliary literary disciplines:
textual criticism
historiography
bibliography
Textual criticism studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing. Studying the history of a text at all stages of its existence gives an idea of the sequence of the history of its creation (the “material” embodiment of the creative process - sketches, drafts, notes, variants, etc.). Textual criticism also deals with establishing authorship (attribution).
Historiography is devoted to the study of the specific historical conditions for the appearance of a particular work.
Bibliography– branch of scientific description and systematization of information about published works. This is an auxiliary discipline of any science (scientific literature on a particular subject), based on two principles: thematic and chronological. There is a bibliography for individual periods and stages, for personalities (authors), as well as a bibliography of fiction and literary criticism. Bibliographies can be scientific auxiliary (with explanatory annotations and brief comments) and recommendatory (containing lists of main publications on certain sections and topics).
Modern literary criticism is a very complex and moving system of disciplines, which is characterized by the close interdependence of all its branches. Thus, literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines; criticism is based on data from the history and theory of literature, and the latter takes into account and comprehends the experience of criticism, while criticism itself over time becomes the material of the history of literature, etc.
Modern literary criticism is developing in close connection with history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, linguistics, and psychology.
Test questions for the topic “Literary criticism as a science”
1.
What is the subject of research in literary criticism as a science?
2.
What is the structure of literary criticism (main and auxiliary disciplines of the science of literature)?
3.
What does literary theory study?
4.
What does literary history explore?
5.
What are the functions of literary criticism?
6.
What is the subject of study of auxiliary disciplines of literary criticism?
7.
The relationship between all the main and auxiliary branches of the science of literature.
Lecture 2.
^ SPECIFICITY OF FICTION
The term “literature” refers to any works of human thought that are enshrined in the written word and have social significance. Literature is distinguished between technical, scientific, journalistic, reference, etc. However, in a more strict sense, literature is usually called works of fiction, which in turn is a type of artistic creativity, i.e. art.
Art – a type of spiritual mastery of reality by a social person, with the goal of forming and developing his ability to creatively transform the world around him and himself. artwork is the result (product) of artistic creativity . It embodies the artist’s spiritual and meaningful plan in a sensory-material form and is the main custodian and source of information in the field of artistic culture.
Works of art are a necessary accessory to the life of both an individual and human society as a whole.
Ancient forms of world exploration were based on syncretism. Over the course of centuries of human life and activity, various types of art arose. the boundaries of which were not clearly defined for a long time. Gradually, an understanding of the need to distinguish between artistic means and images characteristic of different arts came.
All types of art spiritually enrich and ennoble a person, imparting to him a lot of different knowledge and emotions. Outside of man and his emotions, art does not and cannot exist. The subject of art, and therefore literature, is a person, his internal and external life and everything that is somehow connected with him.
The general properties of art find specific manifestation in its different types, which at different times were divided into fine art(epic and dramatic literature, painting, sculpture and pantomime) and expressive(lyrical genre of literature, music, choreography, architecture); then on spatial and temporal etc. Their modern classification involves the division of classical arts into spatial(architecture), temporary(literature), fine art(painting, graphics, sculpture); expressive(music), presentational(theater, cinema); Lately a lot of art has appeared , possessing synthetic in nature.
^ Artistic image
Art is thinking in artistic images, therefore imagery is a common essential feature of all types of art. An artistic image is a method specific to art of reflecting, reproducing life, its generalization from the position of the artist’s aesthetic ideal in a living, concrete, sensory form.
^ Artistic image is a special way of mastering and transforming reality, inherent only in art. In the artistic image, the objective-cognitive and subjective-creative principles are inextricably fused.
One of the most important specific features of art is artistic convention as a principle of artistic representation, generally denoting the non-identity of the artistic image with the object of reproduction. Artistic specificity image is determined by the fact that it reflects and comprehends existing reality and creates a new, fictional world.
There cannot be a work of art without images. In the visual arts, the image is always perceived visually. But in music, an artistic image is addressed not to vision, but to hearing, and does not necessarily have to evoke any visual associations and does not necessarily have to “depict”. In fiction, the visual representability of an image is also not a general rule (although it occurs very often); usually the character is called an image or literary hero, however, this is a narrowing of the concept of “artistic image”.
^ In fact, any phenomenon creatively recreated in a work of art is an artistic image.
The place of fiction among the arts
IN different periods cultural development of mankind, literature was given different places among other types of art - from the leading to one of the last. For example, ancient thinkers considered sculpture the most important of the arts. In the 18th century, a tendency arose in European aesthetics to put literature first. Renaissance artists and classicists, like ancient thinkers, were convinced of the advantages of sculpture and painting over literature. The Romantics put poetry and music in first place among all types of art. The symbolists considered music the highest form of culture, and they tried in every possible way to bring poetry closer to music.
The originality of literature, its difference from other types of art, is due to the fact that it is a verbal art, since its “primary element” is the word. Using the word as the main “building” material when creating images, literature has great potential in the artistic exploration of the world. Being, in essence, a temporary art, literature, like no other art, is capable of reproducing reality in time and space, and in expression, and in “sound” and “picture” images, limitlessly expanding for the reader the scope of his life impressions (though verbal images, unlike paintings and sculptures, are not visual; they appear in the reader’s imagination only as a result of the associative connection of words and ideas, therefore the intensity of the aesthetic impression depends largely on the reader’s perception).
By reproducing speech activity (using forms such as dialogues and monologues), literature recreates the thinking processes of people and their mental world. Literature provides an image of thoughts, sensations, experiences, beliefs - all aspects of a person’s inner world.
Capturing human consciousness through speech is accessible to only one form of art - literature. Literature as the art of words is the sphere where observations of the human psyche were born, formed and achieved great perfection and sophistication.
Literature allows us to understand the laws of personality development, human relationships, and people’s characters. It is capable of reproducing various aspects of reality, recreating events of any scale - from the everyday actions of an individual to historical conflicts, important for the fate of entire nations and social movements. This is a universal art form, distinguished, in addition, by its acute problematic nature and a more distinct expression of the author’s position than in other types of art.
Nowadays, the brightest literary artistic images, plots and motifs are often used as the basis for many works of other types of art - painting, sculpture, theater, ballet, opera, pop, music, cinema, acquiring a new artistic embodiment and continuing their life.
^ Functions of fiction
Fiction has a variety of functions:
Cognitive function: literature helps to understand nature, man, society.
Communicative function: the language of fiction becomes more effective means of communication between people, generations and nations (but it should be borne in mind that literary works are always created in the national language, and therefore there is a need to translate them into other languages).
Aesthetic The function of literature is its ability to influence people's views and shape aesthetic taste. Literature offers the reader an aesthetic ideal, a standard of beauty and an image of the base.
Emotional function: literature influences the reader’s feelings and evokes experiences.
Educational function: the book carries invaluable spiritual knowledge, forms the individual and social consciousness of a person, promotes the knowledge of good and evil.
^ Literature and Science
There is a close connection between literature and science, since they are designed to understand nature and society. Fiction, like science, has enormous educational power. But science and literature each have their own subject of knowledge, and special means of presentation, and their own goals.
Distinctive character poetic thoughts are that she appears before us in a living concrete image. A scientist operates with a system of evidence and concepts, and an artist recreates a living picture of the world. Science, observing a mass of homogeneous phenomena, establishes their patterns and formulates their in logical terms. At the same time scientist gets distracted from the individual characteristics of the subject, from his concrete sensory form. When abstracting, individual facts seem to lose their objectivity and are absorbed into a general concept.
In art, the process of understanding the world is different. Artist, like a scientist, when observing life, he moves from individual facts to generalization, but expresses his generalizations in concrete sensory images.
The main difference between a scientific definition and an artistic image is that we can only understand a scientific logical definition, while we seem to see, imagine, hear, feel an artistic image refracted through our feelings.
Test questions for the topic “Specifics of fiction”:
1.
Art is a type of spiritual exploration of reality.
2.
Artistic convention as a principle of artistic representation.
3.
What is an artistic image?
4.
Fiction as a form of art. Its place among other forms of art.
5.
The specificity of the verbal image in relation to the images of other arts.
6.
How does a literary image differ from a musical, pictorial, or sculptural image?
7.
What are the distinctive features of literature as a work of art?
8.
What are the subject, purposes and functions of fiction?
9.
Literature and science.
Lectures 3-4-5.
^ LANGUAGE OF FICTION
Each type of art uses only its own means of expression. These means are usually called the language of this art. There is a distinction between the language of fiction, the language of sculpture, the language of music, the language of architecture, etc.
^ The language of fiction, in other words, poetic language, is the form in which a type of verbal art is materialized, objectified, in contrast to other types of art, for example, music or painting, where the means of materialization are sound, paint, and color; choreographic language – specific expressive movements of the human body, etc.
An artistic image in literature is created both through words and composition, and in poetry also through the rhythmic and melodic organization of speech, which together form the language of the work. Therefore, the language of fiction can be considered the totality of all these means, and not just one of them. Without the totality of these means, a work of fiction cannot exist. However, the word is the primary element, the main building material of literature, plays the main decisive role in the language of fiction.
The language of fiction (poetic language) differs from literary (canonized, normative) language, which does not allow deviations, in that the work of art contains the use of elements of colloquial language, vernacular, dialect expressions, etc.
Considering language as the main means of artistic depiction of life in literature, one should focus on the features poetic language, which differs from other forms of speech activity in that it is subordinated creation artistic images. A word in the language of a work of art acquires artistic meaning. The imagery of artistic speech is expressed in its emotional richness, extreme accuracy, economy and simultaneous capacity.
The search for the most necessary, the only possible word in a given case is associated with great creative efforts of the writer. Artistic speech is not a set of any special poetic words and revolutions. Fine and expressive means (epithets, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) are not in themselves, without context, a sign of artistry.
Every word, in addition to the direct, exact meaning denoting the main feature of any object, phenomenon, action, also has a number of other meanings, i.e. it is polysemous (the phenomenon of polysemy of words). Polysemy allows the word to be used in a figurative sense, for example, iron hammer - iron character; storm - storm of anger, storm of passion; fast driving – quick mind, quick glance etc.
^ The use of a word, expression, or phrase in a figurative sense is called a trope. Trails are based on internal rapprochement, correlation of two phenomena, one of which explains and clarifies the other. Tropes are often found in colloquial speech, some of them become so familiar that they seem to lose their figurative meaning ( ate a plate, lost his head, a river runs, it rains, table legs). In artistic speech, tropes reveal most clearly and accurately the most significant feature of the depicted object or phenomenon, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of speech.
There are various types of tropes, since the principles of bringing together diverse objects and phenomena are different. ^ The simplest types of trope are simile and epithet.
Comparison- this is a comparison of two objects or phenomena that have a common feature in order to explain one to the other. A comparison consists of two parts, which are most often connected through conjunctions ( as, exactly, as if, like, as if etc.):
You look like a pink sunset, and like snow you are radiant and light;
like fiery snakes; like black lightning.
Quite often the comparison is expressed using the instrumental case: “Inaudibly, the night comes from the east like a gray wolf” (M. Sholokhov); “His beaver collar is silvered with frosty dust” (A.S. Pushkin).
In addition to direct comparisons, there are negative comparisons: “It is not the wind that hums through the feather grass, it is not the wedding train that hums, the relatives howled for Procles, the family howls for Procles” (Nekrasov). There are often examples when writers resort to so-called comparisons, which reveal a number of features of a phenomenon or group of phenomena: “I remember wonderful moment/ You appeared before me, / Like a fleeting vision, like a genius of pure beauty” (Pushkin).
^ Epithet– a more difficult type of trail – artistic definition emphasizing the most essential feature of an object or phenomenon ( golden head, gray sea, fiery speech). The epithet cannot be confused with a logical definition (oak table) separating one object from another. Depending on the context, the same definition can fulfill both logical and artistic function: gray sea - gray head; oak table – oak head, and therefore the epithet is always used only with the word being defined, enhancing its imagery. In addition to adjectives, an epithet can be expressed by a noun (“ gold, gold is the people's heart" - Nekrasov).
Metaphor- one of the main types of trail. The basis of a metaphor is a hidden comparison of one object or phenomenon with another based on the principle of their similarity: “ the east is burning at the dawn of a new», « star of captivating happiness" Unlike comparison, which contains two terms (the subject of comparison and the object with which it is compared), in metaphor there is only a second member. The subject of comparison in the metaphor is not named, but is implied. Therefore, any metaphor can be expanded into comparison:
“In parade, unfolding my troops,
I walk along the line front...”
A type of metaphor is personification. Personification– a metaphor in which objects, natural phenomena and concepts are endowed with the characteristics of a living being:
“A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant rock”, “The mountain peaks sleep in the darkness of the night”,
“My darling’s hands are a pair of swans, diving in the gold of my hair.”
Personification is most often found in oral folk art, which was due to the fact that man at an early stage of his development, not understanding the laws of nature, spiritualized it. Later, such personification developed into a stable poetic turn of phrase, helping to reveal the most characteristic feature of the depicted object or phenomenon.
Allegory– this is a figurative allegory, the expression of abstract ideas (concepts) through specific artistic images. In the visual arts, allegory is expressed by certain attributes (for example, the allegory of “justice” - a woman with scales). In literature, allegory is most often used in fables, where the entire image has a figurative meaning. Such works are called allegorical. Allegorical images are conventional, since they always mean something else.
The allegorical nature of fables, fairy tales, and proverbs is characterized by stability; certain and constant qualities are assigned to their characters (for the wolf - greed, anger; for the fox - cunning, dexterity; for the lion - power, strength, etc.). Allegorical fables and fairy tale images unambiguous, simple, applicable to one concept.
Metonymy– replacing the direct name of an object or phenomenon with a figurative one. It is based on the convergence of objects that are not similar, unlike a metaphor, but are in a causal (temporal, spatial, material) or other objective connection. For example: “Soon you will find out at school / How the Arkhangelsk man / By his own and God’s will / Became intelligent and great.”
The varieties of metonymy are as diverse as the connections between objects and phenomena of reality. The most common include the following: 1) the name of the author instead of his works: ( bought Pushkin, carried Gogol, didn’t get Rasputin): 2) the name of the weapon instead of the action (“ His pen breathes love"); 3) the name of a place, a country instead of the people and people located and living there (“ No. / My Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head"); 4) the name containing instead of the contents (“ The hiss of foamy glasses"); 5) the name of the material from which the thing is made, instead of the thing itself (“ porcelain and bronze on the table"); 6) the name of one sign, attribute instead of a person, object or phenomenon (“ All flags will visit us»).
A special type of metonymy is synecdoche, in which the meaning from one object or phenomenon is transferred to another according to the principle of a quantitative ratio. Synecdoche is characterized by the use of the singular instead of the plural:
“And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn” (Lermontov),
and, conversely, plural instead of singular:
“...what can Platonov’s own
and the quick-witted Newtons
Russian land gives birth" (Lomonosov).
Sometimes a definite number is used instead of an indefinite number (“ a million Cossack hats poured onto the square"Gogol). In some cases, the specific concept replaces the generic (“proud grandson of the Slavs” Pushkin) or specific (“proud grandson of the Slavs” Pushkin) or specific (“ Well, sit down, darling!" Mayakovsky).
Periphrase- indirect mention of an object by not naming, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” - the moon). A periphrasis is also the replacement of a proper name, the name of an object with a descriptive phrase in which the essential features of the implied person or object are indicated. Lermontov in his poem on “The Death of a Poet” calls Pushkin “ slave of honor", thereby revealing the reasons for his tragic death and expressing his attitude towards him.
In periphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “who writes these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into sleep” instead of “fall asleep,” “king of beasts” instead of “lion.” There are logical periphrases (“the author of “Dead Souls”” instead of Gogol) and figurative periphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry” instead of Pushkin).
A special case of periphrasis is euphemism– a descriptive expression of “low” or “forbidden” concepts (“unclean” instead of “devil”, “get by with a handkerchief” instead of “blow your nose”).
Hyperbola And litotes also serve as means of creating an artistic image. figurative meaning hyperboles(artistic exaggeration), and litotes(an artistic understatement) is based on the fact that what is said should not be taken literally:
“a yawn tears wider than the Gulf of Mexico” (Mayakovsky)
“You must bow your head below a thin piece of grass” (Nekrasov)
Hyperbola a trope based on a clearly implausible exaggeration of a quality or attribute (for example, in folklore, the images of the heroes Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and others personify the mighty power of the people).
Litotes- a trope opposite to hyperbole and consisting in excessive understatement of a sign or quality.
“Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, is no bigger than a thimble” (Griboyedov)
Gogol and Mayakovsky very often resorted to hyperbole.
Irony(mockery) is the use of words in a figurative meaning, directly opposite to their usual meaning. Irony is based on the contrast of its internal meaning and external form: “... You will fall asleep, surrounded by the care of your dear and beloved family,” Nekrasov about the “owner of luxurious chambers,” revealing in the next line the true meaning of the attitude of his loved ones towards him: “impatiently awaiting your death "
The highest degree of irony, evil, bitter or angry mockery is called sarcasm.
^ Tropes contribute to a significant extent to the artistic expressiveness of poetic language, but do not determine it entirely. The greater or lesser use of tropes depends on the nature of the writer’s talent, the genre of the work and its specific features. In lyric poetry, for example, tropes are used much more widely than in epic and drama. Thus, tropes are only one of the means of artistic expressiveness of language, and only in interaction with all other means helps the writer create vivid life pictures and images.
^ Poetic figures– deviations from a neutral way of presentation for the purpose of emotional and aesthetic impact. The artistic expressiveness of a language is achieved not only by the appropriate selection of words, but also by their intonational and syntactic organization. Syntax, like vocabulary, is used by the writer to individualize and typify speech,” being a means of creating character. To be convinced of this, it is enough to compare the speeches of the heroes from the novel “Fathers and Sons” by Turgenev. Special ways of constructing a sentence that enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech are called poetic figures. The most important poetic figures include inversion, antithesis, repetition, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal and exclamation.
Inversion– (rearrangement) means an unusual order of words in a sentence:
Not the wind blowing from above,
The sheets were touched by the moonlit night. (A.K. Tolstoy)
Antithesis– (contradiction) is a combination of sharply opposing concepts and ideas:
They came together: a wave and a stone,
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different from each other. (Pushkin)
This combination of concepts that are contrasting in meaning further emphasizes their meaning and makes poetic speech more vivid and figurative. Whole works can sometimes be built on the principle of antithesis, for example, “Reflections at the Front Entrance” (Nekrasov), “War and Peace” by L. Tolstoy, “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky.
The combination of two or more adjacent lines of poetry with the same syntactic structure is called parallelism:
The stars shine in the blue sky,
The waves are lashing in the blue sea. (Pushkin).
Parallelism gives rhythm to artistic speech, enhancing its emotional and figurative expressiveness. In its poetic function, parallelism is close to comparison:
And, devoted to new passions,
I couldn't stop loving him:
So an abandoned temple is all a temple,
The defeated idol is all God! (Lermontov)
Parallelism is a form of repetition, as it is often supplemented by the repetition of individual words in a line or verse:
He laughs at the clouds, He weeps with joy! (Bitter).
The repetition of initial words in a line or verse that carry the main semantic load is called anaphora, and repetition of the final epiphora:
He moans across the fields, along the roads,
He groans in prisons, in prisons... (Nekrasov).
There the bride and groom are waiting, -
No priest
And here I am.
There they take care of the baby, -
No priest
And here I am. (Tvardovsky).
Parallel elements can be sentences, their parts, phrases, words. For example:
Will I see your bright gaze?
Will I hear a gentle conversation? (Pushkin)
Your mind is as deep as the sea
Your spirit is as high as the mountains. (V.Bryusov)
There are also more complex types of parallelism, combining various figures of speech. An example of parallelism with anaphora and antithesis:
“I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am a god” (Derzhavin)
Anaphora(or unity of beginning) – repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each parallel row, i.e. in the repetition of the initial parts of two or more relatively independent segments of speech (hemistiches, verses, stanzas or prose passages)
^ Sound anaphora– repetition of the same combinations of sounds:
Gr bridges demolished by oza,
Gr both from the washed-out cemetery (Pushkin)
Anaphora morpheme– Repetition of the same morphemes or parts of words:
^ Cherno ogling the girl
Black maned horse!.. (Lermontov)
Anaphora lexical- repetition of the same words:
Not in vain the winds were blowing,
Not in vain there was a thunderstorm. (Yesenin)
Anaphora syntactic– repetition of the same syntactic structures:
Am I wandering? I'm along the noisy streets,
Am I coming in? to a crowded temple,
Am I sitting between crazy youths,
I indulge in my dreams. (Pushkin)
Anaphora strophic– repetition of each stanza from the same word:
Earth!..
From snow moisture
She's still fresh.
She wanders by herself
And breathes like deja.
Earth!..
She's running, running
Thousands of miles ahead,
Above her the lark trembles
And he sings about her.
Earth!..
Everything is more beautiful and visible
She's lying around.
And there is no better happiness - on her
To live until death... (Tvardovsky)
Epiphora – repetition of the last words:
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
the fever is drinking me away,
Can't find a place for me in this quiet house
Near the peaceful fire (Block)
^ Rhetorical question- this is a question that does not require an answer, addressed to the reader or listener in order to attract their attention to what is being depicted:
What is he looking for in a distant land?
What did he throw in his native land?.. (Lermontov).
^ Rhetorical address, statement and rhetorical exclamation– also serves to enhance the emotional and aesthetic perception of what is depicted:
Moscow, Moscow!.. I love you like a son... (Lermontov).
It's him, I recognize him!
No, I'm not Byron, I'm different
Another unknown chosen one... (Lermontov).
Gradation- a figure of speech consisting of such an arrangement of parts of a statement relating to one subject that each subsequent part turns out to be richer, more expressive or impressive than the previous one. In many cases, the feeling of increasing emotional content and richness is associated not so much with a semantic increase, but with the syntactic features of the phrase structure:
And where is ^ Mazepa? Where villain?
Where did you run? Judas in fear? (Pushkin)
In a sweetly misty care
Not an hour, not a day, not a year will pass... (Baratynsky).
^ Poetic stylistics
Multi-Union(or polysyndeton) is a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members. By slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes the role of each word, creating unity of enumeration and enhancing the expressiveness of speech.
“The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity” (V.G. Korolenko)
“I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint” (Chekhov)
“And the waves crowd and rush
And they come again and hit the shore..." (Lermontov)
“But the grandson, and the great-grandson, and the great-great-grandson
They grow in me while I grow..." (Antokolsky)
Asyndeton(or asyndeton) is a construction of speech in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. Gives the statement speed and dynamism, helps convey the rapid change of pictures, impressions, and actions.
The booths and women flash past,
Boys, benches, lanterns,
Palaces, gardens, monasteries,
Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,
Merchants, shacks, men,
Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,
Pharmacies, fashion stores,
Balconies, lions on the gates
And flocks of jackdaws on crosses. (Pushkin)
Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,
Meaningless and dim light... (Block)
Ellipsis- intentional omission of unimportant words in a sentence without distorting its meaning, and often to enhance the meaning and effect:
"Champagne!" (meaning “Bring a bottle of champagne!”).
Day in the dark night in love,
Spring is in love with winter,
Life into death...
And you?... You're into me! (Heine)
The figure of poetic stylistics is oxymoron– a combination of words with the opposite meaning (that is, a combination of incompatible things). An oxymoron is characterized by the deliberate use of contradiction to create a stylistic effect (light ink, cold sun). Oxymoron is often used in the titles of prose literary works (“The Living Corpse” is a drama by L.N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” is a novel by Yu. Bondarev), and is often found in poetry:
And the day has come. Gets up from his bed
Mazepa, this frail sufferer,
This corpse alive, just yesterday
Moaning weakly over the grave. (Pushkin)
^ Poetic phonetics (phonics)
Poetic phonetics– is the sound organization of artistic speech, the main element of which is sound repetition as an ornamental technique for highlighting and fastening the most important words in a verse.
The following types of sound repetitions are distinguished:
assonance– repetition of vowel sounds, mainly percussive (“He groans across the fields, along the roads...”, Nekrasov);
alliteration– repetition of consonant sounds, mainly at the beginning of words (“It’s time, the pen asks for rest...”, Pushkin);
onomatopoeia(sound notation) - a system of sound repetitions selected with the expectation of onomatopoeia rustling, whistling, etc. (“The reeds are barely audible, silently rustling...”, Balmont).
^ Poetic vocabulary
(Learn on your own using the Dictionary of Literary Terms)
Emphasizing the uniqueness of a particular way of life, everyday life, writers widely use various lexical layers of language, the so-called passive vocabulary, as well as words that have a limited scope of use: archaisms, historicisms, vernaculars, jargons, vulgarisms, barbarisms, dialectisms, provincialisms, Slavicisms, biblicalisms, professionalisms, neologisms.
The use of such vocabulary, being an expressive technique, at the same time often creates difficulties for the reader. Sometimes the authors themselves, anticipating this, supply the text with notes and special dictionaries, as, for example, N. Gogol did in “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka.” The author could immediately write Russian words, but then his work would largely lose its local flavor.
It is important not only to know the characteristics of the various layers of stylistic and lexical originality of artistic speech (dialectisms, professionalisms, jargons, vulgarisms, etc.), figurative words and expressions (tropes), intonation-syntactic means (verbal repetitions, antithesis, inversion, gradation and etc.), but be able to find out their visual-expressive function in the work of art being studied. To do this, it is necessary to consider each means of verbal expression not in isolation, but in the context of the artistic whole.
Test questions on the topic “Language of Fiction”:
1.
What is the main difference between poetic language and other forms of speech activity?
2.
The difference between the language of fiction (poetic language) and normative literary language. language.
3.
Define a trope and list its types.
4.
Define poetic figures and name the most important of them.
5.
Name the main figures of poetic stylistics.
6.
What words make up the stylistic and lexical originality of literary speech?
7.
What is poetic phonetics and what are its types?
Lectures 6.
A literary and artistic work as a work of art is not a natural phenomenon, but a cultural one, which means that it is based on a spiritual principle, which, in order to exist and be perceived, must certainly acquire some material embodiment. Spirituality is content, and its material embodiment is form.
^ Content and form– categories that serve to designate the main aspects of a literary and artistic work. In a work of art, both form and content are equally important. A literary work is a complexly organized whole, therefore there is a need to understand the internal structure of the work, i.e. structural relationship between content and form.
topic, problem idea which are closely interconnected and interdependent.
Thus, they stand out content categories : topic, problem, idea.
Theme is the objective basis of the work, characters and situations that the author portrays. In a work of art, as a rule, there is a main theme and private themes subordinate to it; there may be several main themes. The set of main and special themes of works is called subject matter.
The problem is considered the main question posed in the work. There are problems that can be solved and problems that cannot be solved. Many problems are called problems.
In choosing and developing the theme of a literary work, the writer’s worldview plays a vital role. The figuratively expressed author's thoughts and feelings, attitude towards what is depicted and evaluation, which constitute the main generalizing idea in a work of art, are usually designated in literary criticism by the term "idea». Idea is closely connected by the author's idea of the highest standard of life ("author's position"), of what a person and the world should be like ("ideal").
A system of means and techniques that serve to embody the content and to have an emotional impact on the reader is art form works.
The difference between " plot" And " plot“is defined differently, some literary scholars do not see a fundamental difference between these concepts, while for others, “plot” is the sequence of events as they occur, and “plot” is the sequence in which the author arranges them.
Fable– the factual side of the story, those events, incidents, actions, states in their causal and chronological sequence. The term “plot” refers to what is preserved as the “base”, “core” of the narrative.
Plot- this is a reflection of the dynamics of reality in the form of the action unfolding in the work, in the form of internally related (causal-temporal) actions of characters, events that form a unity, constituting some complete whole. The plot is a form of theme development - an artistically constructed distribution of events.
The driving force behind the development of the plot, as a rule, is conflict(literally “clash”), a conflicting life situation placed by the writer at the center of the work. In a broad sense conflict should be called that system of contradictions that organizes a work of art into a certain unity, that struggle of images, characters, ideas, which unfolds especially widely and fully in epic and dramatic works
Conflict- a more or less acute contradiction or clash between characters and their characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within the character and consciousness of a character or lyrical subject; it is the central moment not only of epic and dramatic action, but also of lyrical experience.
There are different types of conflicts: between individual characters; between character and environment; psychological. The conflict can be external (the hero’s struggle with forces opposing him) and internal (the hero’s struggle with himself in the mind). There are plots based only on internal conflicts (“psychological”, “intellectual”), the basis of the action in them is not events, but the vicissitudes of feelings, thoughts, experiences. One work may contain a combination different types conflicts. Sharply expressed contradictions, the opposition of forces acting in a product, are called collision.
Composition (architectonics) is the construction of a literary work, the composition and sequence of arrangement of its individual parts and elements (prologue, exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement, epilogue).
Prologue- the introductory part of a literary work. The prologue reports the events that precede and motivate the main action, or explains the author's artistic intent.
Exposition- part of the work that precedes the beginning of the plot and is directly related to it. The exposition follows the arrangement of characters and circumstances, showing the reasons that “trigger” the plot conflict.
The beginning in the plot - the event that served as the beginning of the conflict in a work of art; an episode that determines the entire subsequent development of the action (in “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol, for example, the plot is the mayor’s message about the arrival of the inspector). The plot is present at the beginning of the work, indicating the beginning of the development of artistic action. As a rule, it immediately introduces the main conflict of the work, subsequently determining the entire narrative and plot. Sometimes the plot comes before the exposition (for example, the plot of the novel “Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy: “Everything was mixed up in the Oblonskys’ house”). The writer’s choice of one type of plot or another is determined by the style and genre system in terms of which he designs his work.
Climax– the point of highest rise, tension in the development of the plot (conflict).
Denouement– conflict resolution; it completes the struggle of contradictions that make up the content of the work. The denouement marks the victory of one side over the other. The effectiveness of the denouement is determined by the significance of the entire preceding struggle and the climactic severity of the episode preceding the denouement.
Epilogue- the final part of the work, which briefly reports on the fate of the heroes after the events depicted in it, and sometimes discusses the moral and philosophical aspects of what is depicted (“Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky).
The composition of a literary work includes extra plot elements– author's digressions, inserted episodes, various descriptions(portrait, landscape, world of things), etc., serving to create artistic images, the disclosure of which, in fact, is the entire work.
So, for example, episode as a relatively completed and independent part of the work, which depicts a completed event or an important moment in the fate of the character, can become an integral link in the problems of the work or an important part of its general idea.
Scenery in a work of art it is not just a picture of nature, a description of part of the real environment in which the action takes place. The role of landscape in a work is not limited to depicting the scene of action. It serves to create a certain mood; is a way of expressing the author’s position (for example, in the story “Date” by I.S. Turgenev). Landscape can emphasize or convey state of mind characters, while the internal state of a person is likened to or contrasted with the life of nature. The landscape can be rural, urban, industrial, marine, historical (pictures of the past), fantastic (the image of the future), etc. Landscape can also perform a social function (for example, the landscape in the 3rd chapter of I.S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”, the city landscape in F.M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment”). In lyric poetry, landscape usually has independent meaning and reflects the perception of nature lyrical hero or a lyrical subject.
Even small artistic detail in a literary work it often plays an important role and performs diverse functions: it can serve as an important addition to characterize the heroes, their psychological state; be an expression of the author's position; can serve to create big picture morals, have a symbolic meaning, etc. Artistic details in a work are classified into portrait, landscape, world of things, and psychological details.
^ All elements of form and content are artistically significant(including those that represent the so-called “frame” - title, subtitle, epigraph, preface, dedication, etc.), are in the closest relationship and form the artistic whole of a literary work. So, for example, the conflict belongs not only to the plot or figurative world, but also to the content; the epigraph preceding a literary work serves as a means of defining the theme of the story, stating the problem, expressing the main idea, etc. Deliberate violation of the chronological sequence of events present in a literary work - digressions (lyrical, journalistic, philosophical) and other elements – are subordinated to the general idea, express the position of the writer and are the material embodiment of the author's intention.
Test questions on the topic “content and form of a literary work”:
2.
Define the concept idea.
3.
What's happened topic (subject matter) a work of art?
4.
What's happened problem(problematic)?
6.
What is the difference between the concepts plot And plot?
7.
Name the elements compositions literary work .
8.
What is the role conflicts in a work of art. Types conflicts.
9.
Name extra plot elements.
10.
What is the role of artistic details in a literary work.
11.
What's happened scenery? Role landscape in a literary work.
12.
What is integrity of a work of art?